Ecology

characterized by a flow of energy and a cycle of inorganic

Module 1 nutrients.
11. Biosphere - regions of the earth where organisms exist and
Ecology the life supporting region of earth.
-(Greek: oikos, “household, home or house” and
logos “knowledge”)
- is the scientific study of the distribution and
abundance of life and the interactions between organisms Module 2 Characteristics of
and their environment.
Biosphere
The Principle of ecology
1. Everything is connected to everything else.
2. Everything must go somewhere. Biosphere
-requires some amount of energy, although it may be self-
3. Sun is the source of life.
sufficient.
4. Nature knows best.
-This Provides an Interconnection among biotic and abiotic
5. Ours is a finite planet. factors or environment
6. All life forms are important.
Ecology, The Biosphere and Ecosystems
Environmental science can be defined as:
Environmental science Ecology- The branch of biology that deals with the study of
-is the systematic study of our relationship between organisms and their environment
environment and our place Environment- environment is made up of the external elements
and conditions that affect the life and development of an
organism.
Different fields of Science:
1. Natural Sciences -biology, chemistry, earth science, physics
and medicine. Biological levels of organization
2. Social Sciences -economics, political science, sociology,
history, philosophy and ethics. 1. Biosphere – the area of the earth in which life is possible
3. Other Sciences such as mathematics, statistics, technology, 2. Ecosystem – any stable environment in which living and
business and management, law, religion, morality and non-living things interact and in which materials are used over
aesthetics. and over again

Environment 3. Biotic community – all the living organisms in an

ecosystem.
- (from the French environner: to encircle or
surround)
- as a broad term, encompasses all that surround us, natural Characteristics of Biosphere
world in which we live,
1. Everything in it is living or recently living, meaning those
that haven’t decomposed yet.
Goals of environmental science: 2. The existence of food webs or feeding relationships that
1. To develop a sustainable world connects organisms on the basis of
2. To study environmental problems and issues energy flow from one species to another.
3. Each region of the biosphere has distinctive energy flows
trophic levels and nutrients.
Scales of Ecology
1. Atom – smallest unit of an element that still retains the BIOMES
characteristic properties of that element.
2. Molecule – unit of matter in which two or more atoms of the
-A natural unit of living and non-living components that
same element or different ones, are bonded together. interact to form a stable system in which the exchange of
3. Organelle – specialized part of a cell performing one or materials follow a circular path.
more specific functions.
1. Habitat – place where an organism lives and able to survive
4. Cell – basic living unit of all plants and animals.
and reproduce. Provides a certain species or population with
5. Tissue – a group of cells and intercellular substances that
food, shelter, temperature, water and whatever it is that they
function together in one or more specialized tasks.
need to survive.
6. Organ – part of the body composed of two or more tissue
2. Niche – functional role and position of an organism in the
types and performing one or more specific functions.
ecosystem.
7. Organism – any living thing considered as a whole, whether
3. Succession – progressive change in plant and animal life of
composed one cell or many.
an area.
8. Population – all members of the same species inhabiting a
particular area.
9. Community – all the populations found in a particular area. Classification of Biomes
Consists of all the population that live and interact in one 1.Terrestrial Biomes
environment. 2.Marine Biomes
10. Ecosystem – community and its physical environment,
1
3.Fresh Water Biome
 TERREATRIAL BIOMES
Land biomes: tundra, desert, taiga, tropical rain forest,
temperate forest, grassland.
1.) Tundra
- located nearest to the polar region.
-Summer are short and winter are long and dark.
- treeless plain that extends across Northern Europe to Asia
and Northern America.
-Vegetation includes lichens, mosses, grasses and low-growing
shrubs.
-shrubs. Few animals adapted to cool temperature live in
tundra, polar bears, caribou, and musk ox; during summer,
insects and birds migrate the biome.
2.)Deserts
- located at about 30 degrees, in both Northern and Southern
hemispheres.
- Support organisms adapted to arid conditions.
-Extreme environment, where rainfall is less than 50 cm per
year.
-Plant are succulents, or shrubs with woody stems and small
leaves.
-Animals require little water or are adapted in storing water
such as kangaroo, rat, roadrunner, insects, lizards and snakes.
3.) Taiga (Boreal forest)
– located just below the tundra
extending in a broad belt across northern Eurasia and
North America.
-coniferous forest that receives between 10 to 40 inches
of rain per year.
- The trees present have usually thick protective leaves
and bark, as well as needle like leaves that can withstand
snowfall.
- Common animals present include grizzly bears, wolves,
caribou, and moose.
6. Grassland (Savanna) – characterized by deep, rich soil
perfect agriculture, an absence of trees, and presence of
large herds of grazing animals.
-Located in regions where a relatively cool dry season is
followed by a hot, rainy one.
- Dominated by grasses that can adapt to changing
temperature and can tolerate high degree of grazing,
flooding, drought and sometimes fire. -
-Supports large group of grazers (zebras and wild beasts)
and browsers (giraffes), and predators (cheetahs and
lions).
MARINE BIOMES
Water biomes: oceans (intertidal zones, open sea/pelagic
zone, benthic zone/deep sea, abyssal zone) coral reefs,
estuaries.
Oceans
 Occupy 70% of the earth’s surface
 The largest and most diverse of the ecosystems.
 The marine algae supplies most of the Earth’s
oxygen and absorbs much of the carbon
 dioxide in the atmosphere.
 The great reservoir of living things and of
nutrients.
 The study of marine habitats is called
oceanography.
Divisions of the Oceans:
A. Pelagic division
B. Benthic division
1.) Pelagic division includes the Open Sea
– generally cold.
– Mammals such as dolphins and whales can
be found here as wells as many species of
fishes.

