Biology

Reviewer
Second Sem

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 Animal Reproduction, Development and Nutrition
General Biology 2

OBJECTIVES:
1. identify the different ways of how representative animals undergo reproduction, development,
nutrition;
2. describe animal reproductive and digestive organ systems;
3. describe the different stages of development in animals; and
4. trace the digestion process in animals

Animal reproduction is necessary for the survival of a species, in the animal kingdom, there are
many ways that species reproduce.
Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical organisms (clones), whereas in sexual
reproduction, the genetic material of two individuals combines to produce offspring that are
genetically different from their parents.

During sexual reproduction the male gamete (sperm) may be placed inside the female’s body for
internal fertilization, or the sperm and eggs may be released into the environment for external
fertilization.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
it occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms (bacteria) and in some eukaryotic single-celled and
multi-celled organisms

BUDDING
results from the outgrowth of a part of a cell or body region leading to a separation from the
original organism into two individuals, occurs commonly in some invertebrate animals such as
corals and hydras.

FISSION
after a period of growth, an organism splits into two separate organisms, the parent tends to
divide or separate into two progenies, it produces genetically similar offspring. Both budding
and fission are also form of natural cloning.

FRAGMENTATION
the parent breaks apart into several pieces, these pieces undergo regrowth to form an entire
organism out of the fragments formed and always accompany regeneration.

PARTHENOGENESIS
a form of asexual reproduction where an egg develops into a complete individual without being
fertilized.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
the combination of reproductive cells from two individuals to form a third unique offspring
produces offspring with novel combinations of genes

HERMAPHRODITISM
occurs in animals where one individual has both male and female reproductive parts,
hermaphrodites may self-fertilize or may mate with another of their species, fertilizing each
other and both producing offspring, self-fertilization is common in animals that have limited
mobility or are not motile, such as barnacles and clams

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SEQUENTIAL HERMAPHRODITISM
occurs when an organism reverses it sex during its lifetime, when one individual starts out life
as female and changes sex to male, this is called protogynous, when individuals start out life as
a male and change to female, this is called protandrous

INTERSEX
a group of conditions in which there is a discrepancy between the external genitals and the
internal genitals (the testes and ovaries)
the older term for this condition is hermaphroditism. Although the older terms are still used by
some, it have been replaced by most experts, patients, and families. Increasingly, this group of
conditions is being called disorders of sex development (DSDs).

46, XX INTERSEX / FEMALE PSEUDOHERMAPHRODITISM

the person has the chromosomes of a woman, the ovaries of a woman, but external (outside)
genitals that appear male, this most often is the result of a female fetus having been exposed to
excess male hormones before birth
the labia ("lips" or folds of skin of the external female genitals) fuse, and the clitoris enlarges to
appear like a penis, most cases, person having this condition have normal uterus and fallopian
tubes

46, XY INTERSEX / MALE PSEUDOHERMAPHRODITISM

the person has the chromosomes of a man, but the external genitals are incompletely formed,
ambiguous, or clearly female, internally, testes may be normal, malformed, or absent

TRUE GONADAL INTERSEX

the person must have both ovarian and testicular tissue, this may be in the same gonad (an
ovotestis), or the person might have 1 ovary and 1 testis
the external genitals may be ambiguous or may appear to be female or male, this condition used
to be called true hermaphroditism

ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
In animals, zygote (fertilized egg) formation occurs once sperm cells are successfully fused to
an ovum, which in turn allows embryo development to take place.
Animals which give birth to live offspring are called viviparous, animals which lay eggs are
called oviparous.

EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
usually occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs and sperm are released into the water
the embryo develops and matures in the external environment
this type of fertilization protects the eggs from drying out

INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
the sperm-egg fusion takes place inside the female body, but the development of embryo may
take place either internally or externally

OVOVIVIPAROUS
animals that giving birth to live offspring, both fertilization, as well as the development of the
embryo, takes place inside the female reproductive system
once the fetus development is complete, the mother delivers the baby, this condition is referred
to as matrotrophy where the embryo obtains the nutrients directly from the mother and not the
yolk

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OVIPAROUS
animals that lay eggs, fertilization takes place internally but embryo development takes place
externally
the hard shells covering of eggs protect them from damage once the fetus is matured, the egg
hatches
nutrients are taken from the yolk sac

OVOVIVIPAROUS
development of the eggs inside the mother’s body, the eggs are hatched inside the mother
once the egg hatches, it remains inside the mother for a period of time and is nurtured from
within but not via a placental appendage
ovoviviparous animals are born live, one of the advantages ovoviviparous animals is that, after
birth, the young are competent enough to feed and defend on their own

Human Reproductive Anatomy

Testosterone causes the undeveloped tissues to differentiate into male sexual organs.
When testosterone is absent, the tissues develop into female sexual tissues. Primitive gonads
become testes or ovaries.
Tissues that produce a penis in males produce a clitoris in females.
The tissue that will become the scrotum in a male becomes the labia in a female; that is, they are
homologous structures.

Puberty begins in males when the hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland to produce
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
LH stimulates the testes to produce testosterone, and with FSH, causes sperm development to
occur
Testosterone is also responsible for the development of secondary male sex characteristics, such
as a deepened voice and growth of body hair

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Testes - Produce sperm and male hormones
Scrotum - Supports testes and regulates their temperature
Seminal vesicle - Contribute fluids to semen production, it lie along the posterior border of the
urinary bladder, fluid or solution covering the sperm will allow this to move in alkaline
environment
Prostate gland - Secretes prostate fluid (component of semen), aids in ejaculation, located
sorrounding the urethra
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Epididymis - Stores mature sperm
Vas deferens - Transports sperm from epididymis
Penis - Transfers sperm into female, deliver urine
Seminiferous tubules - site for formation of matured sperm
Bulbourethral gland or Cowper’s gland - neutralizes any acid residue in the urethra left over
from urine
Semen - is a mixture of sperm and spermatic duct secretions (about 10 percent of the total) and
fluids from accessory glands that contribute most of the semen’s volume.

