Life Span Development 16th Edition Santrock Solutions Manual Download

Chapter 6: Socioemotional Development in Infancy
Solution Manual for Life Span Development 16th

Edition Santrock 1259550907 9781259550904
Download full solution manual at:
https://testbankpack.com/p/solution-manual-for-life-span-development-16th-
edition-santrock-1259550907-9781259550904/
Download full test bank at:

https://testbankpack.com/p/test-bank-for-life-span-development-16th-edition-
santrock-1259550907-9781259550904/
Learning Goals
Learning Goal 1: Discuss the development of emotions and personality in infancy.
Learning Goal 2: Describe social orientation/understanding and the development of attachment in
infancy.
Learning Goal 3: Explain how social contexts influence the infant’s development.
Overview of Resources
Chapter Outline Resources You Can Use
Emotional and Personality Development Learning Goal 1: Discuss the development of
emotions and personality in infancy.
Emotional Development Lecture Suggestion 1: Biological Basis of Shyness

and Sociability
Temperament Lecture Suggestion 2: How Do Toddlers Regulate
Their Emotions?
Personality Development Classroom Activity 1: Erikson’s Psychosocial
Theory and Parenting
Classroom Activity 2: Baby in a Box
Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking Multiple-
Choice Questions and Suggested Answers
Classroom Activity 6: Critical-Thinking Essay
Questions and Suggestions for Helping Students
Answer Essay Questions
Personal Application 1: Don’t Be Such a Cry Baby!
Personal Application 2: What Was I Like As a
Baby?
Research Project 1: Development of Self in Infants
Research Project 2: Infant Crying: A
Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 6 | 1
© 2017 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized
for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded,
distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
Communicative Act
Attachment Learning Goal 2: Describe social

orientation/understanding and the development of
attachment in infancy.
Social Orientation/Understanding Lecture Suggestion 3: The Influence of Caregiving

on Attachment Classification
Attachment and Its Development Lecture Suggestion 4: Infant Temperament,
Attachment, and Criminal Behavior
Individual Differences in Attachment Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking Multiple-
Caregiving Styles and Attachment Classroom Activity 6: Critical-Thinking Essay
Developmental Social Neuroscience and Answer Essay Questions
Attachment Research Project 3: Attachment Behaviors
Social Contexts Learning Goal 3: Explain how social contexts

influence the infant’s development.
The Family Lecture Suggestion 3: The Influence of Caregiving

on Attachment Classification
Child Care Lecture Suggestion 5: Father Love
Classroom Activity 3: Assessment of Child Care in
Your Community
Classroom Activity 4: What Are the Child Care
Laws in Your State?
Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking Multiple-
Personal Application 3: The Big Debate
Personal Application 4: Remember When…
Research Project 4: Assessing Child Care Quality:
Field Observations
Review Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking Multiple-

Resources
Lecture Suggestions
Lecture Suggestion 1: Biological Basis of Shyness and Sociability
The purpose of this lecture is to examine the biological basis of shyness and sociability. Kagan (1998)
found that about 20 percent of 4-month-olds are easily upset by novelty, whereas 40 percent thrive on
novelty and new experiences. Approximately 30 percent of children in these extreme groups maintained
their temperamental style as they grew older. That is, the ones who were easily upset as infants became
fearful, inhibited toddlers and preschoolers. The ones who thrived on novelty developed into outgoing,
uninhibited preschoolers.
Kagan proposes that these tempermental differences have a biological basis; specifically, the arousal of
the amygdala (inner brain structure that controls avoidance reactions) may be responsible for the
individual differences seen in temperament styles. In some children—especially the shy, inhibited ones—
minimal stimulation is necessary to excite the amygdala and its connections to the cerebral cortex. In
contrast, the same level of stimulation evokes minimal excitation in the highly social, uninhibited
children.
In addition, shy infants and preschoolers display greater right than left frontal brain activity. Sociable
children show the opposite pattern. The left cortical hemisphere is specialized to respond to positive
emotion, whereas the right hemisphere is associated with negative emotion (Calkins, Fox, & Marshall,
1996). Neural activity in the amygdala is transmitted to the frontal lobes and may influence temperament
styles. There are other physiological differences between shy and sociable children:
• The heart rates of shy children are consistently higher and speed up more in response to novel events
(Snidman & others, 1995).
• Cortisol, a stress hormone, tends to be higher in shy children (Gunnar & Nelson, 1994).
• Shy children show more pupil dilation and their blood pressure raises more during novel events
(Kagan, 1994).
Research suggests that these early biological differences may be related to the development of anxiety
and stress-related disorders later in life. For example, children whose parents have an anxiety disorder are
more likely to be shy and inhibited. Additionally, many shy children later develop anxiety disorders.
Sources:
Calkins, S. D., Fox, N. A., & Marshall, T. R. (1996). Behavioral and physiological antecedents of inhibited and
uninhibited behavior. Child Development, 67, 523–540.
Gunnar, M. R., & Nelson, C. A. (1994). Event-related potentials in year-old infants: Relations with emotionality and
cortisol. Child Development, 65, 80–94.
Kagan, J. (1994). Galen’s prophecy. New York: Basic Books.
Kagan, J. (1998). Biology and the child. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3, Social,
emotional, and personality development (5th ed.). pp. 177–236. New York: Wiley.
Snidman, N., Kagan, J., Riordan, L., & Shannon, D. C. (1995). Cardiac function and behavioral reactivity.
Psychophysiology, 32, 199–207.
http://holisticonline.com/Remedies/Anxiety/anx_panic-causes.htm
Lecture Suggestion 2: How Do Toddlers Regulate Their Emotions?

The purpose of this lecture is to examine research that describes how toddlers regulate their emotions.
Before you talk about the research findings, have students generate methods they have used or have seen
others use to calm a distressed toddler. Did some work better than others? Were all toddlers calmed by the
same techniques?
Grolnick, Bridges, and Connell (1996) studied four behaviors that toddlers typically use to regulate their
negative affective responses. The modulating behaviors they examined included symbolic reassurance
(repeating phrases such as “I’m a big girl” or “Mommy will be back later”), shifting attention (looking
away, high involvement in toy play), self-soothing comfort (thumb-sucking, hair-stroking, seeking
comfort contact from caregiver), and maintaining focus on the stressful situation (active searching for the
mother). Grolnick et al. assessed these behaviors both during separation from the mother and when faced
with a delay in receiving a desirable gift.
Individual differences were seen in that some toddlers were very upset by both of the situations, whereas
others were only mildly distressed. Active engagement with toys was a very effective method for coping
with the distressed toddler and was used the most when an adult was present. The children who used
active involvement in toy play as a regulatory event were the least distressed. The ones who maintained
focus on the stressful situation continued to be the most upset. It is important to note that the researchers
acknowledge that these findings do not elucidate the causal relations between coping strategy and
emotional expressiveness.
Source:
Grolnick, W. S., Bridges, L. J., & Connell, J. P. (1996). Emotion regulation in two-year-olds: Strategies and
emotional expression in four contexts. Child Development, 67, 928–941.
Lecture Suggestion 3: The Influence of Caregiving on Attachment Classification

