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Black Hole Entropy

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 University of Leipzig – Institute of Theoretical physics
Main Seminar Condensed Matter Physics

Black Hole Entropy

Youssef Albanay

Leipzig
July 2015

 
 
 
 
 
 Contents

1. Introduction to the black hole 3

1.1 what is a black hole? 3
1.2 Schwarzschild Metric and event horizon 3
1.3 No-hair theory 4

2. Black hole thermodynamics 5

2.1 Bekenstein entropy 5
2.2 Penrose process 7
2.3 The four laws of black hole mechanics 8
2.4 Generalized second law 9

3. Hawking radiation 10
3.1 Quantum vacuum fluctuations 10
3.2 Derivation of Hawking radiation 10
3.3 The Unruh effect 12
3.4 Evaporation of black holes 13
3.5 Bekenstein bound 13

4. What’s next? 14  
4.1 Information loss paradox 14
4.2 Black hole complementarity 14
4.3 The firewall 15
           4.4 There is no Black hole at all! 15  
 
6. Outlook 16  
 
References 17
 
 
 
 
 
 
   
 
 
 
 
 

  2  
1. Introduction to the black hole

1.1 what is a black hole?

Black hole is a region in space-time exhibiting a very strong gravitational pull such that
no electromagnetic or particles can escape. When the fuel of some star is used up, the
equilibrium between the gas pressure and gravity, which makes the stars stable, breaks
down, the star begins to shrink under the influence of gravity. There is many possibility
after shrinking beginning, depend on the mass of the star. If the mass of the star is greater
than Chandrasekhar limit (1.4  𝑀⊙ ) where the sun mass 𝑀⊙ = 2×10!! 𝑔, the Fermi
degeneracy pressure based on the Pauli exclusion principle will stop the shrink. The final
stellar remnant supported by electron degeneracy pressure is called a white dwarf.

If the total mass of the star exceeds that Chandrasekhar limit, the electron degeneracy
pressure is not enough to resist the pull of gravity, therefore the star forced to collapse to
a smaller radius. At this point, the electrons combine wit the protons to make neutron.
The final result is a neutron stare. The typical radius of the neutron star is about 10km!

In the same manner, massive neutron star will not be a stable to resist the pull of the
gravity. And it will continue to collapse. Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit of the neutron star
mass is 3 − 4  𝑀⊙ . If the neutron star exceeds this limit, it is believed that the final result
is a black hole.

1.2 Schwarzschild Metric and event horizon

In general relativity, the unique spherically vacuum solution to the Einstein field
equations is Schwarzschild metric. This solution describes the gravitational field outside
a spherical mass. In spherical coordinates 𝑡, 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙 , the metric is given by [5]

𝑟! 1 (1.1)
𝑑𝑠 ! = − 1 − 𝑑𝑡 ! + ! ! !
𝑟! 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑑Ω  ,
𝑟 1− 𝑟

!!"
where 𝑟! = ! ! is the Schwarzschild radius, 𝑀 the mass, 𝑐 the speed of light, and 𝑑Ω!
is the metric on a unite two sphere,

𝑑Ω! = 𝑑θ! + 𝑠𝑖𝑛! 𝜃𝑑ϕ! . (1.2)

Schwarzschild metric, equation (1.1), has singularities at 𝑟 = 0, 𝑟 = 𝑟! . This leads us

to define an event horizon; the surface that particles can never escape to infinity (Fig.
1.1). It is impossible for outer observer to see inside the event horizon.

  3  
 Fig. 1.1. The singularity, event horizon, and the Schwarzschild radius.

Imagine a spaceship sending light signals to an outer observer during it’s falling toward
the event horizon. The outer observer would see the falling spaceship become more and
more slowly due to the time dilation effect. Therefore, the light signals become redder
and redder, until the infalling spaceship cross 𝑟! = 2𝐺𝑀/𝑐 ! . At this point, the outer
observer can’t see the infalling spaceship cross the event horizon. Fig. 1.2 shows how this
light signal as, light cones, gradually tilts over when they close to the event horizon, and
after cross it; those light signals go toward the singularity.

The external geometry of a black hole is the same external geometry ousted any
normal star or planet. The black hole doesn’t pull anything around it that locates outside
the Schwarzschild radius. Outside 𝑟! = 2𝐺𝑀/𝑐 ! , any particle will rotate normally
whether the gravitating source is a black hole or not.