Sperm are haploid cells, consisting of a flagellum as a tail, a neck that contains the cell’s
energy-producing mitochondria, and a head that contains the genetic material.
An acrosome is found at the top of the head of the sperm. This structure contains lysosomal
enzymes that can digest the protective coverings that surround the egg to help the sperm
penetrate and fertilize the egg.

Puberty begins when the hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland to produce
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
FSH and LH stimulate the ovaries to produce the female sex hormones, estrogen and
progesterone, results in the development of secondary sex characteristics (such as breasts), and
causes the ovaries to begin producing mature eggs

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Ovaries - Produces and develops eggs
Fallopian tubes (oviducts) - Transports egg to uterus, acts as site of fertilization
Uterus - Supports a developing embryo
Cervix - Allows passage between the uterus and the vagina
Vagina - Acts as birth canal, passes menstrual flow
Fimbrae - Finger-like projections on the ends of the fallopian tube, it catches the egg that is
release by the ovaries during ovulation

EARLY EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

To ensure that the offspring has only one complete diploid set of chromosomes, only one sperm
must fuse with one egg.
In mammals, the egg is protected by a layer of extracellular matrix consisting mainly of
glycoproteins called the zona pellucida.
When a sperm binds to the zona pellucida, a series of biochemical events, called the acrosomal
reactions, take place.

In placental mammals, the acrosome contains digestive enzymes that initiate the degradation of
the glycoprotein matrix protecting the egg and allowing the sperm plasma membrane to fuse
with the egg plasma membrane.

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The fusion of these two membranes creates an opening through which the sperm nucleus is
transferred into the ovum. The nuclear membranes of the egg and sperm break down and the
two haploid condense to form a diploid.
To ensure that no more than one sperm fertilizes the egg, once the acrosomal reactions take
place at one location of the egg membrane, the egg releases proteins in other locations to
prevent other sperm from fusing with the egg.
If this mechanism fails, multiple sperm can fuse with the egg, resulting in polyspermy. The
resulting embryo is not genetically viable and dies within a few days.

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
The development process in a highly-organized and regulated manner is called embryogenesis
in which embryo forms and develops and eventually gives rise to a mature organism.
This process refers primarily to prenatal development in mammals preceding fetal development.
The development of multi-cellular organisms begins from a single-celled zygote, which
undergoes rapid cell division to form the blastula.
Cleavage is the rapid series of mitotic cell divisions of the developing embryo leading to
multicellular ball mass.

STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Zygotic stage: The zygote is formed when the male gamete (sperm) and female gamete (egg)
fuse.
Blastocyst stage: The single-celled zygote begins to divide into a solid ball of cells. Then, it
becomes a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst, attaching to the lining of the mother's uterus.
Embryonic stage: The major internal organs and external features begin to emerge, forming an
embryo. In this stage, the heart, brain, and spinal cord become visible. Arms and legs start to
develop.
Fetal stage: Once the formed features of the embryo begin to grow and develop, the organism is
considered a fetus. Differentiation of structures happens during this time.

A lot of changes happen very quickly both during pregnancy and after birth of the child. It's
common to measure development of the fetus on a weekly basis.
By week 4 : Organs start to develop, the heart forms and begins to pump blood.
By week 8 :The fetus develops limbs and digits by the second month.
By week 12 (1st trimester) : Most major organs are formed, external genitalia visible.
By week 20: The mother begins to feel the first movements of the fetus. Hair appears on top of
the head.
By week 24 (2nd trimester) : The fetus has eyelashes, separated eyelids, and fine hair covering
its body.
By week 36 (3rd trimester) : The fetus is fully developed, shifts downwards in the uterus to
prepare for birth.

ANIMAL NUTRITION AND DIGESTION

Nutrition refers to the biological activity of an animal including digestion, absorption, and
transport of food or raw materials into their cells about growth, reproduction, and maintenance
of homeostatic balance.
The chemicals we get from the food we eat are nutrients.
Cells can only obtain these nutrients once the food is properly processed and broken down into
simpler particles and absorbable molecules via digestion.

Five Stages of Processing Food In The Body

Ingestion- taking of food or simply eating
Digestion- dismantling complex food into a simple absorbable form
Absorption- absorbing digested food by the cells lining the digestive tract
Assimilation- utilization of absorbed nutrients by the cells and tissues
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Defecation- elimination of waste and undigested food particles from the body

Two major feeding strategies

1. Continuous feeding -this is the constant acquisition of food as in filter or suspension feeding.
Continuous feeders, thus do not require a special organ for the storage of food as the stomach.
2. Discontinuous feeding- this allows an animal to skip periods of feeding because they have
special organs for storage. Humans are the best example of this strategy. Animals as
heterotrophs have organs adapted for the type of food they consume.
a. Carnivores- feed on other animals
b. Herbivores- feed on plants
c. Omnivores- feed on both plants and animals

HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

- The easiest way to understand the digestive system is to divide its organs into two main
categories: the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) and the accessory organs.
The GI tract is a one-way tube about 25 feet in length, beginning at the mouth and ending at the
anus. The GI tract also contains the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines,
and the rectum.
Accessory organs are considered accessory organs since they are not actually part of the
intestinal tract itself, but have ducts that deliver digestive juices into the tract to help aid in
digestion.
MOUTH
- ingestion and both mechanical and chemical digestion also begins here
teeth physically grind the food into smaller particles and mix the food particles with saliva
(bolus)
amylase begins the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates, while lingual lipase starts the
chemical breakdown of triglycerides