infancy.
The purpose of this lecture is to examine influences on individual differences in attachment security.
Rosen and Burke (1999) assessed attachment relationships within the context of two-parent families with
two young children. With this approach, they could examine attachment relationships with the mother and
father and make comparisons between the younger and older children. Given the interactive nature of
families, it is important to examine relationships in this context. In this study, the mean age for the
younger child was 1 year, 10 months, and the Strange Situation was used to assess attachment security.
The older children had a mean age of 4 years, 8 months, and interpersonal interactions were used to assess
attachment quality. Parental caregiving scores for both children were obtained as well.
Concordance in both younger and older children’s attachments to their mothers and fathers was found.
Based on the caregiving scores, parents were consistent in their caregiving behavior toward their two
children. Yet, the patterns of attachment to their two children were not necessarily the same. It was
equally likely that there was congruence as well as incongruence. Caregiving and attachment were
associated for younger children and their mothers, but the association was only moderate for other dyad
combinations. Rosen and Burke hypothesize that characteristics of children and their parents differentially
influence attachment at different ages. They propose that younger children place a greater demand on
mothers for accommodation based on their individual behavioral styles. This difference may account for
the stronger relationship between caregiving and attachment for mothers and younger children. The
weaker association for the older children’s attachment and caregiving may be explained by the lessened
significance of caregiving in determining attachment status for children in early childhood.
Rosen and Burke conclude that temperament and children’s cognitive representations of attachment
interact with parental caregiving and parents’ cognitive representation of attachment to determine
attachment security. While parental caregiving does influence attachment security, it appears to account
for only a modest portion of the individual differences in attachment relationships.
Source:
Rosen, K. S., & Burke, P. B. (1999). Multiple attachment relationships within families: Mothers and fathers and two
young children. Developmental Psychology, 35, 436–444.
Lecture Suggestion 4: Infant Temperament, Attachment, and Criminal Behavior

infancy.
Attachment is not just an important part of infant and early childhood development. Our attachment
relationship with our primary caregivers impacts later childhood and adolescent development in several
domains.
Elaine Cassel and Douglas A. Bernstein study crime as a developmental event. They have written about
the connection between temperament and attachment and the development of criminal behavior (2006).
They cite the following as support for the role of temperament and attachment in the development of later
criminal behavior:
• Infants whose temperaments facilitate the development of secure attachment tend to become children
who are socially and emotionally competent, cooperative, enthusiastic, good at problem-solving,
compliant and controlled, popular and playful.
• On the other hand, infants whose temperaments engender fussiness, overactivity, and a tendency not
to respond to parents’ attempts to comfort them are more likely to become children who conflict
with, and are rejected by, their peers, thus leading to low self-esteem, truancy, and eventually
delinquency.
• Inherited temperamental patterns that are associated with insecure attachment, and which are not
altered by counteracting parental influences, appear to at least increase the probability of child
behaviors that set off the chain of negative reactions and further misbehavior that often leads to
aggressiveness, violence, and crime.
• Connectedness to parents (defined as feelings of warmth, love, and caring from parents) is a
significant factor in protecting adolescents from engaging in substance use and violence, according
to conclusions based on surveys and interviews with 100,000 7th to 12th graders.
The good news is that parents can be taught how to respond to their infants in order to make secure
attachment more likely. Programs which provide such mentoring for mothers living in disadvantaged
environments have been effective in preventing crime among potentially high-risk children.
Sources:
Cassel, E., & Bernstein, D.A. (2006). Criminal behavior (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NY: Erlbaum.
Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (1988). Parents’ effects on children’s development: A decade of progress? Journal of Applied
Developmental Psychology, 9, 41-84.
Elicker, J., & Sroufe, L. A. (1993). Predicting peer competence and peer relationships in childhood from early
parent-child relationships. In R. Parke & G. Ladd (Eds.). Family-peer relationships: Modes of linkage.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J. (1997). Protecting adolescents
from harm: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. Journal of the American
Medical Association, 278, 10, 823-832.
Rubin, K. H., LeMare, L. J., & Lollis, S. (1990). Social withdrawal in children: Developmental pathways to peer
rejection. In S. R. Asher & J. D. Coie (Eds.), Peer rejection in childhood (pp. 217-252).
Rutter, M. (1997). Nature-nurture integration: The example of antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 52(4),
390-398.
Trembley, R., & Craig, W. (1995). Developmental crime prevention. In M. Tonry & D. P. Farrington (Eds.),
Building a safer society: Crime and Justice (Vol. 19). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wartner, U., Grossman, K., Fremmer-Bombik, E., & Seuss, G. (1994). Attachment patterns at age six in South
Germany: Predictability from infancy and implications for preschool behaviour. Child Development, 65,
1014-1027.
Yoshikawa, H. (1994). Prevention as cumulative protection: Effects of early family support and education on
chronic delinquency and its risks. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 28-54.
Lecture Suggestion 5: Father Love

The purpose of this lecture is to examine the role of fathers in children’s development. The research
reviewed illustrates that fathers’ love is influential in children’s psychological well being and health and
in an array of psychological and behavioral problems. Historically, the cultural construction of fatherhood
had two main emphases. The first emphasis was that fathers were incapable of competent child rearing
(they were biologically unsuited for the job). The second emphasis was that fathers’ influence was not
important, or peripheral at best. These cultural views influenced the scientific community as well.
Researchers virtually ignored the role of fathers in children’s development in behavioral science research
for the first seven decades of the 20th century. More recently, researchers have attempted to better
understand the influence of fathers’ love on children’s development. Rohner (1998) defines fathers’ love
in terms of parental acceptance and rejection. Acceptance involves real and perceived feelings and
behaviors of nurturance, affection, support, etc. Rejection involves the absence or withdrawal of these real
and perceived feelings and behaviors. Rohner reviewed research that highlights the relationship between
fathers’ love and offspring development.
Variations in the Influence of Fathers’ Love

Gender role development research has found that the masculinity of fathers per se did not influence the
masculinity of their sons. Lamb (1997) found that cultural sex-role standards were more influential
than the masculinity of the fathers when the father–son relationships were warm. The higher the
quality of the father–child relationship, not just the amount of time a father spent with his child, the
more cognitively and socially competent, less gender-stereotypic, more empathic, and more
psychologically healthy the children were (Lamb, 1997; Veneziano & Rohner, 1998).
Fathers’ Love Is as Important as Mothers’ Love

Young et al. (1995) found that perceived paternal love and caring was predictive of children’s life
satisfaction in a national sample of 640 children, 12 to 16 years old, who lived in two-parent families.
Fathers’ Love Predicts Specific Outcomes Better than Mothers’ Love

Fathers may be particularly influential in the development of some psychopathology (depression,
conduct disorders, aggression) and substance abuse (drug and alcohol use and abuse) (Rohner, 1998).
Amato (1994), in a national sample, found that perceived closeness of fathers contributed (above and
beyond the perceived closeness of mothers) to adult children’s happiness, life satisfaction, and
psychological well being.
Fathers’ Love Is the Sole Predictor of Specific Outcomes

Father–child conflict, but not mother–child conflict, was positively associated with adolescent
depression (Cole & McPherson, 1993).
Fathers’ Love Moderates the Influence of Mothers’ Love

Forehand and Nousianen (1993) found that when mothers were high in acceptance, the acceptance of
fathers made an enormous difference. Low father acceptance scores were associated with children
with poorer cognitive competence. High father acceptance scores were associated with children with
significantly better cognitive competence.
Differential Outcomes for Sons and Daughters Based on Paternal Versus Maternal Parenting
Daughters’ self-esteem was best predicted by mothers’ general support and fathers’ physical affection,
whereas sons’ self-esteem was best predicted by mothers’ companionship and fathers’ sustained
contact (Barber & Thomas, 1986).
Paternal nurturance was positively correlated with boys’ IQ scores, but not girls’ (Jordan, Radin, &
Epstein, 1975).
Father’s Love Is One of the Greatest Influences on Personality Development