1.3 No-hair theory

The no hair theorem states that, the black hole formed from gravitational collapse will
reach a stationary state completely characterized by three extremely observable
parameters: mass 𝑚, electric charge 𝑞, and angular momentum per mass unite 𝑎 = 𝐽/𝑀.
All other information, which formed black hole, disappears behind the black hole event
horizon. Thus, physicist john wheeler expressed this idea with the phrase “black hole
have no hair”.

  4  
Fig. 1.2. Space-time plane of light cones appear to close up the Schwarzschild radius, and
then cross it.

2. Black hole thermodynamics

Black hole thermodynamics is a topic that reconciles the laws of thermodynamics with
existence of black hole event horizons. In this section, we will try to shows that how the
laws of black hole mechanics are closely related to the laws of thermodynamics.

2.1 Bekenstein entropy

The Bekenstein entropy or black hole entropy is the amount of entropy that must be
assigned to a black hole in order for it to obey comply with laws of thermodynamics as
observers external to that black hole interpret them.

Let’s assume that one falling photon into the black hole corresponds to a one bit of
information that would add to the event horizon area. The energy of the photon is given
by Planck-Einstein formula as

ℎ𝑐 (2.1)
𝐸= ,
𝜆

  5  
where ℎ is the plank constant, 𝜆 the wavelength. The change in the black hole mass when
one photon falls into it will be

𝛿𝐸 ℎ (2.2)
𝛿𝑀 = =  .
𝑐 ! 𝜆𝑐

The Schwarzschild radius increases with increasing mass. Assume that the wavelength of
the photon in the order of the Schwarzschild radius (𝜆 = 𝑟! ). Therefore, the change in
Schwarzschild radius is

2𝛿𝑀𝐺 2ℎ𝐺 2ℎ𝐺 (2.3)

𝛿𝑟! = = ⇒ 𝑟! 𝛿𝑟! =
𝑐! 𝑟! 𝑐 ! 𝑐!

The quantity 𝑟! 𝛿𝑟! represents the change in the event horizon area, i.e.

𝛿𝐴 = 𝑟! 𝛿𝑟! . (2.4)

If there is a many photons fall into the black hole, Equation (2.3) must multiply by 𝛿𝑆
(the increment of entropy by many falling photons). Equations (2.3) and (2.4) yield

𝐴𝑐 ! (2.5)
𝑆=  ,
4ℏ𝐺

And this formula called Bekenstein formula. It shows that how the entropy of the black
hole changes as it’s area increases. We could write it as

1 𝐴 (2.6)
𝑆 = 𝑘! ! .
4 𝑙!"

ℏ!
Where 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟! ! is the event horizon area, 𝑘! is Boltzmann’s constant, and 𝑙!" = is
!!
the Planck length. Each bit of information will contribute to grow the event horizon area.

The entropy of the black hole is around 10!! 𝑘! . Comparing to the entropy of the sun
𝑆⊙ = 10!" 𝑘! , which is 20 orders of magnitude less!! Actually, the entropy of the black
hole is greater than the entropy of all the matter in the visible universe! Now simply, if
the black hole has entropy and energy, it seems to has a thermal temperature also, du to
the relation 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑇𝑑𝑠. This temperature is called Hawking temperature or Hawking
radiation. We will discuss it in the next section.

2.2 Penrose process

The Penrose process theorized by Roger Penrose wherein energy can be extracted from a
rotating black hole. This process shows that the angular momentum of the rotating black

  6  
hole (Kerr black hole) is decreases due to through some matter inside it. The process also
shows that the change of the mass black hole can never be reduced, which implies that
the event horizon area never decreases. The mathematics of the Penrose process is
outside the scope of this manuscript. We just interest in the final result of changing the
black hole mass during Penrose process.

Imagine an object falls toward a Kerr black hole in the ergosphere (the region located
outside a rotating black hole, as illustrates in Fig. 2.1), and splits in two pieces. One piece
falls into the horizon with a negative energy, while the other escapes to infinity with a
larger energy than of the original infalling object. The increment in the energy extracts
from the rotating black hole by decreasing its angular momentum. If the that process is
performed repeatedly, the black hole can eventually lose all of it’s angular momentum,
becoming non-rotating, i.e. a Schwarzschild black hole [20].

