Sunken Floor- Toilets Fill Materials for Sunken Slab

The space around the sunken slab needs to be filled

The sunken slab is one of the familiar and
adaptable ways to maintain architectural design in
especially the washroom, as well as laundry areas
where water drainage systems or pipes installed
below the floor or tiles.
This system is accepted to provide an easy way to
install sanitary products and built eye-catching
views in those areas. Furthermore, all pipe systems
remain below the floor.
The concrete of the R.C.C. should be mixed with a
waterproofing material to get a denser, watertight
concrete.
Sunken slabs are used in the bathrooms, toilets,
and washing place where we have our washing
machines.
Steps for Construction of Sunken Slab
▪ Place formworks similar to other elements of the
building.
▪ Install reinforcement as per the design.
▪ Pour the concrete and cure it adequately. The
concrete needs to be sufficiently dense and
watertight.
▪ Spray a mixture of cement and waterproofing
material on the reinforced concrete sunken slab.
Why do we use sunken slabs?
▪ The sunken slab aims to conceal drainage systems and
with suitable lightweight materials to avoid damage to maintain the building's aesthetics.
the drainage system:-
• Lightweight broken CLC blocks
• Lightweight cinder
• Broken bricks
• Brick jelly
• Coal lumps
• Burnt tar lumps
• AAC blocks
Applications of Sunken Slabs
Sunken slabs can be used in various parts of a
building like:-
• Toilets, baths, and wash areas.
• Mid-landing in a staircase where the end beam
is designed as an inverted beam to have
enough headroom below the landing.
• In porch areas, the beams are inverted so that
they do not face downward and a plain surface
is available.
https://www.constrofacilitator.com/sunken-
Advantages slab-method-advantages-and-

▪ Place a plaster layer with cement mortar on the ▪ Conceal all the pipes and maintain the building's applications/
https://theconstructor.org/building/sunken-
sunken slab. architectural design. slab-

▪ Use non-shrinkage, waterproofing adhesive to fix
tiles for flooring and walls to improve the tiling
area's waterproofing.
▪ Fasten joints of sanitary pipes with specially
constructed sealants to avoid water leakage.
▪ Eliminate the need for special plumbing fixtures
to decrease the noises during everyday usage.
▪ All plumbing pipes are concealed inside the slab
in this type of waterproofing slab.
▪ These slabs provide a good plumbing system.
▪ The sealing design creates special ventilation.
▪ Provide a better drainage system.
▪ Easy to repair.
▪ Can provide desired decoration in the space.
construction/551802/#Steps_for_Construc
tion_of_Sunken_Slab
Disadvantages
▪ Reduces the height of the slab.
▪ Waterproofing and brickbat works are time-consuming.
▪ Requires a skilled and experienced worker for
construction.