Ronald Rohner, co-author of the study in Personality and Social Psychology Review (Khaleque &
Rohner, 2011), says “fatherly love is critical to a person’s development. The importance of a father’s
love should help motivate many men to become more involved in nurturing child care. Additionally,
he says, widespread recognition of the influence of fathers on their children’s personality development
should help reduce the incidence of ‘mother blaming’ common in schools and clinical setting.”
Sources:
Amato, P. R. (1994). Father-child relations, mother-child relations and offspring psychological well being in
adulthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 1031–1042.
Barber, B., & Thomas, D. (1986). Dimensions of fathers’ and mothers’ supportive behavior: A case for physical
affection. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 783–794.
Cole, D., & McPherson, A. E. (1993). Relation of family subsystems to adolescent depression: Implementing a new
family assessment strategy. Journal of Family Psychology, 7, 119–133.
Forehand, R., & Nousianen, S. (1993). Maternal and paternal parenting: Critical dimensions in adolescent
functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 7, 213–221.
Jordan, B., Radin, N., & Epstein, A. (1975). Paternal behavior and intellectual functioning in preschool boys and
girls. Developmental Psychology, 11, 407–408.
Khaleque, A., & Rohner, R. P. (2011). Transnational relations between perceived parental acceptance and
personality dispositions of children and adults: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology
Review, 16(2), 103.
Lamb, M. E. (1997). Fathers and children development: An introductory overview and guide. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.),
The role of the father in children development (pp. 1–18). New York: Wiley.
Rohner, R. P. (1998). Father love and child development: History and current evidence. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 7, 157–161.
Veneziano, R. A., & Rohner, R. P. (1998). Perceived paternal warmth, paternal involvement, and youths’
psychological adjustment in a rural, biracial southern community. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60,
335–343.
Young, M. H., Miller, B. E., Norton, M. C., & Hill, J. E. (1995). The effect of parental supportive behaviors on life
satisfaction of adolescent offspring. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 813–822.
Science Daily, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/06/120612101338.htm (2012)
Classroom Activities
Classroom Activity 1: Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory and Parenting
Students should explore the relationship between Erikson’s psychosocial theory and parenting skills.
Erikson thought a child’s sense of trust was the cornerstone of all future personality development. Thus,
the interactions between caregivers and the infant are extremely important.
• Which aspects of parenting lead to this sense of trust?

• What roles do physical comfort, consistency, lack of fearful situations, and feeding play?
• What is the role of parental attentiveness?
• Should the caregiver respond immediately to the infant’s cries?
• Do you think that trust is developed more easily by later-born children, because their parents are
more confident?
• What aspects of being the firstborn counterbalance the advantages of having experienced parents?
Logistics:
• Group size: Full-class discussion.
• Approximate time: Full-class discussion (20 minutes).
Source:
Maier, H. (1969). Three theories of child development. New York: Harper & Row.
Classroom Activity 2: Baby in a Box

This activity introduces students to Skinner’s “Baby in a Box.” B. F. Skinner built a “baby box,” an
incubator-like apparatus in which he raised his second daughter, Deborah. Henry Hope, head of Indiana
University’s fine arts department, also used the invention to raise his twin boys, Roy and Ray. The box
had a constant temperature of 88 °F and humidity of 50 percent. There was a canvas mattress at the
bottom stretched over air filters that regulated the temperature and humidity. The baby box had a picture
window and sound-absorbing walls. One of the main issues for Skinner was that the baby box facilitated
mothers’ care of babies; the added convenience reduced the time to care for a baby to approximately one
hour per day. In order for students to better understand Skinner’s position, either have the students read
excerpts from Skinner’s original work, or you can read selected excerpts in class (Skinner, 1972).
None of these three children seemed to have any developmental problems or advantages from this
unusual “air crib,” but attempts to manufacture and sell these cribs were not successful. For a while,
rumors existed that Skinner’s daughter Deborah had committed suicide, but, in reality, she became a
successful artist (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRNf1RseGXQ).
Given students’ interest in this topic and the controversy it generates, small groups work well for this
activity. After describing Skinner’s use of the “baby box,” have students answer these questions:
• What would be the advantages and disadvantages of this “baby box”?

• Would you raise a baby using this? Why or why not?
• Based on the baby box, what modifications might you propose for other baby apparatuses—high
chairs, playpens, etc.?
• Do you think it is ethical to raise a child in a baby box?
Logistics:
• Group size: Small groups.
• Approximate time: Small groups (20 minutes).
Sources:
Gerow, J. (1988). Time retrospective: Psychology 1923–1988. p. 45.
Skinner, B. F. (1972). Baby in a box. Cumulative record: A selection of papers (3rd ed.). New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts.
Skinner, B. F. (1979, March). My experience with the baby tender. Psychology Today.
Classroom Activity 3: Assessment of Child Care in Your Community

Most students accept that child care is a fact of life for many children in the United States. Even if some
of the students do not envision themselves either as parents or as a parent who would use child care, have
them explore the issues involved in choosing a child care setting. The purpose of this activity is for
students to assess the quality of infant child care in their community.
First, have students explore the options for infant child care available in your community. Students often
neglect to explore the university community when it comes to child care issues. Most institutions have
either a day care setting on campus or a voucher system for local facilities, and, at the very least, they
have a list of available child care facilities in the community.
Second, for each potential option, the students should assess the cost and services available. Students can
refer to the description of characteristics of high-quality child care provided in the section on child care in
Chapter 6 of the textbook.
Third, they should decide which child care facility would be their first and second choice. With that in
mind, they should determine if that facility would be feasible given the expense.
Use in the Classroom: Have students report their findings. Is there any consensus as to the “best” child
care available? Were there different choices depending on the age and gender of the child? Did your
students use criteria other than the characteristics listed in the textbook to make their decisions?
Logistics:
• Group size: Individual homework and full-class discussion.
• Approximate time: Individual homework (60 minutes) and full-class discussion (30 minutes).
Classroom Activity 4: What Are the Child Care Laws in Your State?
The purpose of this activity is for students to research the child care laws in their state and compare them
to those in other states. There is enormous variability in the state laws that regulate child care, and
consequently, the quality of care also varies tremendously by state. You will want to provide a list of
websites to help your students get started, or you can have them search the Internet on their own. Internet
research is a valuable skill that your students should learn.
Have students research information about the child care standards in various states. You can assign each
student one or two states depending on the size of your class. You can also divide the assignment by age
(e.g., ratios of children to caregivers vary by age of the child). They should obtain information on the
following issues: curriculum requirements, space and equipment, child care staff training, child to
caregiver ratios and maximum group size, criminal records, health and safety requirements, discipline,
and parental rights.
Use in the Classroom: Have students report their findings. Which states have the most stringent
requirements? Which have the least? Discuss whether these requirements influence quality of care and
cost of care.
Logistics:
• Group size: Individual homework and full-class discussion.
• Approximate time: Individual homework (45 minutes) and full-class discussion (30 minutes).
Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions and Suggested Answers

