Solution Manual for Introduction to the History of

Psychology 7th Edition Hergenhahn Henley 1133958095

9781133958093
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CHAPTER 10
Evolution and Individual Differences
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and discussing chapter 10 the students should:

10.1 Be familiar with the ideas regarding evolutionary principles prior to Darwin’s theory.

10.2 Be acquainted with the ideas of Herbert Spencer including his views on evolution, the
Spencer- Bain principle, and the concept of social Darwinism.

10.3 Be familiar with the ideas, which influenced Darwin in the development of his theory and
understand the tenets of the theory of evolution and its influence.

10.4 Be acquainted with Galton’s work in measurement of human abilities, eugenics, the nature
vs. nurture controversy, and correlation.

10.5 Be familiar with the development of intelligence tests and testing.

1. James Cattell – early measurement in the U.S.

2. Alfred Binet – Binet-Simon scale
3. Charles Spearman – factor analysis and two factor theory of intelligence
4. Cyril Burt – scandal in measurement
5. Henry Goddard – study of “Kallikak” family
6. Lewis Terman – Stanford-Binet Test
7. Leta Hollingworth – early application of intelligence measurement

10.6 Be acquainted with the work of Robert Yerkes and the development of the army intelligence
tests.

10.7 Be familiar with the issues involved in the deterioration of national intelligence.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Evolutionary theory before Darwin

A. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
B. Herbert Spencer

II. Charles Darwin

A. The journey of the Beagle

B. Darwin’s theory of evolution
C. Darwin’s influence

III. Sir Francis Galton

A. The Measurement of Intelligence

B. The Nature—Nurture controversy
C. Words and images
D. Anthropometry
E. The concept of correlation
F. Galton’s contributions to psychology
G. James McKeen Cattell: “A galtonian in America”

IV. Individaul differences in intelligence

A. Alfred Binet
B. Charles Spearmen
C. Cyril Burt

V. Intelligence testing in the United States

A. Henry Herbert Goddard

B. Lewis Madison Terman
C. Leta Stetter Hollingworth

VI. Intelligence testing in the Army

A. Robert Yerkes
B. The deterioration of national intelligence

VII. Modern Testing

A. David Wechsler

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LECTURE/DISCUSSION TOPICS
1. It would be of interest and beneficial for the students to discuss social Darwinism in the
context of U.S. capitalism, individualism, the industrial revolution, and the concept of
manifest destiny.

2. As a discussion topic have the students address the impact of Darwinian evolutionary theory
in different aspects of human activities – medicine, economics, religion, education, and
societal development.

3. A discussion topic of both historical and contemporary importance is the nature-nurture

issue in intelligence testing. Of particular interest is the issue of race. A couple of books that
would contribute to this discussion are The Mismeasure of Man by Gould, and Even the Rat
was White by Guthrie.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Summarize Lamarck’s theory of evolution.

2. Describe Spencer’s social Darwinism and explain why it was so popular in the United States.

3. What is the Spencer–Bain principle?

4. Why did Darwin delay publication of his theory for so long? What finally prompted him to
publish it?

5. Summarize Darwin’s theory of evolution.

6. Compare Darwin’s concept of fitness with the sociobiologists’ concept of inclusive fitness.
What are the implications of the difference between the two concepts for the explanation of
human social behavior?

7. How did Galton support his argument that eugenics should be practiced?

8. Summarize Galton’s contributions to psychology.

9. Describe Cattell’s approach to intelligence testing and explain why that approach was
eventually abandoned.

10. In what ways did Binet’s approach to intelligence testing differ from Galton’s and Cattell’s?

11. Describe the 1905 Binet–Simon scale of intelligence. How was the scale revised in 1908? In
1911?

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12. What procedure did Stern suggest for reporting a person’s intelligence? Why did Binet
oppose this procedure?

13. Summarize Spearman’s views of intelligence.

14. What was the Burt “scandal”? In what way did it reflect the age-old controversy concerning
nature versus nurture?

15. What conclusions did Goddard reach when he administered the Binet–Simon scale to
schoolchildren in the United States?

16. What procedures did Goddard suggest for stopping the deterioration of intelligence in the
United States? In suggesting these procedures, what assumption did he make?