The final result of the change in the black hole mass 𝛿𝑀 du to the Penrose process is
given by, using Planck units; ℏ = 𝑐 = 𝑘! = 1 [4]
𝜅 (2.7)
𝛿𝑀 = 𝛿𝐴 + Ω! 𝛿𝐽,
8𝜋𝐺

where 𝜅 is the surface gravity, 𝛿𝐴 the change in the event horizon area, Ω! the angular
velocity of the event horizon, and 𝛿𝐽 is change in the angular momentum of the black
hole. This equation first started physicists thinking about a correspondence between black
hole and thermodynamics. There is a big similarity between equation (1.9) and the first
law of thermodynamics, which is given by

𝑑𝐸 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑝𝑑𝑉, (2.8)

where 𝑇 id the temperature, 𝑆 is the entropy, 𝑝 is the pressure, and 𝑉 is the volume. The
correspondence begins to take shape if we think of identifying the thermodynamic
quantities energy, entropy, and temperature with the black hole mass, area, and surface
gravity:

𝐸⟷𝑀 (2.9)

𝐴
𝑆⟷
4𝐺
𝜅
𝑇⟷  .
2𝜋

We discovered the proportionality the entropy and the forth of the event horizon area in
Bekenstein formula (2.6). And now we see that proportionality again! The 𝑝𝑑𝑉 term
represents work we do to the system. It’s natural to think of the term Ω! 𝛿𝐽 in (2.7) as
work that we on the black hoe by throwing matter into it.

  7  
 Fig. 2.1. Ergosphere is the area located outside the event horizon.

2.3 The four laws of black hole mechanics

Equations (2.7), (2.8), and (2.9) provide essential analogies between the laws of
thermodynamics and the mechanical laws of black holes. We can build four laws of black
hole mechanics that correspond to the four laws of thermodynamics.

Zeroth law

The event horizon, which described by the surface gravity 𝜅, has a constant value over for
a stationary or spinning black hole. This law is analogous to the zeroth law of
thermodynamics, which states that in thermal equilibrium the temperature is constant
through the system. The similarity between 𝑇and 𝜅 is illustrated in the third relation in
(2.9). But still it seems mysterious. In the next section we will show how Hawking
showed that quantum fluctuations near the event horizon allow the black hole to radiate at
ℏ!
a temperature 𝑇 = !!! !.
!

First law

For stationary black holes, the change of energy is related to change of area. Multiply
equation (2.7) by 𝑐 ! gives

𝜅𝑐 ! (2.10)
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝐴 + 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘  𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠,
8𝜋𝐺

which is analogy to the fist law of thermodynamics

  8  
 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 + 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘  𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠. (2.11)

Second law

The entropy never decreases, is simply the statement that the area of the event horizon
never decreases under any process:

𝛿𝑆 ≥ 0 (2.12)
𝛿𝐴 ≥ 0.

Third law

It is not possible to form a black hole with vanishing surface gravity. I.e. 𝜅 = 0 is not
possible to achieve. This is analogous to the third law of thermodynamics which states,
that it is impossible to achieve 𝑇 = 0 at any physical process.

2.3 Generalized second law

The second law of black hole can be violated by Hawking radiation, which causes both
the black hole mass and the area of it’s horizon to decrease over time. Moreover, the
second law violates by matter losing its entropy as it falls in the black hole, since the
ordinary entropy absorbed into black hole entropy would not visible to the external
observer any more. It seems the entropy of the universe decrease!

Bekenstein has proposed a Generalized second law that the combined entropy of
matter and black holes never decreases [12]:

𝐴𝑐 ! (2.13)
𝛿𝑆 = (𝑆 + ) ≥ 0.
4ℏ𝐺

Now, the problem solved. Any decrease in the outer world’s entropy is at least
compensated by the increase of Bekenstein entropy 𝐴𝑐 ! /4ℏ𝐺.

3. Hawking radiation
Hawking radiation is black body radiation that is predicted to be released by black
holes, due to quantum effects near the event horizon, in classical Schwarzschild
background, i.e. the gravitation is threaded classically.

  9  
3.1 Quantum vacuum fluctuations
How can the black hole emits thermal radiation ‘Hawking radiation”, and nothing could
escape from the event horizon by definition? Actually, this radiation doesn’t come from
event horizon. This radiation comes from what is known as quantum fluctuations,
which takes place near the event horizon, not inside it.