infancy.
Discuss the answers to the critical-thinking multiple-choice questions on Handout 1. The answers are
provided in Handout 2. Questions 1 and 2 are different from the previous critical-thinking exercises.
Question 1 requires a more specific evaluation of the evidence presented in the textbook. In addition to
deciding whether there is any evidence to support the claim, the students are asked to evaluate whether
the evidence is appropriate. In order to prepare them to do this, you will probably want to review rules for
interpreting the adequacy of scientific evidence. Students will need to remember, for example, what
inferences are permissible from correlational and experimental research. In this discussion, you may also
want to explore how the type of questions being asked is related to the type of research that is needed.
Descriptive questions need observational research; questions about patterns or associations are answered
with correlational research; questions about cause and effect need experimental research.
Question 2 represents the first time since Chapter 2 that students are asked to apply theoretical
perspectives. You may want to discuss with them how well they remember these perspectives, and either
provide a review or have them review the theories. In any case, either give students a list of the key
features of each perspective, or have them develop such a list as an in-class activity.
Question 3 is a straightforward continuation of the inference, assumption, and observation problems.
Logistics:
• Materials: Handout 1 (Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions) and Handout 2 (Answers).
• Group size: Small groups to discuss the questions, then a full-class discussion.
• Approximate time: Small groups (15 to 20 minutes), then 15 minutes for full-class discussion.
Classroom Activity 6: Critical-Thinking Essay Questions and Suggestions for Helping Students
Answer the Essays
infancy.
Discuss the students’ answers to the critical-thinking essay questions provided in Handout 3. Several
objectives can be met with these questions. First, answering these questions further facilitates students’
understanding of concepts in Chapter 6. Second, this type of essay question affords students an
opportunity to apply the concepts to their own lives which will facilitate their retention of the material.
Third, the essay format also will give students practice expressing themselves in written form. Ideas to
help students answer the critical-thinking essay questions are provided as Handout 4.
This activity can be modified based on how much time you have. Students could be asked to answer a
subset of the questions, or questions could be divided up among the class. Additionally, you could add a
small group component to the activity and have students answer the questions individually and then in
groups before returning to the full-class discussion.
Logistics:
• Materials: Handout 3 (Essay Questions) and Handout 4 (Ideas to Help Answer).
• Group size: Individual, then full-class.
• Approximate time: Varied.
Personal Applications
Personal Application 1: Don’t Be Such a Cry Baby!
The purpose of this exercise is to get students to assess their perceptions of a common infant emotional
state: crying. Crying is the most important mechanism newborns have for communicating. We also know
that babies have a minimum of three different cries—all indicating a different need (although many
mothers would say there are even more). Developmental psychologists differ in their beliefs as to the
importance of responding to infants’ cries, and the implications it has for subsequent crying.
Instructions for Students: Think about when you encounter crying babies in a public place. When was the
last time you were in a restaurant and had your dinner interrupted by the loud cries of an infant? How
about standing in line at the grocery store? The movie theater? How did you feel upon hearing the crying?
Be honest! What are most people’s reactions to a crying infant? Discuss this with regard to what you have
learned about the significant role crying plays in development.
Use in the Classroom: Discuss this issue in class, and focus on people’s general tolerance for crying
babies. If you have any parents in the class, have them discuss their views since having a child of their
own. Have parents talk about the different types of cries their babies have, and what each type of cry
communicates. End by addressing the issue of parents bringing children to various public places—
theaters, restaurants, and so on, knowing that crying is inevitable. Debate the appropriateness of such
behavior.
Personal Application 2: What Was I Like As a Baby?

The purpose of this activity is to have students reflect on and explore their own temperament. As adults,
we may have a certain idea of how we behaved as children. It can be interesting to see if our assessment
coincides with that of our parent/caregiver. Getting a first-hand account from their parent/caregiver
allows the student to consider how much of their temperament they were “born with” (“You were like
that since the day we brought you home.”) and how much was influenced by the style of parenting by the
parent/caregiver (e.g., nature versus nurture).
Instructions for Students: Have students discuss their childhood with their own parent or caregiver. This
discussion should emphasize the main tempermental traits (https://childdevelopmentinfo.com/child-
development/temperament_and_your_child/temp3/) and the type of care the student received. The
students might ask about specific examples that the parent/caregiver remembers. Encourage the students
to allow their parent/caregiver to talk freely and without interruption.
Use in the Classroom: In small groups or pairs, ask students to share their experiences interviewing their
parent/caregiver. Have students discuss how much of their temperament they think is innate and what
was influenced by the parenting style they experienced.
Personal Application 3: The Big Debate

The purpose of this exercise is to have students explore their own personal reaction to putting children in
child care. There are more children in child care today than ever before in history. Our society has come
to accept, and in some ways expect, women working outside the home. This has not resulted in a dramatic
drop in birth rate; rather, the shift has been with regard to who takes care of the children. The findings of
the effects of child care are mixed, with numerous variables influencing the results. Emotions run high on
this topic, as there is a lot at stake for everyone involved.
Instructions for Students: Write about your feelings regarding placing children in child care. Were you
placed in child care? What was it like? How did you feel about it? How do you feel about your parents’
decision to place you there? Have you done the same with your children? Why? What are the benefits?
Do you have any concerns about doing so? How are the children responding? What is the most difficult
part? Are there any other alternatives? If you do not have children, do you think you will rely on child
care in order for you to be able to work? Why or why not? What information presented in the text makes
you feel comfortable with the idea of placing children in child care? What information concerns you
about it? What do you think will be the overall effect on society of new generations of children growing
up in child care environments? If you find them problematic, what might the solution be to accommodate
both the children’s needs and the parents’ needs?
Use in the Classroom: This makes an excellent topic for class discussion. Get input from students who
experienced child care themselves, and input from parents whose children currently attend. Share stories,
concerns, ideas, alternatives, and reactions to the research findings in this area.
Personal Application 4: Remember When…

The purpose of this exercise is to get students to reflect on their childhood experiences and the
accompanying emotions. Society is far removed from the traditional family life of the 1950s in which the
father went away to work, the mother stayed home and cared for the children, and most families were
intact units that spent dinnertime and vacations together. As the diversity of our lifestyles grows, children
are experiencing any number of different encounters in the formative years of development. They do not
participate in the decision-making process, and they are not asked how they feel about their
circumstances. Yet, children are affected by their early experiences, and often we believe the impact lasts
well into our adult years.
Instructions for Students: Write a short autobiographical description of your childhood. Talk about your
family life, relationships with your parents and siblings, and who took care of you—the roles of each of
your parents in this regard, and anyone else who might have contributed. Do you recall how you felt
about your situation growing up? Did you feel loved and nurtured or neglected and abandoned? Did you
have a lot of family time, and did you enjoy it? If you had a broken home, did you feel the burden of
additional responsibility? Did you feel more independent? How do you feel your childhood experiences
still influence who you are today?
Use in the Classroom: An abbreviated option for this exercise is to have a class discussion in which
students share small tidbits about their childhood, and the emotions they recall from certain experiences.
Compare and contrast students who had similar backgrounds—did they respond the same way to them, or
were their reactions quite different? Also, see if there are students who experienced very different
circumstances early on, yet had very similar emotional reactions to them.
Research Project Ideas