17. Summarize the conclusions Goddard reached when he traced the ancestry of Deborah
Kallikak.

18. In what important way did Terman modify the Binet–Simon scale?

19. What prompted Terman’s longitudinal study of gifted individuals? Summarize the results of
that study.

20. Summarize Leta Stetter Hollingworth’s contributions to psychology.

21. How did Yerkes suggest that psychologists help in the war effort? What was the effort that
resulted from this suggestion?

22. What arguments were offered in opposition to the contention that intelligence tests were
measuring one, innate, factor of intelligence (g)?

23. In what way was the controversy surrounding the publication of The Bell Curve the same as
that surrounding the Burt “scandal”?

24. Describe some of the areas where U.S. psychologists have contributed to psychometrics.

25. Discuss the work of David Wechsler. What is the current status of intelligence tests?

26. Where do most psychologists today stand on the nature–nurture question as it applies to
intelligence?

GLOSSARY
Adaptive features: Those features that an organism possesses that allow it to survive and
reproduce.

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Binet, Alfred (1857–1911): Found that following Galton’s methods of measuring intelligence
often resulted in falsely concluding that deaf and blind children had low intelligence. Binet
attempted to measure directly the cognitive abilities he thought constituted intelligence.

Binet–Simon scale of intelligence: The scale Binet and Simon devised to directly measure the
various cognitive abilities they believed intelligence comprised. The scale first appeared in 1905
and was revised in 1908 and in 1911.

Burt, Cyril (1883–1971): Claimed that his studies of identical twins reared together and apart
showed intelligence to be largely innate. Evidence suggested that Burt invented his data, and a
major scandal ensued.

Cattell, James McKeen (1860–1944): Worked with Galton and developed a strong interest in
measuring individual differences. Cattell brought Galton’s methods of intelligence testing to the
United States.

Coefficient of correlation (r): A mathematical expression indicating the magnitude of

correlation between two variables.

Correlation: Systematic variation between two variables.

Darwin, Charles (1809–1882): Devised a theory of evolution that emphasized a struggle for
survival that results in the natural selection of the most fit organisms. By showing the continuity
between human and nonhuman animals, the importance of individual differences, and the
importance of adaptive behavior, Darwin strongly influenced subsequent psychology.

Eugenics: The use of selective breeding to increase the general intelligence of the population.

Evolutionary psychology: A modern extension of Darwin’s theory to the explanation of human

and nonhuman social behavior (also called sociobiology).

Factor analysis: A complex statistical technique that involves analyzing correlations among
measurements and attempting to explain the observed correlations by postulating various
influences (factors).

Fitness: According to Darwin, an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce.

Galton, Francis (1822–1911): Influenced by his cousin, Charles Darwin, was keenly interested
in the measurement of individual differences. Galton was convinced that intellectual ability is
inherited and therefore recommended eugenics, or the selective breeding of humans. He was the
first to attempt to systematically measure intelligence, to use a questionnaire to gather data, to
use a word-association test, to study mental imagery, to define and use the concepts of
correlation and median, and to systematically study twins.

General intelligence (g): The aspect of intelligence that, according to Spearman, is largely
inherited and coordinates specific intellectual abilities.

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Goddard, Henry Herbert (1866–1957): Translated Binet’s intelligence test into English and
used it to test and classify students with mental retardation. Goddard was an extreme nativist
who recommended that those with mental deficiencies be sterilized or institutionalized. As a
result of Goddard’s efforts, the number of immigrants allowed into the United States was greatly
reduced.

Hollingworth, Leta Stetter (1886–1939): Rejected the belief, popular at the time, that women
achieve less than males do because they are intellectually inferior to males; instead her
explanation emphasized differences in social opportunity. Her career focused on improving the
education of both subnormal and gifted students.

Inclusive fitness: The type of fitness that involves the survival and perpetuation of copies of
one’s genes into subsequent generations. With this expanded definition of fitness, one can be fit
by helping his or her kin survive and reproduce as well as by producing one’s own offspring.

Inheritance of acquired characteristics: Lamarck’s contention that adaptive abilities

developed during an organism’s lifetime are passed on to the organism’s offspring.