4.) Tropical rain forest Pelagic Division:

– usually found in regions near the equator. 1. Neritic Province
- The richest biomes in terms of biodiversity. 2.Oceanic Province
- The climate is always warm with plenty of rainfall 1.) Neritic province -
about 190 cm per year. shallow above the continental shelf
- complex structure with many levels of life, from -more nutrients and organisms
simplest bryophytes and epiphytes to woody vines and -sunlight penetrates the waters up to the bottom.
giant trees.
-Insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals are Subdivided into three zones:
well represented. a. Supratidal
-Characteristics of Philippine forests. b. Intertidal
5.) Temperate deciduous forest c. Subtidal
-located south of the taiga in eastern North America,
eastern Asia and much of Europe. a. Supratidal
- With moderate climate and relative high rainfall. - above the high tide mark
-Deciduous, broad-leaved trees are the dominant plants. -Lack of water
-Dominated by deciduous trees, oak, beech and maple. b. Intertidal
-Amphibians and reptiles are found, together with some - between high and low tide
other vertebrates as squirrels, rabbits, foxes, deer, and -connects the ocean to land due to the rising and
bears.
2
 falling of tides. a. Coral reefs
- mostly found in warm shallow waters.
c. Subtidal -Can be found as barriers along continents such
-below the low tide mark as Australia’s Great barrier reef, fringing islands,
-Provides the large diversity of plants and and atolls.
animals in contrast to the zone. b. Estuary
- bodies of water flowing in one direction.
2.) Oceanic province Rivers and streams usually get their start from
- the region of the open sea beyond the lakes and springs and travel all the way to their
continental shelf, above the oceanic basins. mouths
Subdivided into four zones: -another water channel such as the ocean.
1.Euphotic zone/Photic zone
2.Bathyal zone FRESH WATER BIOMES
3.Abyssal zone
4.hadal zone Water biomes: running waters, standing waters
1. Characterized by having a low salt concentration than
the marine biome.
2. The most convenient and cheapest source of water for
a. Euphotic zone/Photic zone
domestic and industrial needs.
-depth up to 120 m, upper part of the ocean into
3. The study of freshwater habitats is called limnology.
which light can penetrate
-layer Closer to the surface that receives enough Types of fresh water biomes:
light for photosynthesis.
b. Bathyal zone 1. Lotic or running water
-depth up to 3,000 m, lower part of the 2. Lentic or standing water
ocean in complete darkness
-less densely populated 1. Lotic or running water – bodies of water flowing in
-Sun light does not reach this zone one direction. Channel such as the ocean, rivers and
-Is almost non exsistent streams usually get their start from lakes and springs and
c. Abyssal zone travel all the way to their mouths, usually to another
- depth up to 4,000 m, deepest and coldest water.
part of
the oceans highly pressurized a. Rapid zone – shallow water where velocity of current
-Highly pressurized is great enough to keep the bottom
d. hadal zone clear of silt and other loose materials providing a firm
-depth beyond 4,000 m substrate.
-deepest region of the ocean lying within b. Pool zone – deeper water where velocity of current is
oceanic trenches reduced and silt and other loose materials settle to the
bottom providing a soft substrate.