Research Project 1: Development of Self in Infants
This project examines the development of the self in infants. Prior to the start of the research, the project
must be approved by the human subjects review board at your school, and the students must get a signed
informed consent form from the infants’ parents. Students will test an 8-month-old infant and an 18-
month-old infant with a mirror recognition task. Each infant will be assessed with two tasks: one will test
for mirror recognition of the self, and the other task will assess the infant’s mirror recognition of an object
near the infant. The students will then answer the questions about their observations. The task
descriptions, worksheet, and questions are provided in Handout 5.
Use in the Classroom: Have students present the data from the research project. Divide the data by age
and sex of the subjects, and evaluate the data for age and sex differences. Do the infants solve both tasks
at the same age? If so, at what age? If not, which task is solved first? What would account for the age
differences in behavior? What is developing? What cognitive, social, and biological factors might account
for the developmental change?
You can expect that the younger child will probably be oriented to the mirror for both tasks. That is, he or
she will attend to the spot on the nose of the reflection and the reflection of the toy behind. Both the rouge
spot on the nose and the real toy are likely to be ignored or discovered accidentally. The older child is
likely to be oriented to the self for the rouge and to the toy behind him or her. He or she is likely to touch
the spot on his or her nose and turn around to look at the real toy. Sex differences are unlikely to emerge.
Maturation of the nervous system and visual system, the appearance of mental representation and
symbolic abilities, and experience with mirrors might all be factors in this development.
As many students may have difficulty accessing infants, an alternative study looking at rouge dot tasks is
advisable. You can have students focus on infant self-recognition or animal or comparative research.
Articles such as the following can be used:
Gallup, G.G. (1970). Chimpanzees: Self Recognition. Science, New Series, 167(3914), 86-87.
Anderson, James R. and Gordon G. Gallup, Jr. (2011) “Which Primates Recognize Themselves in
Mirrors?” In: PLoS Biol 9(3): e1001024.
Reiss, D. & Marino, L. (2001). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America, 98 (10), 5937-5942. (10.1073/pnas.101086398)
Or have students perform their own research on self-recognition tasks in either animals or humans. Then
have them either write a summary of the research and how it relates to what is in their text or have them
answer specific questions like:
1. What was the age of subjects used?
2. What method was employed to test self-recognition?
3. What were the major findings of the study (please be specific about age results)?
4. What could this mean in terms of innateness of self-recognition?
5. What if a child was feral like Genie or Viktor; would self-recognition come online?
This offers an alternative for students without access to infants.
Research Project 2: Infant Crying: A Communicative Act

From Jarvis and Creasey, “Activities for Lifespan Developmental Psychology Courses.”
One of the challenges of parenting a young infant is dealing with infant crying. New parents have perhaps
more difficulty than “veterans,” but this variable causes most parents of healthy babies more sleep loss
and consternation than most other variables. This activity involves students seeking information on
strategies to cope with infant crying and developing a brochure for parents on this topic.
The Activity:
Students will interview at least two pediatricians or child development “experts” about crying in healthy
infants (age 0-2 years). They will prepare a brochure with strategies to help parents cope with this issue,
integrating course material on this topic with advice from experts as much as possible.
Materials:
Students will need to locate two pediatricians or child development specialists to interview. Most such
professionals will agree to a brief meeting (15 minutes should be long enough) with a student if they
understand that the student is conducting a course activity. Instructors may help students locate
professionals who are willing to be interviewed, if necessary, but students should try to do this on their
own first. Instructors may discuss with students how to approach professionals for “free” interviews of
this type. Students should prepare some basic questions about infant crying, and parents’ reactions to it,
prior to conducting interviews and in concert with the instructor. It is important to determine what the
professional recommends and to understand the basis for the recommendation.
Procedures:
1. Course material on infant physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development should be covered
and reviewed by students prior to and while conducting this activity. All three aspects of
development influence infant crying. Information on infant temperament should also be reviewed
and considered in conducting this activity. Any specific material on infant crying as a
communicative act should also be reviewed. Interview data will be compared to course material on
this topic.
2. Students may conduct this activity individually or in groups of two (no more than two though).
3. Next, students will need to contact pediatricians and qualified child development professionals to
interview. They may use the Internet or alternative methods as directed by the instructor.
4. Students will need to introduce themselves briefly and indicate that they are seeking a 15-minute
interview to ask questions about infant crying and coping strategies for parents for a course activity
in their college-level life-span development class. Interviews may be conducted via phone or Internet
if more convenient for professionals, and students should be very flexible in accommodating
professionals in terms of scheduling an interview appointment. Students should be instructed to be
on time for interviews and be prepared to wait if necessary. Students should have a guiding list of
about five questions for the interview and be prepared to take notes on what the interviewee says.
Students should conclude interviews by thanking professionals for their time, and they should send
the professional a “thank you” letter after the interview. Instructors may guide students through this
courtesy.
5. Students will then create a brochure for parents on infant crying that contains information obtained
from their interviews and the course. Brochures should be attention-getting and prepared such that
they can be understood by parents of all educational levels. “Raw data” obtained from this activity
(the student’s questions and interview notes) should be submitted to the instructor along with the
brochure.
6. Instructors should encourage students to discuss their interview experiences and information
obtained with the class. What coping strategies would students recommend to parents of crying
infants based on this activity?
Note:
A variation of this activity is to talk with actual parents of infants about their coping strategies for dealing
with infant crying and compare that data with what the experts say are “best practices.”
Research Project 3: Attachment Behaviors

infancy.
The purpose of this project is for students to become more familiar with attachment behaviors while
practicing their naturalistic observational techniques. Students can either go to a local shopping mall or a
local park and observe a caregiver with an infant 12 to 18 months old. They should observe for a period
of 15 minutes. (Instructors will want to provide students with a letter on school letterhead explaining the
exercise and its purpose in case a student is questioned by mall security.) Using Handout 6, they should
describe the behaviors they see. Possible observed behaviors are protesting a separation when a mother
walks around the shopping cart to get something from the shelf, resistance or ambivalence when the
mother picks the child up after paying for the groceries, etc. After the students have collected their data,
have them answer the provided questions:
• What kinds of behaviors did your caregiver-infant pairs engage in? Did the infant use the caregiver
as the base for exploration? Was the infant allowed to explore?
• According to the categories “secure” and “insecure,” how did this pair seem? Were interactions
generally positive or generally negative? Did the relationship seem warm and affectionate or hostile?
Use in the Classroom: Aggregate the students’ data. How many of the infants were rated as securely
attached? What behaviors led to that classification? How many infants were rated as insecurely attached?
What behaviors led to that classification?
Research Project 4: Assessing Child Care Quality: Field Observations