According to the famous Heisenberg uncertainty principle of energy and time

∆𝐸∆𝑡~ℏ, (3.1)

the violating energy conservation can occur, but only to allow the creation of virtual
particle-antiparticle pairs for very short time interval ∆𝑡~10!!" 𝑠. The effects of these
particles are measurable, for example, in the Lamb-shift in the hydrogen spectrum or the
Casimir effect. With this particle-antiparticle pair, near the event horizon, the particle
(negative energy) might enter the event horizon; meanwhile, the other particle (positive
energy) might escape to infinity (Fig. 3.1). This is the idea of the Hawking radiation.

3.2 Derivation of Hawking radiation

In Heisenberg picture of quantum mechanics, the evolution of a quantum state after time
𝑇 is governed by the evolution operator 𝑒 !!"# , where 𝐻 the Hamiltonian. The probability
amplitude for an initial state |𝐼 to end up in the final state |𝐹 is given by [5]

𝒵 = 𝐹  |𝑒 !!"# |𝐼 . (3.2)

According to Boltzmann, at temperature 𝑇, the relative probability of a state |𝑛 of

energy 𝐸! occurring is given by 𝑒 !!! /! = 𝑒 !!!! , where 𝛽 = 1 𝑇. We define the
partition function of a quantum mechanical system with the Hamiltonian 𝐻 by

𝑍= 𝑛  |𝑒 !!" |𝑛 = 𝑒 !!!! = 𝑇𝑟𝑒 !!" . (3.3)

! !

Evidently, there is a potentially profound correspondence between the two fundamental

equations (3.2) and (3.1). to go from (3.2) to (3.1), we simply replace the time 𝑇 by – 𝑖𝛽,
and set |𝐼 = |𝐹 = |𝑛 , and sum over |𝑛 . We make 1- time imaginary 2- we force every
state to go back to itself! This could happen if the time is somehow cyclic. The inverse
temperature 𝛽 is equal to the recurrence period with imaginary time! Any quantum field,
propagating in the Schwarzschild space-time discovers that time is really imaginary and
cyclic, this field thinking that it is living in a temperature bath, with the temperature
determined by the inverse of the recurrence period 𝛽.

For instance, consider the electromagnetic field, governed by the action

  10  
 Fig. 3.1. Pair creation at the horizon of a black hole.

1 (3.4)
𝑆= 𝑑 ! 𝑥 −𝑔 − 𝑔!" 𝑔!" 𝐹!" 𝐹!" ,
4

Propagating in the Schwarzschild space-time described by (in Planck unites)

𝑟! 1 (3.5)
𝑑𝑠 ! = − 1 − 𝑑𝑡 ! + ! ! !
𝑟! 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑑Ω .
𝑟 1− 𝑟

Change the variables from 𝑟 to 𝜌 given by 𝜌! = 4𝑟! (𝑟 − 𝑟! ). Then 𝜌𝑑𝜌 = 2𝑟! 𝑑𝑟, so that
𝜌! 𝑑𝜌! = 4𝑟! ! 𝑑𝑟 ! or 𝑟 − 𝑟! 𝑑𝜌! = 𝑟! 𝑑𝑟 ! . Insert this into (3.5), we find that space-time
near the horizon is described by Rindler coordinates

𝜌! 𝜌! (3.6)
𝑑𝑠 ! ≈ − 𝑑𝑡 !
+ 𝑑𝜌 !
+ 𝑟!
!
𝑑Ω !
→ − 𝑑𝑡 ! + 𝑑𝜌! + 𝑟! ! 𝑑Ω! .
4𝑟! ! 4𝑟! ! !

We set 𝑡 = −𝑖𝑡! according to the arguments above. Change the variable by setting
𝑡! = 2𝑟! 𝜓, we obtain

  11  
 𝑑𝑠 ! ≈ 𝑑𝜌! + 𝜌! 𝑑𝜓 ! + 𝑟! ! 𝑑Ω! . (3.7)

The first two terms describe a plane with polar radius 𝜌 and polar angle 𝜓. Since 𝜓 is an
angular variable, we see that the, imaginary time, 𝑡! = 2𝑟! 𝜓 has a recurrence period of
2𝑟! 2𝜋 = 4𝜋𝑟! . Thus, according to the preceding discussion, the electromagnetic field
propagating near the horizon of the Schwarzschild black hole thinks that it is living in a
heat bath with temperature