B. Benthic division includes the depths of the sea 2. Lentic or standing water – ponds and lakes may have
-light hardly penetrates limited diversity of species since both bodies of water are
- water is very cold. isolated from other sources like rivers and oceans.

Subdivided into three zones: Lakes and ponds are divided into three zones:
1. Continental shelf in the sublittoral shelf
2. Continental slope in the bathyal zone a. littoral zone
3. Abyssal plain in the abyssal zone – topmost zone near the shore of a lake or pond;
-the warmest zone.
b. limnetic zone
1. Continental shelf in the sublittoral shelf – near-surface open water;
– the floor of the neritic province. -well lighted.
2. Continental slope in the bathyal zone c. profundal zone
– a sudden drop of the ocean floor from the – deep-water part of the lake;
continental shelf up to the abyssal plain. -much colder and denser; little light penetrate here.
3. Abyssal plain in the abyssal zone
– the ocean floor of the abyssal zone, interrupted by What is CLIMATE?
many underwater mountain chains called oceanic A pattern or cycle of weather conditions such as
ridges. temperature, wind snowfall, precipitate,humidity, and
clouds of an area over time.

3
 given area.
The Different Climate Zones: Population Ecology
-Study of distribution, density, numbers of
1. Tropical zone
individuals and structure (gender, age), rates of
 The region that extends from the equator to about natality and mortality, factors that affect growth.
30 degrees north and south latitudes.
 The tropical zone is characterized by a hot Characteristics of Populations
climate and strongly monsoonal weather 1. Density – number of individuals/per unit area
 patterns.
 The zone includes hit desserts and tropical rain 2. Spacing – dispersion
forest.
Density and Numbers
2. Temperate zone -Counting individuals to determine density and
 Extends from 30 degrees to about 60 degrees population size.
north and south latitudes.
 The temperature is cooler than in the tropical 1. Simple counts (# seals/ islands, # burrows/ area, #
zone and changes with the season. wildebeest/herd)
 During summer, the temperature changes from
warm to hot; while during winter, the 2. Mark-recapture technique
 temperature is from cool to cold. – capture individuals, mark Individuals, and
 Precipitation falls as rain or drizzle during recapture at a later point in time – provide estimate
summers; and snow or freezing rain during of population size for a given area.
winters.
Calculation
3. Polar zone
= (total number marked) (total number recaptured)
 Extends beyond 60 degrees north and south (number of recapture that were marked)
latitudes. 3. Census techniques
 Winters are long and extremely cold. – transect methods, walk or drive a line (transect)
 While summers are short and cool. and count the number of individuals at specific
 All precipitation is frozen. locations, evenly distributed along the line.
 Ice and snow covers are extremely thick.
Demography
Factors that affect global and regional - study characteristics of a population that affect
climate: growth.
1. The distance of the nearest body of water. Those areas Methods: Follow a cohort (group of individuals from
near an ocean or lake tend to have a cooler summers and birth to death) over time.
milder winters. a. Age Class
b. Number of Survivors
2. Land formations and mountain ranges. Mountains
c. Number of Deaths
receive more rainfall than in lying areas because the
temperature here is lower than the temperature at sea d. Mortality Rate
level.
Calculations Rates for Populations
3. Altitude. The higher the altitude, the lower is the
temperature. 1. Survivorship
– number of individuals that reach the next year of
Weather life
-state of the atmosphere at given time and place with
regarsa to temperature 2. Birth
– number of individuals born
Meteorology -study of weather
3. Mortality
meteorologist- scientist who study and predict weather
– number of individuals that die each year
Module 3 Fundamentals of
Ecology The factors that influence various populations of
organisms:
Population
1. Size 3. Distribution
-number of individuals of a particular species in a
4
2. Density 4. Growth
Population density
-Defined as the number of individuals of a certain
species per unit area or volume.
Factors that affect population density:
A. NATURAL FACTORS
B. HUMAN FACTORS
A. NATURAL FACTORS
1. Relief (shape and height of land)
High Density: Low land which is flat (e.g. Central
Luzon)
Low Density: High land that is mountainous
(Mountain Province)
2. Resources
High Density: Areas rich in resources such as coal,
oil, wood, fishing etc. (e.g. Western Europe)
Low Density: Areas with few resources (e.g. The
Sahel)
3. Climate
High Density: Areas with temperate climates as
there is enough rain and heat to grow crops (e.g.
UK, New Zealand)
Low Density: Areas with extreme climates of hot
and cold (e.g. The Sahara Desert; North and South
Pole)
B. HUMAN FACTORS
1. Political
High Density: Countries with stable government
(e.g. Singapore)
Low Density: Unstable countries as people migrate
to other countries (e.g. Afghanistan)
2. Social
High Density: Groups of people want to live to close
each other for security (e.g. USA)
Low Density: Other groups of people prefer to be
isolated (e.g. Scandinavians)
3. Economic
High Density: Good job opportunities encourage
high population, particularly in large around the
world.
Low Density: Limited job opportunities cause some
areas to be sparsely populated (e.g. Amazon
Rainforest)
Population Distribution
-The pattern of dispersal of certain species within
the area occupy.
Distribution Patterns
-To give a better picture of population density,
-to patterns of spatial distribution of individuals and