NAME ADEEBA MEHBOOB

SUBJECT RAR-802 Const. & Materials ROLL NO. 1805181003
TOPIC- Dampness in Sunken floor: toilets FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4th YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
Leakage repair of Sunk slab of toilet area: ▪ Then do plaster 12 mm thick on
In most of the buildings, the Sunk slab (Sunk slab or the inner surface of the concrete
Depressed floor) is cast in the toilet area in which by adding waterproof compound
the water closet is placed. The empty part of such in1: 3 cement mortar.
a compact slab is filled with a piece of brick without ▪ Apply two coats of polymer
sand to reduce the weight. cement slurry on the side and
Water leaks from the roof of the lower toilet area floor of the sunk area. Apply two
when such a sunk slabs leaks. coats of 85/25 grade bitumen on
it. Also, apply a bitumen coat on
the GI Pipe.
▪ Then lay a 150 mm thick dry
stone drainage layer of 20 mm
size stone aggregate at the
bottom.
▪ Arrange PVC soil pipe without
joints on it. Use the pipe in one
piece so that there are no joints in
the soil pipe. Once the Joints of
Method to fix leakage of sunk slab: ▪ f
the pipe are ready, fill it with
▪ First Remove tiles, pipes, filled brick concrete, water, and test for leakage or
etc. from the sunk slab. Clean floor and side of smoke test.
the sunk slab properly. ▪ After the joint test of the pipe, fill
▪ Cover the brick masonry on all four sides by the top of the pipe and stone
placing 6 mm diameter rods in 50 mm thick (1: aggregate with cement concrete
1.5: 3) concrete. Place a hole for drainage pipe of 1: 5: 10. Better if the area
as well as 40 mm diameter drainage spout pipe in around the Indian WC is filled with
the concrete of the outer wall. lime concrete.
▪ Provide a slope of 1/40 towards the outside at ▪ Laying tiles on top of cement
the bottom concrete. concrete. Fill the joints of the tiles
▪ Install a 40 mm diameter spot pipe in the outer with acrylic waterproof paints.
wall at the end of the floor slope. Keep this spout Epoxy lapi can also be used to fill
pipe about 225 mm (six inches) away from the joints.
outside wall.
NAME ADEEBA MEHBOOB
SUBJECT RAR-802 Const. & Materials ROLL NO. 1805181003
TOPIC- Dampness in Sunken floor: toilets FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4th YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
INTRODUCTION OF DAMPNESS
Dampness in building may occur due to bad design,
faulty construction and use of poor quality of
materials. This dampness not only affects the life of
the building but also creates unhygienic conditions
of the important items of work in the construction
of a building.
DAMPNESS ON BOUNDARY WALLS
There are various reasons for the dampness on
boundary wall -:
• Moisture from the ground can rise above ground
level and damage the boundary walls.
• Blocked drainage pipes close to the boundary wall
can collect water and cause dampness.
• Splashing rain water which rebounds after hitting
the wall surface may also cause dampness.
https://www.estatelife.co.za/dangers-of-damp-do-your-boundary-walls-look-like-this/
CAPILARY ACTION DAMPNESS IN BOUNDARY WALL
TYPES -
• Rising Damp – due to capillary action.
• Falling Damp – downward water penetration.
• Penetrating Damp – ingress of water through
gaps, cracks etc.
DAMPNESS ON BOUNDARY WALLS, AND PARAPET
REMEDIES - REMEDIES -
• Try not to overwater your gardens against • Good coping overhang from exterior surface of
boundary walls. It will result in rising damp in the parapet wall with a well-designed drip edge allows
wall. the moisture to drip freely from the coping and
• Waterproof the tops of all freestanding walls with away from the wall surface of the parapet.
a layer of any waterproofing system to prevent
moisture intrusion into the top of your boundary
walls.
• Include a horizontal damp proof course at the
base of a boundary wall
WELL DESIGNED DRIP
DAMPNESS AT PARAPET
There are various reasons for the dampness on • Angle fillet at the junction on the parapet wall and
parapet wall -: the roof slab.
• Splashing rain water which rebounds after hitting • Defining a proper slope on the roof, so that the
the wall surface may cause dampness. water doesn’t get collected near the junction of
• Penetration of rain water through unprotected the wall and the slab.
tops of walls and parapet, may cause dampness. • Use of different kind of water proofing techniques
• Inadequate roof slopes, improper rainwater pipe to prevent the dampness.
connections. • Polyurethene
• Defective junction between roof slab and parapet • EPMD
wall may prove to be the source of dampness. • Butyle
Sources –
https://www.estatelife.co.za/dangers-of-damp-do-your-boundary-
walls-look-like-this/
https://www.nemmadi.in/dampness-in-buildings-sources-prevention-
causes-part
NAME AKSHAT MAURYA
SUBJECT ROLL NO.
RAR-802 1805181005
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4TH YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
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Dampness
Dampness in a building is the presence of moisture in various parts of building like floor, wall,
roof etc.
Almost all buildings experience excessive moisture, leaks, or flooding at some point. From a
technologic viewpoint, one must understand the source and transport of moisture in buildings,