Intelligence quotient (IQ): Stern’s suggested procedure for quantifying intelligence. The
intelligence quotient is calculated by dividing mental age by chronological age.

Lamarck, Jean (1744–1829): Proposed that adaptive characteristics acquired during an

organism’s lifetime were inherited by that organism’s offspring. This was the mechanism by
which species were transformed. (See also Inheritance of acquired characteristics.)

Malthus, Thomas (1766–1834): Economist who wrote Essay on the Principle of Population
(1798), which provided Darwin with the principle he needed to explain the observations that he
had made while aboard the Beagle. The principle stated that because more individuals are born
than environmental resources can support, there is a struggle for survival and only the fittest
survive.

Mental age: According to Stern, a composite score reflecting all the levels of the Binet–Simon
test that a child could successfully pass.

Mental orthopedics: The exercises that Binet suggested for enhancing determination, attention,
and discipline. These procedures would prepare a child for formal education.

Natural selection: A key concept in Darwin’s theory of evolution. Because more members of a
species are born than environmental resources can support, nature selects those with
characteristics most conducive to survival under the circumstances, which allows them to
reproduce.

Nature–nurture controversy: The debate over the extent to which important attributes are
inherited or learned.

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Pearson, Karl (1857–1936): Devised the formula for calculating the coefficient of correlation.

Regression toward the mean: The tendency for extremes to become less extreme in one’s
offspring. For example, the offspring of extremely tall parents tend not to be as tall as the
parents.

Simon, Theodore (1873–1961): Collaborated with Binet to develop the first test designed to
directly measure intelligence.

Social Darwinism: Spencer’s contention that, if given freedom to compete in society, the ablest
individuals will succeed and the weaker ones will fail, and this is as it should be.

Sociobiology: See Evolutionary psychology.

Spearman, Charles (1863–1945): Using an early form of factor analysis, found that intelligence
comprised specific factors (s) and general intelligence (g). He believed the latter to be largely
inherited. (See also General intelligence.)

Spencer, Herbert (1820–1903): First a follower of Lamarck and then of Darwin. Spencer
applied Darwinian principles to society by saying that society should maintain a laissez-faire
policy so that the ablest individuals could prevail. Spencer’s position is called social Darwinism.
(See also Social Darwinism.)

Spencer–Bain principle: The observation first made by Bain and later by Spencer that behavior
resulting in pleasurable consequences tends to be repeated and behavior resulting in painful
consequences tends not to be.

Stern, William (1871–1938): Coined the term mental age and suggested the intelligence
quotient as a way of quantifying intelligence. (See also Intelligence quotient.)

Struggle for survival: The situation that arises when there are more offspring of a species than
environmental resources can support.

Survival of the fittest: The notion that, in a struggle for limited resources, those organisms with
traits conducive to survival under the circumstances will live and reproduce.

Terman, Lewis Madison (1877–1956): Revised Binet’s test of intelligence, making it more
compatible with U.S. culture. Terman, along with Goddard and Yerkes, was instrumental in
creating the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests. He also conducted a longitudinal study of gifted
children and found that, contrary to the belief at the time, gifted children tended to become
healthy, gifted adults.

Wallace, Alfred Russell (1823–1913): Developed a theory of evolution almost identical to

Darwin’s, at almost the same time that Darwin developed his theory.

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Wechsler, David (1896–1981): Developed a new way of determining IQ scores, which is
featured in his two tests—the WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) and WISC (Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Children).

Yerkes, Robert M. (1876–1956): Suggested that psychology could help in the war effort (World
War I) by creating tests that could be used to place recruits according to their abilities and to
screen the mentally unfit from military service. The testing program was largely ineffective and
was discontinued soon after the war.

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
1. For more information on Charles Darwin as a research activity, the website below is an
extensive review of his life and times and includes multiple links to pictures, literature,
people he knew, and many other interesting topics.

http://www.aboutdarwin.com/

2. For more information for a research activity regarding intelligence testing and current
controversies see the sites below.

This site provides an extensive overview including biographical profiles, articles about
current controversies related to human intelligence, and other topics.

http://www.intelltheory.com/

This site provides an overview of “14 key players in the history and development of
intelligence and testing”, includes links to other topics of interest.

http://wilderdom.com/personality/L1-5KeyPlayers.html

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