From Jarvis and Creasey, “Activities for Lifespan Developmental Psychology Courses”
Much has been written about child care quality; yet child care centers vary widely in quality based on
resources and funding limitations. This activity requires students to visit at least three child care centers
caring for infants under the age of two, and assess aspects of quality based on course material. The
activity culminates in a written evaluation of the three centers and realistic recommendations for
improvements.
The Activity:
At least three centers will be visited and assessed on dimensions of quality for this activity. Students
should be encouraged to develop a checklist of dimensions of quality to assess in the child care centers
based on course material. Some key dimensions are included below as a guide as well. Information
obtained can be incorporated into a short written report (5 to 7 pages). The write-up should include
integration of course material.
Materials:
Instructors may need to help smooth the way for students to visit at least three institutionalized licensed
child care centers in the community. That is, the instructor might call ahead with students present and
speak with the director of the center and explain that students are conducting a class activity and would
like to visit the center for about half an hour. We suggest omitting in-home care, as this type of care varies
so widely, and care providers are less likely to let students visit. This activity may be conducted with
teams of students (we recommend teams of two). Caution should be exercised in not over-visiting any
particular site. Instructors will need to work with students using the procedures given below to prepare
them to be unobtrusive observers.
Students should visit the website for the National Academy of Early Childhood Programs at the National
Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, www.naeyc.org) to find indicators used to
assess quality care as this agency accredits early-childhood centers. We also suggest having students
assess the following dimensions at a minimum and include other dimensions as they wish:
1. Caregiver–child ratio – A 1:4 ratio is required for licensure in most states. Some centers have two
providers care for up to eight infants. Any more than that would not be considered good quality, and
a lower ratio would indicate better quality generally.
2. Staff turnover – Students might request a short meeting with each center director to ascertain some of
this information. Generally, if a center does not pay employee benefits, staff turnover is higher than
if benefits are paid. Lower turnover is an indicator of better quality.
3. Staff training in child care and child development and emergency procedures such as CPR, etc.
4. Adequacy of nutrition in the food and snacks provided at each center. How much flexibility is there
for children with special dietary needs or health needs generally? Some centers prohibit homemade
treats during parties and require only store-brought prepackaged goods for safety reasons.
5. What do the facilities look like generally? Do things appear to be clean and well organized for the
most part? What procedures are used to keep toys clean and sick children isolated from other
children?
6. What costs are involved in placing a child in care at particular facilities? Is there a waiting list for
care, and if so, how long is it?
Procedures:
1. Before students conduct this activity, it is advisable to cover information on child care quality and
availability in class. Students should read text material on this topic as well, before undertaking this
activity.
2. Instructors may need to help students obtain access to various facilities in the community to visit.
3. Instructors will need to discuss with students how to conduct field observations unobtrusively
without disturbing those individuals being observed. This discussion might be included as part of the
course material when research methods are discussed but should definitely be brought up again for
those students conducting this activity. Students will need to develop a list of variables to rate in each
center and some questions to ask the directors of each facility. Instructors should review this material
before visits take place. A discussion on field observations as a method of data collection is useful
here.
4. Students then conduct site visits and make assessments. There will not be enough time to take
detailed notes. So students should develop checklists and adopt a shorthand style of some sort to
keep track of observations. We have found that it is helpful to leave a center and immediately take
the time to fill in notes more completely. In any case, it is important to have notes completed from
one visit before conducting subsequent visits. The key to good field observations is preparedness.
Also, two sets of eyes and ears are usually better than one, so to conduct this activity in teams of two
students is a good idea.
5. Field notes should be incorporated into a 5- to 7-page evaluation report comparing the three centers
visited, along with integration of course material. Students should append raw field notes at the end
of their student reports. Instructors should encourage students to discuss their field observation
experiences with the class. There are a number of possible discussion themes; however,
discrepancies between student expectations and the realities of day care in America might be most
interesting. Students should include realistic recommendations for center improvements in their
evaluations. Directors of centers may request evaluations, but care should be exercised in this regard
as students are novice observers and their findings may not be conclusive. The focus of this activity
is on giving students experience with field observations and evaluating child care quality in terms of
course material, not on finding faults with various centers.
Resources Available in Connect
The following are a selection of the resources available in McGraw-Hill Education’s digital
learning platform, Connect.
Chapter Learning
Resource Name Resource Type
Number Objective
Milestones: Social Smile, Colin, 2-

6 Milestones LO 6.1
9wks
Milestones: Emotional Expression,

6 Milestones LO 6.1
Amalia, 2wks-3yrs
Milestones: Emotional Expression,

6 Milestones LO 6.1
Yovani, 8-36wks
Milestones: Temperament, Esme, 10-

6 Milestones LO 6.1
15mos
Milestones: Trust and Mistrust, Atlas,

6 Milestones LO 6.1
4mos-2yrs
6 Self Awareness Video LO 6.1
Milestones: Independence, Felana,

6 Milestones LO 6.1
13-15mos
Milestones: Autonomy and Self-Doubt,

6 Milestones LO 6.1
Felana, 18-39mos
Milestones: Goal-Oriented Behaviors,

6 Milestones LO 6.2
Yovani, 6-26mos
Milestones: Interactional Synchrony,

6 Milestones LO 6.2
Amalia, 3-40mos
Milestones: Attachment, Colin and

6 Milestones LO 6.2
Esme, 2wks-17mos
Milestones: Emotions and Attachment,

6 Milestones LO 6.2
Esme, 13-32mos
6 Attachment Theory Video LO 6.2
6 Attachment and Temperament Video LO 6.2
Milestones: Paternal Caregivers, 4-

6 Milestones LO 6.3
12mos
Preschool Environment with 4-Year-

6 Video LO 6.3
Olds
6 Quality Child care Indicators Video LO 6.3
Videos
Mirror Self-Recognition in the Bottlenose Dolphin: A Case of Cognitive Convergence
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
These short clips offer evidence of self-recognition in dolphins and can be embedded in your PowerPoints
or sent out to the class as a whole.
http://www.pnas.org/content/suppl/2001/05/02/101086398.DC1/0863MovieLegends.html
Self-recognition tasks of other animals can be found on YouTube:

Dolphins
Amazing Apes: Self-Awareness
Mirror Induced Behavior in the Magpie
Self-recognition in Apes
There are also clips of self-recognition in children.
Self-Recognition in Apes
National Geographic
A segment of one of their documentaries looks at self-recognition and comparative research.
http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/videos/self-recognition-in-apes/
Feature Films
In this section of the Instructor’s Manual, we suggest films that are widely available on sites like
Amazon.com, DocumentaryWIRE, Hulu, Netflix.com, PBS video, etc.
Clara’s Heart (1988)
Starring Whoopi Goldberg, Michael Ontkean, Kathleen Quinlan, Neil Patrick Harris, Spalding Gray
Directed by Robert Mulligan
Clara is a poor woman hired to be a housekeeper to a couple in a deteriorating marriage. She and their
son, David, develop a close bond, opening his eyes and heart to new experiences.
Secret of the Wild Child (1997)
A NOVA documentary examining the case of Genie, one of the most studied feral children, highlights
both social and cognitive developmental deficits that results from species atypical environments. This can
also lead to a discussion of attachment. It can be found for free on YouTube or at
http://documentarystorm.com/secret-of-the-wild-child/ and can be purchased from PBS.
Mother Love (1960)
A documentary of Harlow’s work on attachment in rhesus monkeys that looks at comfort versus food as a
mechanism for attachment behaviors. This can be found in segments on YouTube and may even be on
VHS in your university library.
Website Suggestions
At the time of publication, all sites were current and active; however, please be advised that you may
occasionally encounter a dead link.
Attachment Research at Stony Brook

http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/attachment/
Cultural Differences in the Mirror Self-Recognition Test

http://digest.bps.org.uk/2010/10/cross-cultural-reflections-on-mirror.html
Infant Studies Lab (Joseph Campos)

http://babycenter.berkeley.edu/
Institute for the Study of Child Development

http://rwjms.umdnj.edu/pediatric/divisions/ins_childdev/research/emotiona_dev.html
National Center for Children in Poverty

http://www.nccp.org/
National Child Care Information Center

http://www.icfi.com/insights/projects/families-and-communities/national-child-care-information-center
National Institute of Child Health & Human Development

http://www.nichd.nih.gov/
Parenthood
http://www.parenthood.com/
Handout 1 (CA 5)
Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions
1. In Chapter 6, Santrock describes many claims about social development during infancy. The quality
of the evidence that supports each claim is quite varied. Which of the following claims is LEAST
supported? Which evidence is LEAST convincing according to scientific criteria? Circle the letter of
the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why the other answers are not as good.
a. Caregivers of disorganized babies often neglect or physically abuse their babies.