which depend on the design, operation, maintenance, and use of buildings in relation to
external environmental conditions such as climate, soil properties, and topography.
Understanding that maintaining a dry building is the best method for ensuring healthy people,
safe buildings and maximum asset value. , hence care should be taken to prevent such
situation.
Dampness can occur in any part of the building from exterior, interiors to substructure and
structure. Similarly it can also occur on any floor of the building including intermediate floors. .
If dampness-related problems are to be prevented, it is essential to understand their causes
Causes
Dampness on intermediate floors can be caused due to following reasons
❑ Absorption of moisture by the building materials is one of the chief causes, which
may occur due to bad design, faulty construction or poor workmanship, and use of poor
quality of materials. The dampness gradually impairs the affected part of the building and
often leads to the growth of molds, mites and bacteria that creates an unhealthy
environment and causes health problems.
Penetrating damp
It is caused by water leaking through the walls.
Penetration of rain-water through unprotected tops of walls, parapets, compound walls, etc.
may cause dampness. This dampness in buildings is of serious nature and may result in
unhealthy living conditions or even in structurally unsafe conditions. Exposed tops of
parapet and boundary walls should be protected from rain penetration by providing damp-
proof course. If the walls are not properly treated, moisture will enter the wall causing
dampness in the interior. If balconies and chajja projections do not have proper slope, water
will accumulate on these & will enter the walls through their junctions
Condensation
Condensation damp is caused by moist air condensing on walls. The moisture
present in the atmosphere gets deposited on the walls, roofs, floors,
etc. Warm & moist air comes into contact with a cold surface such as the walls, and the air
can’t hold the moisture, causing drops of water to appear and causing mold on your walls.
However, this source of dampness prevails only in certain places in India, where very cold
climates exist.
Condensation occurs due to a lack of ventilation, cold surfaces, and lack of central heating.
on walls and ceilings
Miscellaneous Sources of Dampness:
Use of sub-standard and non-standard materials or workmanship is one of the major causes
of leakage/dampness in buildings. Hence all the appliances, fixtures and materials shall
conform to the relevant Indian Standards where they exist and shall have good workmanship
Sources :
• Booklet on prevention of dampness in building by Indian railways centre for advanced
maintenance technology
• https://www.buildersmart.in/blogs/prevention-of-dampness/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215649/
❑ Dampness due to leakages in wet areas of building: Bathroom, kitchen,
water closet and to a lesser extent verandah, balconies and sunshades
may be termed as wet areas of a buildings which are more vulnerable to
water due to their functional requirements. These wet areas are one of the
main sources of leakage and dampness in a building which leads to
unhygienic conditions affecting badly the health and comfort of the
inhabitants and seriously deteriorating the stability of the building.
❑ Dampness due to leakages from roofs
(i) In case of sloped roofs rain-water percolate through defective roof covering.
(ii) Faulty valley gutters may allow rain-water to descend through the top of
supporting wall.
(iii) In case of flat roofs, inadequate roof slopes, improper rainwater pipe
connections and defective junction between roof slab and parapet wall may
prove to be source of dampness.
(iv) Inadequate number & size of drainage outlets, spreading of water on roofs
due to overflowing from water tanks, bad quality of concrete used in RCC roof
slab, stagnation of water may also be the source of dampness
❑ Dampness due to imperfect orientation: Whenever the orientation of the
buildings is not proper or geographical conditions are such that the walls of
building gets less of direct sunrays and more of heavy showers of rains,
then such walls become prone to dampness.
❑ Dampness due to bad workmanship during construction: Defective
construction of joints in the roof, throating of sills and copings, fixtures in
the building, etc., causes dampness by allowing entry of the water inside
the building.
Defects caused by Dampness
The various effects (indirect defects) caused due to dampness in
buildings, mainly result in poor functional performance, ugly
appearance and structural weakness of the buildings. It causes
aesthetic as well as physical damage to buildings resulting in
disfigure of internal wall & ceiling finishes & external wall surfaces.
Dampness acts as a catalyst for building defects that may be
summarized as under
corrosion of metals,
efflorescence of brick & mortar
damage of masonry & concrete,
softening and crumbling of plaster,
bleaching and flaking of paint with the formation of colored
patches,
warping and decay of timber
deterioration of electrical fittings,
deterioration of floor covering materials like tiles, stones, etc.
promoting growth of termites, and
breeding of mosquitoes
creating unhealthy living conditions for the occupants