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ESOPHAGUS
- tubular organ that connects the mouth to the stomach.no chemical digestion occurs while
the bolus is mechanically propelled through this tube by peristalsis.
STOMACH
- temporary storage while more mechanical and chemical digestion is taking place
the muscles in the stomach walls churn the bolus, allowing it to mix with digestive enzymes and
gastric acids this process converts the bolus into a liquid called chyme
digestion continues in the stomach for several hours during this time, an enzyme called pepsin
breaks down most of the protein in the food

SMALL INTESTINE
- most digestion and absorption occurs divided into three parts: duodenum, the jejunum,
and the ileum
food chyme is further broken down using digestive juices and bile secreted by the liver that
helps digest fats
Pancreatic juices neutralize acidic chyme that came out from the stomach.
Duodenum - chyme is mixed with pancreatic juices in an alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate
that neutralizes the acidity of chyme and acts as a buffer
Jejunum - hydrolysis of nutrients is continued while most of the carbohydrates and amino acids
are absorbed through the intestinal lining. Some chemical digestion and the bulk of nutrient
absorption occurs in the jejunum
Ileum - the bile salts and vitamins are absorbed into blood stream.

LARGE INTESTINE
main task of the large intestine is to absorb much of the remaining water
as water is reabsorbed, liquid chyme becomes a semisolid, referred to as feces

RECTUM
temporary holding area of feces, The feces are propelled using peristaltic movements during
elimination.

ANUS
an opening at the far-end of the digestive tract and is the exit point for the waste material, site of
defecation

FECES
composed of undigested food residues, unabsorbed digested substances, millions of bacteria, old
cells from the lining of the GI tract, inorganic salts, and enough water to let it pass smoothly out
of the body

LIVER
the largest internal organ in humans and it plays a very important role in digestion of fats and
detoxifying blood
produces bile, a digestive juice that is required for the breakdown of fatty components of the
food in the duodenum.

PANCREAS
secretes digestive juices, since the chyme from the stomach is highly acidic, the juice secreted
neutralizes the acidic chyme

GALL BLADDER
small organ that aids the liver by storing bile and concentrating bile salts
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 Animals Gas Exchange, Fluids Transport and Circulation
General Biology 2

OBJECTIVES:
1. identify the major parts of respiratory, circulatory and urinary system;
2. trace the flow of blood to and from the heart; and
3. describe the different ways by which animals undergo respiration

Respiration is usually confused with breathing.

Respiration is the overall exchange of gases (how the body gets oxygen and gets rid of carbon
dioxide) amng the atmosphere, the blood, and the cells.
It consists of four phases
Breathing - the act of taking air in and out of the body
External respiration - exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the blood
within the lungs
Internal respiration - exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the blood
and body cells.

Human Respiratory System

Nose
the air breath enters the here, and it is filtered through two opening called nostrils
Nasal Cavity
filter and warm the air, and make it moist before it goes into the lungs
coarse hair traps large dust and dirt particles which is coated with mucus from the nasal glands
(Anterior serous glands, Seromucous glands and Bowman glands)
Pharynx
this is where the warmed, moistened and filtered air moves, it is a tube-like structure and lead to
two passageway - the esophagus and trachea
Epiglottis
when your breath it stays to open, allowing the air to enter the respiratory system, but when you
swallow the epiglottis closes sending the particles down to the esophagus
Larynx (voice box)
connects the pharynx and trachea
it contains vocal cords which vibrate when air flows over it it is supported by several cartilage,
then two pieces are connected by a ridge known as Adams’ apple
Trachea (windpipe)
air moves down in trachea, it has cilia lining and mucus where it can trap dust particles and
bacteria that have managed to get past the nose
Bronchi, Bronchioles and Alveoli
the bronchi carry air between trachea and the lungs, it becomes narrower each time until they
appear like tiny tubes the size of twigs called bronchioles
at the end of these tiny tubes are hundred of round airs that resemble clusters of grapes called
alveoli
alveoli inflate during inhalation and deflate during exhalation, these are the gateways for oxygen
into the body
the alveoli serve as the site of respiration in the lungs
each alveolus is covered by a net of tiny blood vessels called capillaries

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Your heart sends deoxygenated blood to the lungs. This is blood that is carrying carbon dioxide
rather than oxygen.
As the blood passes through the tiny, thin-walled capillaries, they get oxygen from the alveoli.
They return carbon dioxide through the thin walls to the alveoli.
The oxygen-rich blood from your lungs is sent back to your heart, where it’s pumped to your
entire body. The carbon dioxide is breathed out of the lungs and alveoli through your mouth and
nose.

Respiration of Different Animals

Gill Breathing
the water streams into the gills via the mouth. The oxygen is absorbed from the water by the
lamellae. The mouth closes, the gill cover opens and the water is pressed out of the body –
together with the carbon dioxide as a by-product

Skin Breathing
skin has to be moist and thin, only then it is permeable enough to absorb the oxygen and
transport it to all parts of the body through delicate blood vessels through the process called
“diffusion”

Tracheal systems
when breathing in through the spiracles, the tracheae expand, are filled with air, and transport
the oxygen to the cells, when breathing out, the carbon dioxide leaves the body via the tracheae
and the tubes contract again

The main function of the circulatory system is to carry out oxygen to every cell of the body and
to remove carbon dioxide and other waste from the cells.
The movement of any materials from the blood to cells and vice versa happens through
diffusion.

Human Circulatory System

Heart
it pumps blood through the blood vessels, it is divided into four chambers, the upper two
chambers are the right and left atria, right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body
and pumps it to the right ventricle, left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and
pumps it to the left ventricle.
right ventricle pumps the oxygen-poor blood to the lungs, left ventricle pumps the oxygen-rich
blood to the body
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A one-way valve separates each atrium from ventricle, as a result blood only flows from an
atrium to a ventricle. It cannot flow in the opposite direction.
A wall of tissue called septum that divides the heart in half, preventing blood from flowing
between the two atria or two ventricles and it also separates the flow of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
When the heart pumps, two atria contracts, forcing blood into the ventricles, the atria relax and
the two ventricles contract pushing the blood into the blood vessels. The process works in a
perfect rhythm to circulate blood throughout the body.