populations within a community,
There are three PATTERN OF DISPERSION:
1. Random distribution
2. Uniform
3. Clumped
1. Random distribution
– patchy distribution of resources
-no special force acting on the spatial distribution
2. Uniform
-territorial species
-members of the species are equally spaced apart.
3. Clumped
-random distribution of resources
-uneven distribution resources.
-the defense behavior of the organism as in “safety
in numbers”.
Population Age Structure
-an tell more about population dynamics than either
density or distribution.
1. Functional age classes
2. Population age profile
1. Functional age classes
-the ages of these groups can be very different from
one group animals to another.
a. Pre-reproductive – too young to reproduce
b. Reproductive – able to reproduce
c. Post reproductive – too old to reproduce
2. Population age profile
– an estimation of the number of individuals in each
age class
Population Size
-- the number of individuals in a population.
5
-Changes over time just like population density and
distribution.
The factors that contribute to the fluctuation of
POPULATION SIZE:
1. Natality (rate of birth)
2. Mortality (rate of death)
3. Immigration
4. Emigration
1. Natality (rate of birth) – the ratio of the number of
births in a given time to the total population.
2. Mortality (rate of death) – the ratio of the number
of deaths in a given time to the total population.
3. Immigration – is the movement of individuals into
an area occupied by an existing population.
4. Emigration – is the movement of individuals out
of an area where a population is located.
Growth pattern
--To understand how populations grow
two general of POPULATION GROWTH:
1. Organisms that reproduce only once and cease to
grow as adults. They expand all their energy in one
reproduction then die.
2. Organisms that reproduce throughout their
lifetime and invest all energy for future survival.
2 FACTORS AFFECT POPULATION GROWTH:
1. Density – dependent – depend on the number of
individuals in the population
2. Density – independent
– do not depend on the number of individuals in the
population
Mathematical Models of Population Growth:
1. Exponential growth
2. Biotic potential
1. Exponential growth
-A population could reach its biotic potential, the
maximum growth rate of which a population is
physiologically capable
if these conditions are met:
a. environmental conditions are ideal
b. there are no restrictions on reproduction
c. mortality rate is kept extremely low
2. Biotic potential
Maximum rate at which a population can increase
when resources are unlimited and environmental
conditions are ideal. Varies due to difference in:
1. reproductive span
2. frequency of reproduction
3. litter size
4. survival rate
3.Limiting factors
Environmental influences that restrict the growth of
populations. May include the availability of food,
shelter, water, and space.
4. Carrying capacity
-The number of individuals in a population that the
environment can sustain over a relatively long
period of time.
5. Age distribution
-Growing populations have a large percentage of
young individuals while declining populations have
a large percentage of elderly individuals.
There are two typical age structure diagrams:
1. Expansive population distribution
2. Stable population distribution
1. Expansive population distribution
– is typical in developing countries such as in
African and Asian countries.
-A pyramid shaped diagram is expected when birth
rate is higher than death rate.
2. Stable population distribution
– is typical in industrialized countries such as United
States of America.
-A bell shaped diagram results when there is a
balance birth rate and death rate.
Module 4
Interactions among
Organisms in a Community
NICHE
- The specific functional role of an organism
● All of the interactions of a species with the other
members of its community, including competition,
predation, parasitism, and mutualism.
● A variety of abiotic factors, such as soil type and
climate, also define a species’ niche.
● Each of the various species that constitute a
community occupies its own ecological niche.
● Informally, a niche is considered the “job” or
“role” that a species performs within nature.
6
two characteristics to consider in distinguishing a MAJOR INTERACTION
certain community from other communities: 1.competition
1.Composition 2.Predation
2.Diversity 3.Parasitism
4.Mutualism
1. Composition – a recording of the various species 5.Commensalism
in the Community.
2. Diversity - the number of species (species
richness) and the abundance of each species in a
community
(species evenness) 1. Competition
Ecological Niche: Example: Oak trees (habitat: Oak - compete with other species for food, shelter, water,
woodland) and other survival needs of the species.
1. Absorb by sunlight through photosynthesis 2 types of competition
2. Absorb water and minerals from the soil A. Intraspecific
B. Interspecific
3. Provide shelter for many animals and plants
4. Acts as support for creeping plants A. Intraspecific
– competition occurs between members of the same
5. Cover the ground with their dead leaves during species.
autumn
B. Interspecific
6. Serve as a source of food for animals. - competition occurs between individuals of
different species.
Habitat factors can be divided into two
major groupings: 2. Predation
- the consumption of one organism by another where
1. Physical factors - terrestrial and aquatic habitats. the consumed organism (prey) was alive when the
predator first attacked it.
2. Biotic factors - all other species that occupy the
habitat. 3. Parasitism
- a relationship between two species in which the
PHYSICAL FACTORS AS AN EXAMPLE host is harmed, but not killed immediately.