breeding of the germs of tuberculosis, neuralgia, acute and
chronic rheumatism, etc., which, sometimes, result in fatal
diseases
Preventive Measures to Dampness Problem
The conventional techniques and methods generally adopted for treatment of dampness are as follows:
Membrane Damp-proofing
A continuous layer of damp proof or water repellent materials, such as bituminous felts, mastic, asphalt,
plastic or polythene sheets, cement concrete, mortar, stones, etc., is provided between the source of
dampness and the rest of the structure to prevent water penetration into the different parts of the building.
Depending upon the source of dampness, DPC may be provided horizontally or vertically in floors, walls, etc.
In case of intermediate floors this source is mostly walls and ceilings .
Following general principles should be applied while providing
DPC:
• The DPC should cover the full thickness of walls excluding rendering, in order to act as an effective
barrier to moisture under all conditions.
• The mortar bed upon which DPC is to be laid should be made leveled, even and free from projections.
Uneven base is likely to cause damage to DPC.
• The DPC course should be placed in correct relation with other DPC courses, so as to provide a
complete and continuous barrier to the passage of moisture from below, top or sides.
• When a horizontal DPC is continued to vertical face (i.e. forming angle projection), a cement concrete
fillet of 75 mm in radius should be provided at junction, prior to the treatment.
• DPC should not be kept exposed on wall surface otherwise it may get damaged during finishing.
Surface Treatment
The surface treatment is only useful when the moisture is superficial, i.e. not under much pressure. The
moisture finds its way through the pores of materials used in finishing and makes the building damp. Surface
treatments like pointing, plastering, painting, distempering, are given to the exposed surfaces and also to the
internal surfaces to fill up the pores. Bituminous solution, cement coating, transparent coatings, paints,
varnishes, etc. are used for surface treatment. Most commonly used treatment, to protect walls against
dampness, is lime cement plaster of mix (1 cement: 1 lime: 6 sand) proportions.
A thin film of waterproofing materials such as sodium or potassium silicates, aluminum or zinc sulphates,
barium hydroxide and magnesium sulfate, soft soap and alum, lime and linseed oil, coal tar, bitumen, waxes
and fats, resins and gums, etc. can be applied to the surface to protect it against the ravages of heavy rain.
Integral Damp-proofing
This consists of adding certain compounds to the concrete or mortar during the process of mixing, which
when used in construction, increase its impermeability and act as barriers to moisture penetration under
different principles.
The compounds made from clay, sand or lime (chalk, fuller's earth, etc.) work on mechanical action
principle, i.e. they fill the voids or pores present in concrete or mortar and make them denser and water
proof.
The compounds like alkaline silicates, aluminum sulphates, calcium chlorides, etc. work on chemical
action principle, i.e. they react chemically when mixed with concrete and fill the pores to act as water-
resistant.
Some compounds like soaps, petroleum oils, fatty acid compounds such as stearates of calcium, sodium,
ammonium, etc. work on repulsion principle, i.e. they are used as admixtures in concrete to react with it and
become water repellent.
The synthetic compounds prepared under these principles are available in commercial forms in market. The
quantity of compounds to be added to cement depends upon manufacturers’ recommendations. In general,
one kg of compound is added with one bag of cement to render the mortar or concrete water proof
Sources :
• Booklet on prevention of dampness in building by Indian railways centre for advanced
maintenance technology
• https://www.buildersmart.in/blogs/prevention-of-dampness/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215649/
Cavity Walls or Hollow Walls
A cavity wall consists of two parallel walls or leaves (or skins)
of masonry with a 5 cm to 8 cm cavity between them. The
outer wall or leaf consists of a 10 cm thick wall and the inner
wall or leaf (min. 10 cm
thick), is sufficiently thick and strong to carry imposed load
safely. The provision of continuous cavity in the wall efficiently
prevents the transmission of percolation of dampness from
Outerwall or leaf to the inner wall or leaf. This cavity type
construction is most desirable in hot dry and/ or hot-humid
environment in India.
The advantages of cavity walls may be summarized as under:
As there is no intimate contact between two leaves except
at the wall ties, which are of impervious material, so the
possibility of the moisture penetration is reduced to a
minimum.
As air in the cavity is non-conductor of heat, so it prevents
the transmission of heat from the external face to the internal
one Such cavity walls are best suitable for a tropical country
like
India.
The cavity walls offer good sound insulation.
The cavity tends to reduce the nuisance of efflorescence.
This type of construction offers many other benefits such as
better comfort, economy and hygienic conditions in buildings.
Guniting (or Shot Concrete)
This consists in depositing an impervious layer of rich cement