Blood
transport of variety of of essential elements throughout the body

Blood Plasma
main functions is to remove waste from cellular functions that help to produce energy, it accepts
and transports this waste to other areas of the body, such as the kidneys or liver, for excretion.
plasma also helps maintain body temperature by absorbing and releasing heat as needed

Red Blood Cells

also called erythrocyctes, it carries oxygen throughout the body. It contains red pigment called
hemoglobin, a kind of protein containing iron.
they said pigments allow the RBC to transport oxygen from the lungs to all cells in the body.
it also helps carrying the carbon dioxide from the capillaries back to the lungs where it is
exhaled

White Blood Cells

also called leukocyctes, each WBC is irregularly shaped, it can move, change its shape and
squeeze through the walls of the fine blood capillaries
its main task is to protect the body from diseases/infection, its number dramatically increases
when the body becomes infected, there are different types of WBC and each have different roles
as well.

Lymphocyctes - active against various pathogens; (B lymphocyctes) virus-infected cells and (T

lymphocyctes) cancer cells
Monocyctes - kills pathogens through phagocytosis
Eosinophil - active against parasites
Basophil - defend thebody from allergens, pathogens and parasites, basophils release enzymes
(histamine and heparin) to improve blood flow and prevent blood clots
Neutrophil - active against bacteria and fungi also capable of phagocyctosis

Blood Platelets
also called thrombocyctes, it plays an important role in blood clotting
when the blood vessels is damage, fibrinogen(protein in the blood plasma) forms fibrin
the fibrin traps platelets, which collect to form a clot and seal the wound

Blood Vessels
vast network that carries blood, it resembles a series of pipeline that tha delivers water in the
household
Arteries
blood vessels that bring oxygen-rich blood away from your heart to all of your body’s cells, it
play a crucial role in distributing oxygen, nutrients and hormones throughout your body
Veins
collect deoxygenated blood throughout your body and carry it back to your heart, the other role
is to carry oxygenated blood from your lungs to your heart

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 Chemical and Nervous Control
General Biology 2

Objectives:
1. Differentiate the endocrine and nervous systems;
2. Identify and describe the major structures and functions of the endocrine and nervous systems;
and
3. Identify the parts and function of the brain.

Nervous System
Its main function is to transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body, including
internal organs. In this way, the nervous system’s activity controls the ability to move, breathe,
see, think, and more.
Nervous system is made up of two type of cells, the neurons and glial
It is divided into two main parts; Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System

Central Nervous System

The CNS is made of the brain and spinal cord. Commands to the body originate in the brain and
the spinal cord connects the brain with the rest of the nerves in the body.
The CNS receives sensory information, integrates this information, and initiates a motor
response, with the brain serving as the control center for processing sensory information and
directing responses.

Brain
It includes the cerebrum, limbic system, basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebellum
and brainstem.

Cerebrum
The largest part of the brain, it initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature.
It also enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and
learning. Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses
The cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres, the right and left hemisphere are connected
by the corpus callosum which facilitates communication between both sides of the brain.
The right controls movement and activities on the left side of the body. The left controls the
right side of the body.

Frontal lobe
The largest lobe of the brain, located in the front of the head, the frontal lobe is involved in
personality characteristics, decision-making and movement.
This lobe contains the olfactory bulb, responsible for recognition of the smell and Broca’s area
which is associated with speech ability.

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Parietal lobe
The middle top part of the brain, it is involved in processing or interpreting
somatosensation—touch sensations like pressure, pain, heat, cold—and processing
proprioception—the sense of how parts of the body are oriented in space.
The parietal lobe houses Wernicke’s area, which helps the brain understand spoken language.

Occipital lobe
The occipital lobe is the back part of the brain that is involved with vision—seeing, recognizing,
and identifying the visual world.

Temporal lobe
It is located at the base of the brain by your ears and is primarily involved in processing and
interpreting sounds, short term memory

Basal Ganglia
It play important roles in movement control and posture it also regulate motivation.
Damage to the basal ganglia, as in Parkinson’s disease, leads to motor impairments like a
shuffling gait when walking.

Hippocampus
A curved seahorse-shaped organ on the underside of each temporal lobe.
It supports memory, learning, navigation and perception of space.

Thalamus
The thalamus carries messages from the sensory organs like the eyes, ears, nose, and fingers.
Thalamus also helps regulate consciousness, arousal, and sleep states.

Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is located above the pituitary gland and sends it chemical messages that
control its function. It regulates body temperature, synchronizes sleep patterns, controls hunger
and thirst and also plays a role in some aspects of emotion.

Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is located deep in the brain and attached by a stalk to the top of the third
ventricle.
The pineal gland responds to light and dark and secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian
rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle

Limbic System
The limbic system is a connected set of structures that regulates behaviors related to fear and
motivation.
It contains amygdala that regulate the brain’s reward system, stress, and the “fight or flight”
response when someone perceives a threat.

Cerebellum
The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a fist-sized portion of the brain located at the back of the head,
below the temporal and occipital lobes and above the brainstem.
Its function is to coordinate voluntary muscle movements and to maintain posture, balance and
equilibrium.

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Brainstem
It connects the rest of the brain with the spinal cord. It consists of the midbrain, medulla
oblongata, and the pons.
Motor and sensory neurons extend through the brainstem allowing for the relay of signals
between the brain and spinal cord.
The brainstem coordinates motor control signals sent from the brain to the body. The brainstem
controls several important functions of the body including alertness, arousal, breathing, blood
pressure, digestion, heart rate, swallowing, walking, and sensory and motor information
integration.