b. Under stress, infants show stronger attachment to their mothers than their fathers.
c. Extensive day care during the first year of an infant’s life is associated with negative outcomes
later in life.
d. During the second year of life, an infant experiences conflict between autonomy versus shame
and doubt.
2. In previous chapters, there has been little opportunity to apply the various theories of development
that were outlined in Chapter 2. Chapter 6, however, presents research and theorizing motivated by
several of these theories. Santrock directly identifies some of these, but does not do so for all topics.
Listed below are topics from Chapter 6 paired with theoretical perspectives. Decide which of these
pairs is accurate. Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why
the other answers are not as good.
a. reciprocal socialization: psychoanalytic theory

b. attachment: cognitive theory
c. temperament: ethological theory
d. the father’s role: behavioral theory
e. day care: ecological theory
3. Attachment is a major topic in the study of infant social development. Which of the following
statements best represents an assumption by researchers rather than an inference or an observation?
Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why the other answers
are not as good.
a. An infant cries when separated from its mother because it is attached to its mother.
b. The most important relationship in an infant’s life involves attachment to a primary caretaker.
c. Stressed 12-month-old babies direct their behavior toward their mothers.
d. Providing an infant with a comfortable, safe environment creates an attachment bond between an
infant and caretaker.
e. Some babies do not look at their mothers or try to be near them in the Strange Situation.
Handout 2 (CA 5)
Answers for Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions
1. In Chapter 6, Santrock describes many claims about social development during infancy. The quality
of the evidence that supports each claim is quite varied. Which of the following claims is LEAST
supported? Which evidence is LEAST convincing according to scientific criteria? Circle the letter of
the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why the other answers are not as good.
a. The statement caregivers of disorganized babies often neglect or physically abuse their babies
requires at least correlational evidence for support. Main’s and Solomon’s research reported in the
text provides this.
b. Lamb’s study reported in the text is an experimental test of the hypothesis that under stress,
infants show stronger attachment to their mothers than their fathers. The research is claimed to
show that tired infants exposed to a Strange Situation sought their mothers instead of their fathers.
c. Extensive day care during the first year of an infant’s life is associated with negative outcomes
later in life is not the best answer. While the evidence is mixed, there is research that documents
the association between day care early in infants’ lives and later negative outcomes. The
contradictions in the research seem to be satisfactorily resolved by the claim that later outcomes
are a function of the quality of day care the infants attend.
d. This is the best answer, because no evidence is presented to support the claim that during the
second year of life, an infant experiences conflict between autonomy versus shame and doubt.
Rather, the informal observations of a clinical psychologist are described. No systematic research
of any type is cited.
2. In previous chapters, there has been little opportunity to apply the various theories of development
that were outlined in Chapter 2. Chapter 6, however, presents research and theorizing motivated by
several of these theories. Santrock directly identifies some of these but does not do so for all topics.
Listed below are topics from Chapter 6 paired with theoretical perspectives. Decide which of these
pairs is accurate. Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why
the other answers are not as good.
a. Reciprocal socialization: psychoanalytic theory is not an accurate pair. While psychoanalytic

theory does stress the importance of early relationships to personality development, it does not
focus on the influence of an infant’s behavior on an adult caretaker’s behavior. In fact, the theory
seems to imply a unidirectional analysis, focusing on how adult behavior determines personality
outcomes in interaction with the developmental stage of the infant. The detailed analysis of adult–
infant interaction as a system of mutually regulated and synchronized behaviors, intensively
studied through observational techniques, is better paired with behavioral or ethological theories.
b. Attachment: cognitive theory is not an accurate pair. Cognitive theory would focus on mental
processes such as schemes or information-processing, or perhaps would include notions of innate
abilities to discriminate attachment figures from nonattachment figures. The emphasis in research
on attachment, however, is on observation of social interactions in well-defined contexts, and
attachment theorists speak of interacting systems of behavior between infant and the attachment
figure. While the phenomenon of attachment seems to be related to cognitive development during
infancy, cognitive theory is not the source of the concept.
c. Temperament: ethological theory is the most accurate pair. A major claim is that temperament has
a biological basis and survival value that is the focus of ethological theory. An interest in
individual differences is also a mark of the biological heritage of ethological theory.
d. The father’s role: behavioral theory is not an accurate pair. If behavioral theory had motivated
research in this area, there would be an analysis of the rewards and punishments currently
operating in families or societies to encourage or discourage fathers from taking part in child
rearing. However, the focus is a more observational study of what fathers are doing. It is not clear
that the material in the chapter derives from any specific theoretical perspective.
e. Day care: ecological theory is not an accurate pair. As was the case with item “d,” it is not clear
that a specific theoretical approach has motivated research on day care. The stimulus appears to
be more pragmatic and empirical—namely, the simple need to analyze and evaluate a major
change in the early social life of infants that has occurred over the past three decades.
Interestingly, the ecological perspective could be used to organize and discuss information in this
area, but this has not been done explicitly in this chapter. Also, Belsky, who views families as
subsystems of individuals, is a researcher in this area, suggesting that he has done some systems
analysis of day care and its effects on children.
3. Attachment is a major topic in the study of infant social development. Which of the following
statements best represents an assumption by attachment researchers rather than an inference or an
observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why the
other answers are not as good.
a. The following statement is an inference: an infant cries when separated from its mother because it
is attached to its mother. It is an explanation offered to account for the observation that infants
often cry when they are separated from their mothers.
b. The most important relationship in an infant’s life involves attachment to a primary caretaker is
the assumption. One indication is Kagan’s challenge that attachment is not as important as other
researchers think it is. Another is that this point is taken for granted in the text without evidence
or justification. A third is that if researchers did not believe this, so much work would probably
not have been invested in studying it.
c. The statement that stressed 12-month-old babies direct their behavior toward their mothers is an
observation and a summary of data collected by Lamb and others in their studies of the
correlations between securely and insecurely attached infants. Simply stated, infants who were
classified as insecurely attached were later seen to be more likely to fuss, cry, or be angry if they
were challenged with a problem or difficult task.
d. Providing an infant with a comfortable, safe environment creates an attachment bond between an
infant and caretaker is an inference from the conclusion of a variety of studies of the causes of
attachment in humans and monkeys. Researchers have tested hypotheses about the causes of
attachment in experimental and correlational studies. They have concluded from this work that
comfort and safety are primary determinants of attachment.
e. The observation that some babies do not look at their mothers or try to be near them in the
Strange Situation is seen in both systematic and casual observations of infants. It is one way that
researchers and caregivers have seen babies behave in the presence of their mothers.
Handout 3 (CA 6)
Critical-Thinking Essay Questions
Your answers to these kinds of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed
in this chapter.
1. Explain how developmentalists have studied emotions in infants.
2. Discuss what we learn about infant cognitive and social development by studying infant smiling and
crying.
3. Analyze your own temperament. Indicate whether your temperament is better explained by the Chess
and Thomas or the Rothbart and Bates approach. Also indicate how stable your temperament has
been over the course of your development, and what factors may have contributed to this stability or
lack of stability.
4. Explain Erikson’s concept of trust versus mistrust. Give a hypothetical situation of a parent–infant
interaction that leads to the infant developing trust and a hypothetical situation in which the infant
would develop mistrust.
5. Compare and contrast Mahler’s and Erikson’s explanations for the development of independence and
the self during infancy.
6. Explain the main criticisms of the Strange Situation procedure.
7. Indicate and explain the individual differences in attachment and the relationship of early attachment
to later social interactions.
8. Explain reciprocal socialization. Provide at least two examples of how parents socialize their
children and two examples of how children socialize their parents.
9. What does it mean to think of a family as a system? Illustrate your answer using the concepts of
reciprocal socialization, scaffolding, or attachment.
10. Compare and contrast fathers’ and mothers’ ability to care for infants, and each parent’s typical
caregiving practices.
11. If you were a parent who could choose whether to stay home with your children or place them in day
care, what factors would you consider in making this decision?
Handout 4 (CA 6)
Ideas to Help You Answer Critical-Thinking Essay Questions
1. Begin by thinking about emotions. In your own words, what are they? How many are there? How
easy or difficult are they to describe and explain? Have you ever felt that others do not understand
your emotions? After considering the nature of emotions, explain how developmental psychologists
study them, considering the tremendous challenge of this endeavor and the creativity involved in the
methodology.
2. To help you put the significance of these two behaviors in perspective, consider your arguments for
or against the notion that a baby is “just smiling” or “only crying.” In other words, through your
discussion, convey the profound developmental issues present in these behaviors.
3. Reread the two approaches to understanding and explaining temperament. Describe and analyze
yours according to each perspective. Which one does a better job of enabling you to do that? What
factors does one address that the other does not?
4. Preface your explanation with a description of Erikson’s basic theoretical approach to personality.
What is the notion behind the concept of trust versus mistrust? What does Erikson theorize that
follows this concept? Explain the stage and present your examples within this context.
5. Begin by defining independence and what is meant by the notion of self. Compare and contrast from
there.
6. Briefly explain Ainsworth’s approach to attachment and the reasoning behind the Strange Situation.
Having established this basis, discuss the criticisms.
7. What is meant by attachment? Establish an understanding of the concept, then discuss individual
differences, and how it relates to subsequent social interaction.
8. Think about your own relationships and the interactions that take place within them. Identify
examples of the bidirectionality of influence. Do you exhibit behaviors or have you developed
opinions similar to those close to you? Have others become more like you in their thinking and
mannerisms? With these images in mind, explain the occurrence of reciprocal socialization in parents
and children.
9. Describe a scene from your own family—current or childhood. Do you recognize aspects of a system
present in that scene? Continue your discussion by addressing reciprocal socialization, scaffolding,
and/or attachment.
10. Create a chart: “Mom versus Dad.” Make a list of the particular aspects of caregiving, and note each
one’s involvement, participation, effectiveness, investment, etc.
11. Address each factor presented in the text. How relevant a factor is each to you? What factors would
weigh more heavily in your decision? Why?
Handout 5 (RP 1)
Development of Self in Infants
This project examines the development of the self in infants. Prior to the start of the research, the project
must be approved by the human subjects review board at your school, and you must get signed informed
consent forms from the infants’ parents. You will test an 8-month-old infant and an 18-month-old infant
with a mirror recognition task. Each infant will be assessed with two tasks – one will test for mirror
recognition of the self and the other task will assess the infant’s mirror recognition of an object near the
infant. After you have completed the tasks, answer the questions about your observations.
Task 1:
Have the mother stand behind the infant and hold an attractive toy above and slightly behind the
infant’s head, so that the infant can see the toy in the mirror but cannot see the toy itself. Record
whether the infant reaches for the reflection of the toy in the mirror or turns around and reaches for
the toy itself.
Task 2:
For one minute, count the number of times the infant touches its nose while looking in the mirror.
Then have the mother put a dab of rouge on the infant’s nose, and turn the infant back toward the
mirror. For the next minute count the number of times the infant touches its nose and the number of
times it touches the reflection of its nose.
Child 1 Child 2
Sex _____ Age _____ Sex _____ Age _____
Task 1
Reaches to mirror
Reaches to toy
Task 2
Touches mirror
Touches nose
Questions:
• Does the 8-month-old infant reach for the object? Does the 18-month-old reach for the object? Does
either infant reach for the reflection of the toy in the mirror? If so, which infant?
• How does the 8-month-old infant react to the image in the mirror with the rouge on his or her nose?
How does the 18-month-old infant react to the image in the mirror with the rouge on his or her nose?
Do the two infants react differently? Explain.
• Is there a difference in the development of the ability to recognize the self and the ability to
recognize an object in a mirror? If so, why would this be?
Handout 6 (RP 3)
Attachment Behaviors
The objectives of this project are for you to become more familiar with attachment behaviors and to
practice your naturalistic observational techniques. Go to either the local shopping mall or a local park
and observe a caregiver with an infant 12 to 18 months old. The observation period should be 15 minutes.
Describe the behaviors you see occurring. Then, you should answer the questions provided.
Child
Behaviors Age _____ Sex _____
Talking
Laughing
Tickling
Clinging
Crying
Escaping
Retrieving
Mutual gaze
Hitting
Smiling
Yelling
Generally positive interaction
Generally negative interaction
Questions:
• What kinds of behaviors did your caregiver–infant pairs engage in? Did the infant use the caregiver
as the base for exploration? Was the infant allowed to explore?
• According to the categories “secure” and “insecure,” how did this pair seem? Were interactions
generally positive or generally negative? Did the relationship seem warm and affectionate or hostile?