mortar over the surface to be water proofed. The operation is
carried out by use of a machine known as cement gun. The
surface to be treated is first thoroughly cleaned of dirt, dust,
grease or loose particles and wetted properly. Cement and
sand (or fine aggregates) usually taken in proportion of 1:3 to
1:4 are then fed into the machine. This mixture is finally shot
on the prepared surface under a pressure of 2 to 3 kg per
square cm by holding the nozzle of the cement gun at the
distance of 75 to 90 cm from the working surface. The quantity
of water in the mix can be controlled by means of regulating
valve provided in the water supply hose attachment. Since the
material is applied under pressure, it ensures dense
compaction and better adhesion of the rich cement mortar and
hence treated surface becomes water proof.
Pressure Grouting or Cementation
Pressure grouting is the process of forcing the cement grout
(mixture of cement, sand and water) under pressure into the
cracks, voids or fissures present in structural components (i.e.
floors, walls and roofs) In this process, the holes are drilled at
selected points in the structure and cement grout of
sufficiently thin consistency to ensure complete penetration
into cracks or voids is forced under pressure. This makes the
structure water tight and restores its stability and strength to
some extent
Preventive Measures for Dampness in the intermediate
floors as illustrated
• Fixing Arrangement for C.I. Pipes
These are generally provided for roof drainage. The size of
pipe depends on average rate of rainfall in mm/hr & on the
area of roof. RWP should be kept away from walls by using
saddle plates as shown in Fig
• Floor Trap / Nahani Trap
For preventing passage of foul gas, traps with water seal are
invariably used in floors in bath rooms, kitchen. For effective
drainage, the slope should not be less than 1 in 100. Junction
of the trap and the waste pipe which is embedded in the floor
is a possible source of leakages. The joints should be
thoroughly tested for leakages before doing the flooring (Fig).
• Mechanism of Water Entry
In absence of slab projection, the rain water travels along the
walls & enters through crack at junction of Roof Slab and
Wall.
Sources :
• Booklet on prevention of dampness in building by Indian railways centre for advanced
maintenance technology
• https://www.buildersmart.in/blogs/prevention-of-dampness/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215649/
• Preventing Water Entry by extending Slab itself • Prevention Measures at Window sill
Roof slab to project beyond wall by 50 mm (minimum) with provision of
drip mold can prevent entry of water in to the wall or can keep water-falls
clear of the wall.
➢ Materials used for Damp-proofing
There are various materials, which are used as damp-
proof courses depending upon the location, economy and
degree of damp-proofing desired. While selecting a
particular damp-proofing material, the following
requirements should be kept in view –
• Preventing Water Entry by
making Brick or Concrete • The material should be perfectly impervious and durable
cornice with life equal to building life.
• The material should not permit moisture penetration.
• Concealed Water Pipes • The material should be capable of resisting both dead
A concealed water pipe is a possible source of and superimposed load/ pressure.
leakage. All concealed water pipes must be • The material should be flexible to accommodate the
thoroughly pressure tested for leakages before structural movements without developing any cracks.
taking up the finishes. • The material should not be costly.
• The material should remain steady in its position.
• The only flexible materials, like mastic asphalt,
bituminous felt, metal sheets, etc. should be used for
parapet walls and other situations, where differential
• Dampness Prevention Measures at Chajja
thermal movements are expected due to exposure.
A sloping or horizontal structural overhang usually
provided over openings on external walls to provide
The materials commonly used to check dampness can be
protection. The details are as shown in fig.
divided into the following four categories:
❑ Flexible materials – Materials like bitumen felts (which
may be hessian based or fiber/glass fiber based),
plastic sheeting (polythene sheet), metal sheets of
lead, copper, etc.
❑ Semi-rigid materials – Materials like mastic asphalt or
combination of material or layers.
❑ Rigid materials – Materials like first class bricks,
stones, slates, cement concrete, etc.
❑ Grouting material – Materials like cement slurry and
acrylic based chemicals/polymers.
DAMPNESS REMEDIES
Cavity Wall Construction-
The access or penetration of moisture contain inside a building through its wall, floor, or
This consists in shielding the main wall of the building by an outer skin wall
roof is known as DAMPNESS
leaving a cavity in between the two. The cavity prevents the moisture from
traveling from the outer to the inner wall.
DAMPNESS ON TERRACE FLOORS
Membrane Damp Proofing-
This consists in providing layers of membrane of water repellant material
between the source of dampness and the part of the structure adjacent to it.
This type of layer is commonly known as damp proof course (DPC) and it may
comprise of materials like bituminous felts, mastic, asphalt, plastic or polythene
sheets, cement concrete, etc.