1 1 ℏ𝑐 ! ℏ𝜅 (3.8)
𝑇! = = = =  .
4𝜋𝑟! 8𝜋𝐺𝑀𝑘! 8𝜋𝐺𝑀𝑘! 2𝜋𝑘! 𝑐

Where again 𝜅 is the surface gravity. This is the Hawking temperature of the black hole.
It is consist with the third relation in (2.9)! The Hawking temperature of a black hole is
estimated to be

𝑀⊙ (3.9)
𝑇! ~1.6 ∙ 10!!  𝐾.
𝑀

3.3 The Unruh effect

The Unruh effect is the prediction that an accelerating observer will observe a non-zero
temperature, or black body radiation, where an inertial observer would observe none. The
background appears to be warm from an accelerating reference frame. This temperature
is called Unruh temperature, derived by William Unruh in 1976, and is given by [10]

ℏ𝑎 (3.10)
𝑇=
2𝜋𝑘! 𝑐

Where 𝑎 is the local acceleration of the observer. You can see that this equation is exactly
similar to the equation (3.8), which is derived by Hawking around the same time, just
change 𝑎 with 𝜅, which is the gravitational acceleration experienced at the black hole
surface! A stationary observer at 𝑟! has to be continuously accelerated with 𝜅. Unruh
effect is so weak; a proper acceleration of 10!" 𝑚𝑠 !! corresponds approximately to a
temperature of 4K!

  12  
3.4 Evaporation of black holes
It’s clear that, from equation (3.8), there is an inverse proportionality between the
Hawking temperature and the mass of the black hole. As Hawking radiation escapes to
infinity, it will carry positive energy from the black hole, and the negative energy enter
the event horizon, therefore the mass of the black hole must shrink. We know there is a
direct proportionality between the event horizon area and the square of the Schwarzschild
radius; 𝐴  𝛼  𝑟! ! , and Schwarzschild radius proportional with the mass of the black hole,
therefore, the event horizon area will shrink also during Hawking radiation.

As the mass of the black hole decreases, its rate of energy emission will accelerate. So,
smaller black hole will be hotter than black hole! For massive black hole; the absorbs of
matters, gases, CMB, is much more than it radiates itself. For primordial black holes,
which formed by the extreme conditions at the early universe, they must loss their
masses, or the most fractions of their masses by high rate of energy emission. Hawking
radiation is accelerated process, as the black hole loses mass and increases its
temperature, and then it evaporates completely. The final result could be seen as
explosion.

The approximation lifetime of an isolated black hole is estimated to be [4]

𝑀 (3.11)
𝜏!" ~ ×  10!"  𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑀⊙

where 𝑀⊙ is the solar mass. A solar-mass black hole has a lifetime of order 10!" times
the age of the universe, while the lifetime of primordial black holes would be in the range
of the age of the universe. But primordial black hole must already evaporated completely
or at a great fraction. Up to this moment, there are no convincing experimental results
around Hawking radiation.

3.5 Bekenstein bound

In physics, the Bekenstein bound is an upper limit on the entropy S, or information I,

that can be contained within a given finite region of space which has a finite amount of
energy or conversely, the maximum amount of information required to perfectly describe
a given physical system down to the quantum level. It implies that the information of a
physical system, or the information necessary to perfectly describe that system, must be
finite if the region of space and the energy is finite.

The universal form of the bound was originally found by Jacob Bekenstein as the [16]

  13  
 2𝜋𝑘! 𝑅𝐸 (3.12)
𝑆≤
ℏ𝑐

where 𝑅 is the radius of the infalling object to the black hole. In informational terms, the
bound is given by

2𝜋𝑅𝐸 (3.14)
𝐼≤
ℏ𝑐  𝑙𝑛2

where I is the information expressed in number of bits contained in the quantum states in
the sphere. The 𝑙𝑛2 factor comes from defining the information as the logarithm to the
base 2 of the number of quantum states [11].