Midbrain
It facilitate various functions, from hearing and movement to calculating responses and
environmental changes.
The midbrain also contains the substantia nigra, an area affected by Parkinson’s disease that is
rich in dopamine neurons and part of the basal ganglia, which enables movement and
coordination.

Pons
It facilitate in function such as tear production, chewing, blinking, focusing vision, balance,
hearing and facial expression.

Medulla Oblangata
Found at the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the brain meets the spinal cord.
The medulla is essential to survival. Functions of the medulla regulate many bodily activities,
including heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
The medulla produces reflexive activities such as sneezing, vomiting, coughing and swallowing.

Spinal Cord
Connects your brain to your lower back. The spinal cord’s main purpose is to carry nerve
signals throughout your body. These nerve messages have three crucial functions; Control body
movements and functions, report senses to your brain, manage your reflexes
The spinal cord has three main parts:
Cervical (neck).
Thoracic (chest).
Lumbar (lower back).

Meninges
Three layers of protective covering called meninges surround the brain and the spinal cord.
Dura mater - the outermost layer, it is thick and tough. It includes two layers: the periosteal and
the meningeal layer.
Arachnoid mater- thin, weblike layer of connective tissue that does not contain nerves or blood
vessels. Below the arachnoid mater is the CSF.
Pia mater - thin membrane that hugs the surface of the brain and follows its contours. The pia
mater is rich with veins and arteries

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Blood Supply to the Brain
Two sets of blood vessels that supply blood and oxygen to the brain: the vertebral arteries and
the carotid arteries.
The external carotid arteries extend up the sides of your neck, and are where you can feel your
pulse when you touch the area with your fingertips. The internal carotid arteries branch into the
skull and circulate blood to the front part of the brain.
The vertebral arteries follow the spinal column into the skull, where they join together at the
brainstem and form the basilar artery, which supplies blood to the rear portions of the brain.

Cranial Nerves
The cranial nerves are a set of 12 paired nerves in the back of your brain. Cranial nerves send
electrical signals between your brain, face, neck and torso. Your cranial nerves help you taste,
smell, hear and feel sensations. They also help you make facial expressions, blink your eyes and
move your tongue.
Cranial nerve 1: The first is the olfactory nerve, which allows for your sense of smell.
Cranial nerve 2: The optic nerve governs eyesight.
Cranial nerve 3: The oculomotor nerve controls pupil response and other motions of the eye,
and branches out from the area in the brainstem where the midbrain meets the pons.
Cranial nerve 4: The trochlear nerve controls muscles in the eye. It emerges from the back of
the midbrain part of the brainstem.
Cranial nerve 5: The trigeminal nerve is the largest and most complex of the cranial nerves,
with both sensory and motor function. Conveys sensation from the scalp, teeth, jaw, sinuses,
parts of the mouth and face to the brain, allows the function of chewing muscles, and much
more.
Cranial nerve 6: The abducens nerve strengthen some of the muscles in the eye.
Cranial nerve 7: The facial nerve supports face movement, taste, glandular and other functions.
Cranial nerve 8: The vestibulocochlear nerve facilitates balance and hearing.
Cranial nerve 9: The glossopharyngeal nerve allows taste, ear and throat movement.
Cranial nerve 10: The vagus nerve allows sensation around the ear and the digestive system
and controls motor activity in the heart, throat and digestive system.
Cranial nerve 11: The accessory nerve strengthen specific muscles in the head, neck and
shoulder.
Cranial nerve 12: The hypoglossal nerve supplies motor activity to the tongue.

Peripheral Nervous System

The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are long fibers that connect the CNS to every other
part of the body.
The PNS has two divisions the autonomic nervous system, which controls bodily functions
without conscious control, and the somatic nervous system, which transmits sensory information
from the skin, muscles, and sensory organs to the CNS and sends motor commands from the
CNS to the muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

serves as the relay between the CNS and the internal organs
it controls the lungs, the heart, smooth muscle, and exocrine and endocrine glands, the ANS
controls these organs involuntarily
in general, the ANS is responsible for all activities that go on inside the body without your
conscious awareness or voluntary participation
it has two subdivisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic

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Sympathetic division
controls the fight-or-flight response
changes occur in organs and glands throughout the body that prepare the body to fight or flee in
response to a perceived danger

Parasympathetic division
returns the body to normal after the fight-or-flight response has occurred

Somatic Nervous System

primarily senses the external environment and controls voluntary activities in which decisions
and commands come from the brain.

Nervous System in Animals

Animals use specialized cells called neurons to communicate between cells by chemical
messengers.
A system of communication requires three parts:
a collector of outside information
an integrator to evaluate that information and decide upon its relevance and
a transmitter to convey the decision to the motor unit

Types of Neurons
Neurons are classified according to their role or functions
Sensory Neurons (Afferent) - get information about what's going on inside and outside of the
body and bring that information into the CNS so it can be processed.

Motor Neurons (Efferent) - get information from other neurons and convey commands to your
muscles, organs and glands.

Interneurons (Associative) - which are found only in the CNS, connect one neuron to another.
They receive information from other neurons (either sensory neurons or interneurons) and
transmit information to other neurons (either motor neurons or interneurons.
Interneurons are the most numerous class of neurons and are involved in processing information,
both in simple reflex circuits (like those triggered by hot objects) and in more complex circuits
in the brain.