 Terrestrial Habitats
parasite
 Aquatic Habitats
-is an organism that obtains its organic nutrients
1. Terrestrial habitats from the host’s body without causing instant death.
– elevation, steepness, slope direction, soil type, and
water availability. 4. Mutualism
– a relationship between species that have
2. Aquatic habitats developed a positive impact and dependency on
– pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen concentration, each other. Two species interact in a way that
temperature, flow rate of water. benefits each other.
- cows have microorganisms in their digestive tract.
Ecological niche can be categorized into two:
● Fundamental niche 5. Commensalism
● Realized niche - a relationship between species where one organism
benefits from the association and the other organism
Fundamental niche is neither helped or harmed.
– the species’ potential to use available resources in - barnacles and whales.
the absence of relations with other species
- if there were no competition.

Realized niche Module 5 Nature of

– the ability of the species to use available resources
in the presence of interactions with other species. Ecosystem
Producers -are the plants in the ecosystem,
7
Consumers -include herbivores, carnivores, and 1. Carnivores
omnivores. – feed on herbivores, omnivores, and other
Decomposers are the fungi and bacteria, carnivores
1st level carnivore – feed on herbivores
CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEM 2nd level carnivore – feed on 1st level carnivores
1. Ecosystems have structure

2. Ecosystems have processes 2. Omnivores

-(feed on both plants and animals)
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
- nonliving parts the physical environment: 3. Decomposers (detrivores)
-consume on dead animals the final consumer of the
BIOTIC COMPONENTS
- living parts composed of a habitat and a niche
group use energy available in dead plants and
a. Autotrophs (producers) – chemoautotrophs and animals transform organic material into inorganic
photoautotrophs plants – ‘base’ of the food chain material.
b. Heterotrophs – herbivores feed on plants; many are adapted
to live on a diet high in cellulose (graze directly on plants) Trophic levels
- refer to the parts of food chain or nutritive series in
Different Roles (niche) of the Biotic Components a group of organisms secures food.
1. Producers or Autotrophs
- capable of producing their own food from simple inorganic Types of Food Chain
materials in the process called photosynthesis
1. Grazing Food Chain
- Plants use carbon dioxide, water and minerals to produce 2. Detrital Food Chain
carbohydrates and organic materials with oxygen being given 3.Food Web
off.
4. Marine Web
- Could be chemoautotrophs (bacteria), obtaining energy by
oxidizing inorganic compounds to synthesize carbohydrates, or 1. Grazing Food Chain
a photoautotrophs (plants), obtaining energy from light to
– starts with green plants base to grazing herbivores
synthesize carbohydrates
and then on carnivores.
2.CONSUMERS OR HETEROTROPHS

- Include all animals and other organisms like fungi

and bacteria which cannot make their own foods 2. Detrital Food Chain
directly from simple inorganic materials – goes from dead organisms or organic matter into
- Organisms that obtain their own food by microorganisms then detritus feeding organisms and
consuming other organisms, their predators.