Life Span Development 16th Edition Santrock Solutions Manual Download

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Life Span Development 16th Edition Santrock Solutions Manual Download

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 6: Socioemotional Development in Infancy

Solution Manual for Life Span Development 16th

Download full test bank at:

Chapter 6: Socioemotional Development in Infancy

Emotional Development Lecture Suggestion 1: Biological Basis of Shyness

Attachment Learning Goal 2: Describe social

Social Orientation/Understanding Lecture Suggestion 3: The Influence of Caregiving

Social Contexts Learning Goal 3: Explain how social contexts

The Family Lecture Suggestion 3: The Influence of Caregiving

Review Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking Multiple-

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 6 | 2

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 6 | 3

Lecture Suggestion 2: How Do Toddlers Regulate Their Emotions?

Lecture Suggestion 3: The Influence of Caregiving on Attachment Classification

Lecture Suggestion 4: Infant Temperament, Attachment, and Criminal Behavior

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 6 | 5

Lecture Suggestion 5: Father Love

Variations in the Influence of Fathers’ Love

Fathers’ Love Is as Important as Mothers’ Love

Fathers’ Love Predicts Specific Outcomes Better than Mothers’ Love

Fathers’ Love Is the Sole Predictor of Specific Outcomes

Fathers’ Love Moderates the Influence of Mothers’ Love

Father’s Love Is One of the Greatest Influences on Personality Development

• Which aspects of parenting lead to this sense of trust?

Classroom Activity 2: Baby in a Box

successful artist (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRNf1RseGXQ).

• What would be the advantages and disadvantages of this “baby box”?

Classroom Activity 3: Assessment of Child Care in Your Community

Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions and Suggested Answers

Question 3 is a straightforward continuation of the inference, assumption, and observation problems.

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 6 | 11

Personal Application 2: What Was I Like As a Baby?

Personal Application 3: The Big Debate

Personal Application 4: Remember When…

Research Project Ideas

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 6 | 13

This offers an alternative for students without access to infants.

Research Project 2: Infant Crying: A Communicative Act

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 6 | 14

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 6 | 15

Research Project 3: Attachment Behaviors

Research Project 4: Assessing Child Care Quality: Field Observations

Resources Available in Connect

Milestones: Social Smile, Colin, 2-

Milestones: Emotional Expression,

Milestones: Emotional Expression,

Milestones: Temperament, Esme, 10-

Milestones: Trust and Mistrust, Atlas,

6 Self Awareness Video LO 6.1

Milestones: Independence, Felana,

Milestones: Autonomy and Self-Doubt,

Milestones: Goal-Oriented Behaviors,

Milestones: Interactional Synchrony,

Milestones: Attachment, Colin and

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 6 | 18

Milestones: Emotions and Attachment,

6 Attachment Theory Video LO 6.2

6 Attachment and Temperament Video LO 6.2

Milestones: Paternal Caregivers, 4-

Preschool Environment with 4-Year-

6 Quality Child care Indicators Video LO 6.3

Self-recognition tasks of other animals can be found on YouTube:

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 6 | 19