Major Anatomy of a Neuron

Neurons, like other cells, have a cell body (called the soma). The nucleus of the neuron is found
in the soma. Neurons need to produce a lot of proteins, and most neuronal proteins are
synthesized in the soma as well.
Dendrites
receive and process signals from the axons of other neurons, the neurons can have more than
one set of dendrites, known as dendritic trees

Axon
joins the cell body at a specialized junction called the axon hillock, many axons are insulated
with a fatty substance called myelin, the myelin helps axons to conduct an electrical signal

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Other member of Nervous System
Astrocytes - are the most numerous type of glial cell, it help regulate blood flow in the brain,
maintain the composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons, and regulate communication
between neurons

Microglia- act as scavengers to remove dead cells and other debris, related to macrophages of
the immune system

Oligodendrocytes (part of CNS) and Schwann cells (part of the PNS) - these types of glial
cells produce myelin, the insulating substance that forms a sheath around the axons

Endocrine System
Responsible for releasing hormones in the bloodstream created by the glands and organs in the
body, it also control nearly all the processes in your body, these chemicals help coordinate your
body’s functions, from growth and development, emotions, mood, sexual function and even
sleep.

Pituitary Gland
dub as the master glands since it produces several critical hormones that control many parts of
the body, including several other endocrine glands
hormones - growth hormone (GH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH), luteinising hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin
influences - control blood pressure, blood sugar levels, response to stress, menstruation, sperm
production, bone growth, muscle mass, contractions during childbirth, making breastmilk and
bonding between mother and baby

Thyroid Gland
a small gland in the front of the neck, wrapping around the windpipe and below the Adam’s
apple
hormones - triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), calcitonin
influences - bone growth, body temperature, how the cells use oxygen, heart rate, blood flow,
calcium levels, brain development in babies and children

Parathyroid Glands
four small glands in the neck behind the thyroid gland
hormones - parathyroid hormone (PTH)
influences - helps maintain normal calcium and
phosphorous levels in the body and it is necessary for proper bone development.

Adrenal Gland
two glands that sit above the kidneys on each side of the body
hormones - adrenaline, cortisol
influences - stress response and blood pressure/salt and water control, heart rate, attention,
inflammation

Pancreas
secretes digestive juices to aid in digestion, its endocrine function is to maintain healthy glucose
(blood sugar) levels
hormones - insulin, glucagon
influences - blood sugar control

Ovaries
responsible for developing and maintaining female sexual traits, as well as maintaining a
pregnancy
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hormones - progesterone, estrogen
influences - female characteristics, storing and releasing eggs

Testes
helps the young male develop and then maintain his sexual traits
hormones - testosterone
influences - male characteristics, sperm production

Difference Between Nervous and Endocrine

Nervous System
It consists of CNS and PNS
Neural responses are quick and short-lived
The flow of information is rapid
Uses electrical impulses to send messages through neurons

Endocrine System
It consists of endocrine glands
Hormonal effects are slow but long term
The flow of information is slow
Uses hormones to send messages to the traget cells through bloodstream

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 Human Immune System
General Biology 2
Objectives
define immune system;
describe the mechanism of immunity and immune cells of humans; and
differentiate innate and adaptive immune responses of humans.

The environment consists of numerous potential pathogens: viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other
infectious organisms.
Components of the immune system constantly search the body for signs of pathogens.
When pathogens are found, immune factors are mobilized to the site of infection.
The immune factors identify the nature of the pathogen, strengthen the corresponding cells and
molecules to combat it efficiently, and then halt the immune response after the infection is
cleared to avoid unnecessary host damage.

The immune system can remember pathogens to which it has been exposed to create a more
efficient response upon re-exposure.
This memory can last several decades. Features of the immune system, such as pathogen
identification, specific response, amplification, retreat, and remembrance are essential for
survival against pathogens.
Cells travel through the bloodstream or in specialized vessels called lymphatics.
Lymph nodes and spleen provide structures that facilitate cell-to-cell communication.

The bone marrow and thymus represent training grounds for two cells of the immune system (B-
cells and T- cells, respectively).
The development of all cells of the immune system begins in the bone marrow with a
hematopoietic (blood-forming) cell.
With these we can simply state that the job of our Immune System is to fight foreign pathogens
that cause sickness and disease.

Antigen - is any substance that causes your immune system to produce antibodies against it, this
means your immune system does not recognize the substance, and is trying to fight it off. An
antigen may be a substance from the environment, such as chemicals, bacteria, viruses, or pollen.
An antigen may also form inside the body.
It is a marker that tells your immune system whether something in your body is harmful or not.

Antibodies - are proteins that protect the body when an unwanted substance enters the body, it
is produced by your immune system, antibodies bind to these unwanted substances in order to
eliminate them from your system.
Another word for antibody is immunoglobulin.

Antigen vs antibody
An antigen is a foreign substance that enters your body. This can include bacteria, viruses, fungi,
allergens, venom and other various toxins. An antibody is a protein produced by your immune
system to attack and fight off these antigens.

Where are antibodies produced?

Antibodies are produced by B cells (specialized white blood cells). When an antigen comes into
contact with a B cell, it causes the B cell to divide and clone. These cloned B cells — or plasma
cells — release millions of antibodies into your bloodstream and lymph system.
Antibodies are located in various areas of your body, including your skin, lungs, tears, saliva
and even breast milk. High amounts of antibodies are present in colostrum (a thick fluid
secreted by the breasts for a few days after giving birth). That’s why breastfeeding (chestfeeding)
can boost baby’s immune system.
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Types of Antibodies
Antibodies are categorized into five classes according to their location. Each one is labeled by a
letter, which is attached to an abbreviation of the term “immunoglobulin” (Ig)

IgA - Found in saliva, tears, mucus, breast milk and intestinal fluid, IgA protects against
ingested and inhaled pathogens.
IgD - This antibody is found on the surface of your B cells, IgD supports B cell maturation and
activation.
IgE - Found mainly in the skin, lungs and mucus membranes, IgE antibodies cause your mast
cells (a type of white blood cell) to release histamine and other chemicals into your bloodstream.
IgE antibodies are helpful for fighting off allergic reactions.
IgG - This is the most common antibody, making up approximately 70% to 75% of all
immunoglobulins in your body. It’s found mainly in blood and tissue fluids. IgG antibodies help
protect your body from viral and bacterial infections
IgM - Found in your blood and lymph system, IgM antibodies act as the first line of defense
against infections. They also play a large role in immune regulation.