3.DECOMPOSERS Food Web

-They use dead plants, animals and excrete as their
own food.
- The heterotrophic organisms that break down
detritus, non-living organic matter, to inorganic
matter, to be used again by the producers.
-which are interconnected with each other by
interlocking of food chains to form food chains
MARINE WEB
Eg. = large shark - tuna - mackerel - small fish
shrimplike creatures (magnified)- one celled life
(magnified)

Flow of Energy
-represented by a foodchain, food web and trophic
levels. Module 6 Basic Components of
The transfer of energy from plants through a series
of other organisms constitutes food chains.
Ecosystems
E.g. grass -> cattle -> man

Components of a food chain: Ecosystem have processes:

1. Carnivores 1. Cycling of chemical elements
2. Omnivores 2. Flow of energy
3. Decomposers
8

Unit of Energy and Concept of Productivity
 Energy units
- units or weights may be used
because energy is stored in the organic
compounds, which compose the
animal bodies.
 Bioenergetics
- molecular work, continuation or
nerve impulses and synthesis of
complex food molecules are some of
the examples in which energy transfer
involved.
Law of Thermodynamics
1. First Law of Thermodynamics
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics
1. First Law of Thermodynamics
-Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
- Living organisms absorb from their
environment useful form of energy under
constant temperature and pressure and return
to the same energy of less useful form to the
environment.
- The useful form of energy is called free
energy, which is capable of doing work.
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics
-No process of energy transformation will
spontaneously occur unless there is
degradation of energy from concentrated
form into a dispersal form.
-Living organisms maintain their orderliness
at the expense of their environment and in
return increases its entrophy.
-Living organisms are called open systems
since they exchange both matter and energy
with the environment.
Flow of Energy
-The interconnecting paths of energy flow
are represented by a food chain, food web
and trophic levels.
Ecological Pyramids
Representing biomass, number of organisms,
or energy content of each trophic level in a
food web, from producer to the final
consumer populations
Two types of ecological pyramids
 pyramid of biomass
 pyramid of energy
Pyramid of biomass
-Shows a decrease in the biomass from the
higher trophic levels.
Pyramid of Energy
-Pertain to the amount of energy being transferred
from one trophic level to another.
Pyramid of Numbers
-Illustrates population density relationship within
and between the trophic levels.
Cycles of Nutrients (Biogeochemical Cycles)
1. Water cycle
-The fresh water evaporates from the bodies of water
and falls to the earth.
Water cycle involved four main physical actions:
1. Evaporation is the transfer of water from bodies
of surface water into the atmosphere.
2. Precipitation is the atmospheric moisture that has
previously condensed in form clouds (changed from
the gas phases to a liquid or solid phase) falling to
the surface of the earth.
3. Infiltration into the ground is the transition from
surface water to groundwater.
4. Runoff includes the variety of ways by which land
surface water moves down slope to the oceans.
5. Subsurface flow incorporates movement of water
within the earth, either within the vadose zone or
aquifiers
2. Carbon cycle
-The carbon dioxide is removed from the
atmosphere by green plant through photosynthesis
and is returned by all living things through aerobic
respiration.
Many biological processes in motion by people
release carbon dioxide:
1. Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas)
2. Slash and burn agriculture
9
3. Clearing land for permanent pasture, cropland, or
human settlements
4. Accidental and intentional forest burning
5. Unsustainable logging and fuel wood collection
3. Nitrogen Cycle
-The organism cannot exist without amino acids,
peptides and proteins, all of which are organic
molecules that contain nitrogen.
Nitrogen re-enters the environment in several ways:
1. Death of an organism fungi and bacteria
decompose dead organisms releasing ammonia and
ammonium ions.
2. Plants shed on their leaves, needles, flowers, fruits
and cones, animals shed hair, feathers, skin,
exoskeleton, pupal cases and silk.
3. Animals produce excrement and urinary wastes
that contain nitrogenous compounds.
4. Phosphorus cycle
-The weathering makes phosphate available to
producers followed by consumers. Death and decay
of all organisms makes phosphate available to
decomposers. Most phosphates are found as salts in
ocean sediments or in rocks.
5. Sulfur cycle
-It plays a vital role in organisms, especially as
minor but essential components of protein.
-Sulfur compounds are important determinants
of acidity of rainfall, surface water and soil.
The Cause of Pollution
1. Human activities are controlling the
biogeochemical cycles through modern
technology.
2. Human activities alter the transfer rates because
they move an element from one component of an
ecosystem to another at a greater rate.
3. In carbon cycle, humans increase the transfer rate
from fossil fuels to the atmosphere and into the
oceans;
4. In phosphorus cycle, human increase the transfer
rate from sediments to the soil and into bodies of
water.
5. In nitrogen cycle, humans increase the transfer
rate from the atmosphere to the soil and into bodies
of water any change in transfer rate that can lead
directly or indirectly to a degradation of human
health or degradation of the natural condition of the
environment is called pollution.
Module 7 Biological Diversity
Biodiversity
-is important to most aspects of our lives.
Biological Evolution
-Refers to the change in inherited characteristics of a
population from generation to generation
-Evolution was described as the change in gene
frequency over time
Four Processes that lead to evolution:
1. Mutation
2. Natural Selection
3. Migration
4. Genetic Drift
1. Mutation
-Defined as the permanent change in the DNA
sequence of a gene.
2. Natural Selection
 The theory of Charles Darwin that states that
organisms whose characteristics are most
suited to the environment has an overall
advantage of survival.
 A theory of natural selection is to use
Darwin’s study of the finches. Their beaks
change over time to best perform their
function. These finches that come from one
ancestor and have somehow managed to give
rise to multiple species to exploit different
habitats have undergone the process of
adaptive radiation.
3. Migration
 Migration of one population of species to a
habitat formerly occupied by another group
of species can lead to changes in gene
frequency.
 Organism that do not move themselves have
reproductive structures that migrate such as
when seeds of flowering plants are
transported by wind or moved by animals
4. Genetic Drift
-Refers to the random changes in the frequency of a
gene in a population as a result of chance rather than
a mutation, selection, or migration.
Basic Concepts of Biological Diversity
It is important that the meaning of the concept
“biological diversity” or “biodiversity” is clearly
10
defined. B. Factors that tend to decrease diversity