Integral Damp Proofing-

This consists in adding certain water proofing compounds with the concrete
mix to increase its impermeability. Such compounds are available in market in
powdered as well as in liquid forms. The compounds made from clay, sand or
CAUSES OF DAMPNESS lime (chalk, fuller’s earth, etc) help to fill the voids in concrete and make it
waterproof.
❑ Roof leaks are a major source of water entering the structure, causing dampness.
❑ Poor quality construction material often becomes a cause of dampness.
Surface Treatment-
❑ Cavities and holes kept for erection of scaffolding and later not filled properly with concrete can
As described earlier, the moisture finds its way through the pores of materials
become a source of attracting and storing moisture.
used in finishing. In order to check the entry of the moisture into the pores,
❑ Poor or inadequate waterproofing measures in the foundation, water tank, external walls or
they must be filled up. Surface treatment consists in filling up the pores of the
bathrooms can be the worst source of moisture ingress.
surfaces subjected to dampness. The use of water repellant metallic soaps such
❑ Defective window sills can allow stagnation of water, leading to damp patches.
as calcium and aluminum pleats and stearates is such effective in protecting the
❑ Leaking and clogged pipes – soil, waste water, rain water, or water supply pipes can all allow water
building against the ravages of heavy rain. Bituminous solution, cement
to enter the walls.
coating, transparent coatings, paints, varnishes fall under this category.
❑ Presence of salt in the plaster or in the sand used for plaster may lead to dampness.
NAME Aman Kumar

DAMPNESS ON TERRACE FLOORS SUBJECT CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