Two Broad Categories of Immune Responses

Innate Immune System (Non-specific) - response to microbes formed by the skin and mucus
membranes together with macrophages and other phagocytic cells that ingest and destroy
pathogen that penetrate through the external barrier.

Two Lines of Defense in Innate Immunity

The first line can be group into Physical barriers, the skin and mucus membrane that lines the
digestive and respiratory.

The second group in first line of defense is Chemical barriers, where it consists of antimicrobial,
substances in body fluids such as saliva, mucus, tears and gastric juices
Second line of defense has Cellular defense which covers Phagocytes, Neutrophils, Basophils,
Macrophages

Adaptive Immune System (Specific) - makes antibodies and uses them to specifically fight
certain germs that the body has previously come into contact with. These responses involve T-
cells and B- cells, two cells that require “training” or education to learn not to attack our cells
this is also known as “acquired” or “learned” or specific immune response.
The body detects foreign object or pathogens by certain molecules attached on the outside of its
body.
The immune system produces antibodies, which will attach to the antigens.

The immune will utilize two major cell types;

B cells/ B lymphocytes produces antibodies, the second type is T cells/ T lymphocyctes which
attack infected cells by phagocytosis or by injecting chemicals which break down and kill
pathogens.
Types of T cells/ T lymphocytes
Killer T cells - inject chemicals into pathogens
Helper T cells - attract and assist B cells in antibody production
Suppresor T cells - stop B and other T cells after infection

The innate responses are usually the first to respond to an “invasion”. This initial response
serves to alert and trigger the adaptive response, which can take several days to fully activate.
Early in life, the innate responses are most prominent. Newborn infants do have antibodies from
their mothers but do not make their antibodies for several weeks.

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The adaptive immune system is functional at birth, but it has not gained the experience
necessary for optimal memory responses.

How does the Immune System Works?

1. Recognize - The immune system is triggered by foreign materials called antigens. The
presence of a pathogen is detected when WBC recognize a specific foreign antigens.
2. Flag - When pathogen has been detected, special WBC need to produce antibodies to flag
pathogen. Creating antibodies take time. Once created antibodies stick to the antigens of the
pathogens. Flagged pathogens can no longer get into host cells and marks it for destruction.
3. Engulf - Pathogens are then engulfed and destroyed by other specialized WBC.
4. Remember - If same pathogen enters the body again, there is no delay, the WBC remember
how to make the specific antibody needed. Where millions of antibodies are produced
immediately giving pathogens no chance to replicate or infect cells.
Vaccine and The Immune System
Vaccines expose the immune system to antigens which stimulates the production of antibodies.
Some vaccines contain weakened or dead versions of the virus, or even just pieces and parts of
them.
These viruses and particles are inactive and do not cause sickness. Dead viruses cannot get into
host cells or replicate. But they still have antigens which trigger WBC to produce antibodies.

Another type of vaccine is called mRNA vaccine.

mRNA is the molecule that cells use to build proteins.
It is a code that cells can read.
mRNA has the instructions to build a specific sequence of amino acids.
mRNA vaccines teach your cells how to build a specific protein antigen from a particular virus.
Then your cells then show this protein to the immune system, which responds by producing
antibodies against it.

Once mRNA is injected into the arm or any body parts.

The mRNA molecules are taken in by the muscle cells.
The cell cells read the mRNA, and then follow the instructions to build a specific viral protein.
Muscle cells then digest the mRNA and displat the foreign protein molecule on the its surface.
Later on the foreign protein will be detected by WBCs.
Once detected, WBC learn how to make a specific antobody against it.

Allergic Reactions
There are times the immune system is triggered by antigens on harmless substances, and this is
called allergic reactions.
When an antigen has been recognized, the substance is viewed as harmful and antibodies are
produce to mark the substance for destruction.
Some food or materials that causes allergic reactions are NOT pathogenic- they do not invade
cells or cause sickness and disease.
The immune system mistakenly identifies antigens
It is our own immune response that causes the rashes, congestion, and swelling associated with
allergic reactions.
An allergy can develop at nay point in your life, and sometimes, they even go away.

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Autoimmune Disorder
The only reason human cells does not attack its own cell is because of the molecules that
comprise the Major Histocompatability Complex (MHC).
All cells containing certain forms of MHC protein is considered by the body as one of its own.
Autoimmune disorder or disease is developed when the immune system does not recognize the
MHC and attacks its own body cells.

Blood Type Antigen Antibodies

A+ A, Rh B
A- A Rh, B
B+ B, Rh A
B- B Rh, A
AB+ A, B, Rh
AB- A, B Rh
O+ Rh A, B
O- Rh, A, B

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 Plant Mechanisms
General Biology 2

Objectives:
Identify plant structures and their function; and
Describe some physiological processes in plants.

Plant Reproduction and Development

Asexual Reproduction
-plants can give rise to new plants without the involvement of male and female reproductive
parts, in this mode, plants do not produce fruits and seeds the mode of this reproduction can
occur in a variety of forms
Vegetative Propagation
- new plants are developed from a portion of the main plant’s body, it can be reproduced both
naturally as well as by the artificial method of vegetative propagation

Artificial Vegetative Propagation

Grafting
- it is the method which involves development of new varieties of fruit plants, two twigs are
selected from two different varieties of plants in such a way that one twig should have a bud and
the other twig should have a well-developed root system
Cutting
- involves planting a young cutting of the stem with buds into a moist soil
Layering
- involves bending of a young stem towards the ground and let it grow under the soil for the
development of roots, after a period of time, as the roots develop, the bent stem is cut off from
the parent plant.
Tissue culture
- involves the use of small pieces of plant tissue(explants) which are cultured in a nutrient
medium under sterile conditions