Biological diversity involves three concepts:

1. Genetic diversity
2. Habitat diversity
3. Species diversity
1. Genetic diversity
-It is the total number of genetic characteristics in
the genetic makeup (nucleotides, chromosomes,
genes, or whole genomes) of species.
2. Habitat diversity
-It is the range of habitats in a given unit of area.
3. Species diversity
-Refers to the number and distribution of species in
a given location.
It has three species:
a. Species richness – refers to the total number of
species
b. Species evenness – refers to the relative
abundance of species
c. Species dominance – it is the most abundant
species
Term related to species habitat:
a. Exotic species – a non-native plant or animal
deliberately introduced into a new geographic area.
b. Endemic species – a native species of a particular
area that are not naturally found anywhere.
c. Cosmopolitan species – species found anywhere
in the world whenever environment is appropriate.
d. Ubiquitous species – species found almost
anywhere.
A. Factors that tend to increase diversity
1. A physically diverse habitat
2. Moderate amounts of disturbance (such as
fire, storm, sudden flow of water from a storm
into a pond)
3. Small variation in environmental conditions
(temperature, nutrient supply)
4. High diversity at one trophic level, increasing
the diversity at another trophic level
5. An environment highly modified by life (rich
organic soil)
6. Evolution
B. Factors that tend to decrease diversity
1. Environmental stress (crowding, noise)
2. Extreme environments (conditions near to the
limit of what living things can withstand)
3. A severe limitation in the supply of an
essential resource
4. Extreme amounts of disturbance
5. Recent introduction of exotic species
6. Geographic isolation (being on a real
geographic island)

Environmental Factors that Influence Biodiversity

 possible interrelationships among climate,
soil, vegetation, and animals.
 the vegetation influences soils and the types
of animals that will be present.
 animals affect the plant life.
 existing dominant species will become
more abundant if environmental conditions
were constant over time and space at the
expense of existing rare species.
Factors that increase and decrease biological
diversity:

A. Factors that tend to increase diversity

11