1805181008
1
CORROSION OF METALS
INTRODUCTION
• The term corrosion is defined as an act or process of gradual wearing away of a metal when
it is exposed to oxygen and the presence of water, creating a red iron oxide referred to as
‘rust’.
• In other words, the corrosion indicates the deterioration and loss of material due to chemical
attack.
• The phenomena is scientifically explained with the Law of Entropy. The reaction happens
with losing steel material and producing red rust, which is generally 4 to 7 times larger in
volume.
• The increase in steel volume increases stresses in concrete to an extent that it can crack,
resulting in delamination in concrete bridge decks or parking garage slabs, and loss of
concrete cover in beams, girders, and columns.
TOPIC: DEFECTS AND REMEDIES OF CORROSION OF METALS
CAUSES OF CORROSION
Some of the main and popular causes of corrosion are as follows:
• Too much humidity or condensation of water vapour on metal surfaces are the primary causes of corrosion.
• Corrosive gases such as chlorine, hydrogen oxides, ammonia, sulfur oxides, amongst others can result in
corrosion of parts of electronic equipment, etc. Corrosion can also occur due to hydrogen and oxygen
exposure.
• Corrosion in steel can occur when it is placed under too much stress and the material develops a crack in it.
• Metals exposed to electrical currents for a long time can experience electronic corrosion.
• Exposure to dirt and bacteria can cause corrosion in metals.
PREVENTION AND REMIDIES
The below prevention of corrosion points shows how corrosion can be prevented in different ways.
1. Electroplating - Electroplating is a process that uses electric current to cover the thin layer of metal over the
top of another less expensive metal. It is usually done to provide finishing to the cheaper metals and include
certain properties such as anti-corrosion and anti-rust.
2. Galvanization – This process includes a coating of iron with a thin layer of zinc. It is usually done by dipping
iron in molten zinc. This zinc layer coating protects the inner part of the iron from corrosion
3. Painting and Greasing - Providing a layer of grease or paint on the metal can prevent the exposure of metal to
the external environment thereby preventing corrosion.
4. Selection of Optimum Material - Choosing an optimum material can also help in preventing corrosion.
Aluminum and stainless steel are highly corrosion resistant.
5. Using Corrosion Inhibitors - Corrosion inhibitors are the element that has the ability to diminish the rate of
corrosion (when added to the corroded environment).
Electroplating is a process that uses electric current to cover the thin layer of metal over the top of another less
expensive metal. It is usually done to provide finishing to the cheaper metals and include certain properties such
as anti-corrosion and anti-rust.
In order to electroplate a metal, two different metals, an electrolyte solution, two electrodes, a battery or other
source will be required that will create the electric current.
NAME ANIKA SETHI ROLL NO. 1805181010
SHEET
SUBJECT CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIAL
1A
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4RD YEAR SEM -8, SECTION-A, 2020-21
CORROSION OF REINFORCING BARS IN CONCRETE
SYMPTOMS CAUSES OF CORROSION

• When the steel bars start corroding, the reinforced concrete member gradually begins deteriorating going through the following stages: Following are the factors which are responsible for causing
corrosion especially to the reinforcing bars in concrete:
• Congested reinforcement in small concrete sections,
• Excessive water-cement ratio,
• Improper construction methods,
• Inadequate design procedure,
• Incompetent supervising staff or contractor,
BROWN PATCHES ALONG
• Initially rusted reinforcement before placing concrete,
1 REINFORCEMENT 2 SPALLING OF CONCRETE COVER
3 FORMATION OF CRACKS
• Insufficient cover to steel from the exposed concrete surfaces,
FORMATION OF WHITE PATCHES • Permeability of concrete which depends on various factors
Atmospheric carbon dioxide reacts with calcium hydroxide present in the cement paste forming calcium carbonate. This calcium carbonate is such as water- cement ratio, size of aggregate, curing, grading
carried by moisture and deposited onto the concrete surface forming white patches. of aggregates, etc.,
BROWN PATCHES ALONG REINFORCEMENT • Poor workmanship,
When the steel bars start corroding, a layer of iron oxide is formed on it. This iron oxide also gets carried to the surface of the concrete by • Presence of moisture in concrete,
moisture. • Presence of salts,