Natural Vegetative Propagation

Rhizomes
- are stems positioned either horizontally or vertically under the ground with roots
Sucker
- the roots of some plants produce “suckers”, or “sprouts” which give rise to new plants
Runners
- some plants have stems that grow along the ground from the parent plant, these can be cut and
the new plant can be transferred to another place or area
Tubers
- is a thick and enlarged portion of a stem that grows underground

Sexual Reproduction
- involves the production of new plants through embryos developed by the fusion of male and
female gametes, a fusion of male and female gametes produces fruits that contain seeds, then
seeds give rise to new plants.
Self-fertilization/Self-pollination - fertilization is a fusion of male and female sex cells
produced by the same individual
Cross-fertilization/Cross-pollination - is the fusion of male and female sex cells from different
individual of same species, cross-fertilization must occur in dioecious plants
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The genetic material from the male and female gametes combines to produce offspring. The
product of sexual reproduction are seeds.
Seeds produced through fertilization contain genetic material from both parents. As a result, the
offspring are not genetically identical to either of the parent plants. This genetic diversity can
help them survive if the environment changes.
Flowering plants reproduce sexually through a process called pollination.

Stamen - male sex organ

Pistils - female sex organ
Anther - part of the stamen that contains pollen
Pollen - contains the male gametes
Pollen must be moved to a part of the pistil called stigma for reproduction to take place
Sepals - green outermost parts of the flower, portecting the flower before it opens
Petals on flowers are actually modified leaves. Within the petals are the stamens. Each stamen
contains a filament topped by pollen-producing cells
Carpel - the innermost part of the flower that contains the ovary
This is where the eggs, or ovules, are located.
Filament - holds the anther at place
Stigma - part in the pistil that receives the pollen

Classifying Plants Based on the Presence of Gametes

Dioecious plants - contain only male or female reproductive structures

Monoecious plants - have male and female separate reproductive structure on the same plant
Dichogamous plants - having sexes developing at different times

Angiosperms vs. Gymnosperms

Angiosperms - are also called flowering plants have seeds develop in the ovaries of the flowers
and are surrounded by a protective fruit
Gymnosperms - doesnt have flowers or fruits, and have unenclosed or “naked” seeds on the
surface of scales or leaves, its seed are often configured as cones

Classification of Angiosperms : Dicots vs. Monocots

Dicots - leaves veins are reticulated(branched), taproot system, the dicot embryo has two
cotyledons, leaves are dorsiventral, some dicots are epistomatous, vascular system are arrange a
forms a cylinder in the center
Monocots - leaves veins are parallel, fibrous root system, the monocot embryo has one
cotyledon, leave are isobilateral, monocots are amphistomatous, the vascular systems is
scattered with no particular arrangement

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 Monocot Dicot

Phloem vs. Xylem

- both are complex tissue that transport food and water in plant, these vascular tissues of plant
and together form vascular bundles
Phloem - transport of food and nutients such as sugar and amino acids from leaves to storage
organs, movement is bidirectional(moves up or down), elongated, tubular shape with thin walled
tubes
Xylem- transport water and minerals from roots to aerial parts of the plants, movement is
unidirectional, tubular shape with no cross walls

Fruits
The mature ovary of an angiosperm that surrounds a seed is the fruit. As the maturation of the
seed continues, the wall of the ovary becomes a protective covering having multiple layers
called a pericarp. The innermost layer is the endocarp that encases the seed, a mesocarp that is
often thick, succulent, and has a distinguishing taste, and the exocarp that is the outermost layer,
characteristically tough and skin-like.

Plants Barriers
Cutin - a waxy polymers components of cuticle which serve as a protective coat against
excessive water loss
Suberins - found in on underground parts of the plants, woody stem, and healed wounds of
plants
Thorns - are modified branches or stems that may be simple or branched
Spines - modified leaves or parts of the leaves that is also sharp
Prickles - are pointed, sharp plant parts found in places where a branch or leaf might not arise

Plants Nutrition
- atleast 17 elements are known to be essential nutrients for plants, and it must obtain the
following mineral nutrients from their growing medium
- the macronutrients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), sulfur (S),
magnesium (Mg), carbon (C), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H)
- the micronutrients (or trace minerals): iron (Fe), boron (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn),
zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni)

Plants Tropism
- these are responses by part or the plant itself to an external stimulus
- there are many types of tropisms
Phototropism
Geotropism
Thigmotropism
Hydrotropism
Thermotropism

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Geotropism/ Gravitropism
- is the growth of a plant in response to gravity
Positive Geotropism
It is the growth of a plant towards the center of the earth down with gravity.
Ex. roots growing down
Negative Geotropism
It is the growth of a plant away from the center of the earth-opposite from the pull of gravity
Ex. stems grow up
Photoropism
- the growth response of a plant in response to light direction
Hydrotropism
- plants grow towards or way from water, this tends to happen in the roots
Thigmotropism
- plant grows in response of touch or contact with objects, thigmonasty is the term called with
the plants instantly react to touch

Plant Hormones /Phtohormones

- are chemical compounds that regulates plant development, growth and longevity, these
hormones are produced in almost all parts of the plants and are transmitted to various parts of
the plants
Auxin
- means “to grow”, found in roots and stems. main role is for cell elongation of stems and roots,
stimulates cell enlargement, it also delays leaf senescence
Cytokinins
- promote cell division (cytokinesis) and ensure roots and shoots grow at equal rates, promotes
secondary growth (thickening) and help to control the rate of branching by a plant, it is also
involved in stimulating the growth of fruit
Gibberellins
- cause stem elongation by promoting cell elongation and cell division, triggers germination in
dormant seeds (initiates plant growth)
Abscisic acid
- controls the closing of stomata and hence regulates water loss in plants, initiates stress
responses in plants, responsible for seed dormancy
Ethylene
- responsible for fruit ripening, causes flower opening, stimulates maturation and aging
(senescence)

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