4. What’s next?
4.1 Information loss paradox
Suppose we fall an encyclopedia into black hole. According to Hawking argument the
black hole must evaporate completely after finite time. The question is; what happened to
the encyclopedia, or more precisely, what happened to the information encoded in the
encyclopedia? In quantum mechanics language, the encyclopedia is given by a pure state
evolves with time. Remember that Hawking radiation doesn’t contain any information
about black hole state. It’s not exactly like a black body radiation. Therefore, once the
black hole evaporated, we can’t see what happened with our encyclopedia! We just have
now Hawking radiation, no black hole. It seems that the information erased! And this
contradicts with what’s known as “unitarily”, which an essential postulate in Quantum
mechanics, and indicates that the information must conserve. Hawking radiation violates
this principle, and therefore it also violates the energy conservation! This problem called
Information loss paradox.

4.2 Black hole complementary

Black hole complementarity is a conjectured solution to the black hole information
paradox, proposed by Leonard Susskind and Gerard 't Hooft [15].

Leonard Susskind proposed a radical resolution to this problem by claiming that the
information is both reflected at the event horizon and passes through the event horizon
and cannot escape, with the catch being no observer can confirm both stories

  14  
simultaneously. The observer outside the black hole sees the accumulated information at
the horizons, reradiates as Hawking radiation. An observer inside the black hole would
see the information stored inside the event horizon. This isn't to say there are two copies
of the information lying about one at or just outside the horizon, and the other inside the
black hole, Instead, an observer can only detect the information at the horizon itself, or
inside, but never both simultaneously. Since the two observers can’t communicate, the
hypothesis of information being both inside and outside the black hole does not violate
quantum theory. Complementarity is a feature of the quantum mechanics of
noncommuting observables, and Susskind proposed that both stories are complementary
in the quantum sense.

But this solution came with very bizarre assumption; the holographic principle. This
principle states that the description of a volume of space can be thought of as encoded on
a boundary to the region, preferably a light-like boundary like a gravitational horizon.
Thus, every information unite crossing the event horizon will be encoded onto the event
horizon, similar to a two dimensional hologram, containing three dimensional image
information!

4.3 The firewall

With all those troubles and paradoxes around the black hole, Ahmed Almheiri, Donald
Marolf, Joseph Polchinski, and James Sully [22] added one more trouble; A black hole
firewall, which is a hypothetical phenomenon where an observer that falls into an old
black hole encounters high-energy quanta at (or near) the event horizon. Assume that at
time t, more than half of the information had already been emitted. According to widely
accepted research by physicists like Don Page and Leonard Susskind, an outgoing
particle emitted at time t must be entangled with all the Hawking radiation the black hole
has previously emitted. This creates a paradox: a principle called "monogamy of
entanglement" requires that, like any quantum system, the outgoing particle cannot be
fully entangled with two independent systems at the same time; yet here the outgoing
particle appears to be entangled with both the infalling particle and, independently, with
past Hawking radiation.

Some scientists suggest that the entanglement must somehow get immediately broken
between the infalling particle and the outgoing particle. Breaking this entanglement
would release inconceivable amounts of energy, thus creating a searing "black hole
firewall" at the black hole event horizon [22]. This resolution requires a violation of
Einstein's equivalence principle, which states that free falling is indistinguishable from
floating in empty space. Or in other words; a black hole horizon is not a thing, it’s a
place.

4.4 There is no Black hole at all!

In order to solve the firewall paradox, in 2014, Hawking suggested there is no really

  15  
singularity in the event horizon; there is only “apparent horizon” where infalling matter is
suspended and then released [23]! This violates his theory around the singularity in
general relativity!!

Also, in 2014, Laura Mersini claimed to demonstrate mathematically that, given

certain assumptions about black hole firewalls, current theories of black hole formation
are flawed. She claimed that Hawking radiation causes the star to shed mass at a rate such
that it no longer has the density sufficient to create a black hole! [24].

6. Outlook  

We have to keep in mind that all the analysis we did here around the black hole is has
only been in the context of a hybrid theory of quantum mechanics and quantum field
theory coupled to general relativity, not a realistic theory of quantum gravity. This
reminds us when Niles Bohr published his famous theory of atom in 1913. It was a
hybrid model of classical mechanics coupled to the new ideas about quantum mechanics
at that time. Then, after quantum mechanics completed in 1920s, it showed that the Bohr
model is just an approximation for something more deeply. Many physicists believe the
situation with black hole now is the same. Maybe, some elegant quantum gravity theory
is waiting some one to discover it, and then all this troubles would solve naturally. The
topic of the black hole entropy ties together notions from gravitation, thermodynamics
and quantum theory. Thus, black hole entropy at least opened the door to the quantum
gravity.

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