FORMATION OF CRACKS • Type of atmospheric conditions surrounding the region of

The products of corrosion occupy a greater volume than the original material. Hence they exert pressure on the concrete and crack it. With concrete,

more corrosion occurring, more and wider cracks are formed. • Unequal distribution of oxygen over the steel surface,

SPALLING OF CONCRETE COVER • Weak and porous cover blocks which are tied directly to the
reinforcement or stirrups, etc.
Due to loss of the bond between concrete and steel, the concrete starts forming multiple layers of scales and peels off. The steel bars also
get reduced in size.
SNAPPING OF BARS
Due to reduction in the size of the steel bars, they finally snap. Also, there is a considerable reduction in the size of the main bars.
BUCKLING OF BARS BEFORE BUILD-UP OF FURTHER EVENTUAL SPALLING
CORROSION CORROSION CORROSION CORRODED BAR
Spalling of the concrete cover and snapping of bars lead to buckling of the main bars. This bulges the concrete in that region and eventually PRODUCTS SURFACE CRACKS EXPOSED
STAINS
the whole structure collapses.

NAME ANIKA SETHI ROLL NO. 1805181010

SHEET
TOPIC: DEFECTS AND REMEDIES OF CORROSION OF METALS SUBJECT CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIAL
1B
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4RD YEAR SEM -8, SECTION-A, 2020-21
CORROSION OF REINFORCING BARS IN CONCRETE
REMIDIAL WORKS
1. IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF CONCRETE
• By adopting the rich mix: Higher cement content and lower w/c ratio give
stronger and impermeable concrete
• Adopting the best mix proportion: By designing the best suitable mix
proportion the impermeable concrete can be produced
• Efficient compaction during casting: This gives dense concrete with minimum
voids
• Leak proof formwork: This reduces the leakage of cement slurry during
casting of concrete.
• Adopting salt free sand: The salt content of mix can be reduced by washing
the sand properly.
• Using plasticizers: The use of plasticizers improves the workability without
increasing the water content
• Using sulphate resisting cement and Pozzolana cement
2. INCREASING DEPTH OF CONCRETE COVER TO REINFORCEMENT
• Extra cover depth lengthens the time for ingress of corroding agents. Such a
remedy increases weight due to additional concrete requiring changes in
structural design. Increased cover thickness should be provided when
surfaces of concrete members are exposed to the action of harmful
chemicals, acids, vapors, saline atmosphere, sulphurous smoke etc.
• As per observation, the increase in cover thickness may be between 15 mm
and 40 mm, the total cover thickness should not exceed 50 mm. concrete
cover more than 50 mm is not recommended as it may give rise to increase
crack widths which may further allow direct ingress of deleterious materials
to the reinforcement.
3. CONCRETE COATING AND SEALERS
• When untreated reinforcing bar is used, the best method is to apply
protective coatings to concrete surface to seal entry of moisture, carbon
dioxide and chlorides.
• The dry concrete surface should be roughened by chiseling. Then, a workable
mixture of 1:3 cement sand mortar should be applied on the concrete
TOPIC: DEFECTS AND REMEDIES OF CORROSION OF METALS
surface after watering over the surface properly by trowelling to a thickness
of 6 mm. The surface should be finished with neat cement slurry consisting of
water and cement in the ratio 2:1.
4. GALVANIZING
• In this type of treatment, Zinc itself becomes a sacrificial anode and then
protects the bar from corrosion for five years approximately. This method is
used when no superior treatment is available.
• 5. FUSION BONDED EPOXY COATING (FBEC)
• Today the world over, fusion bonded epoxy coating (FBEC) has proved to be
most effective, reliable and long-term economical method of anti corrosive
treatment for reinforcing bar.
• It is applied directly on the reinforcing steel which prevents corrosion by
isolating and insulating the steel from the corrosive environment. These
coatings protect against external and internal corrosive agents.
5. COATING OF REBARS
• The corrosion of rebars can be prevented by applying proper coating to
rebars. The coating can be one of the following:
• Paint
• Chemical compound
• Metallic epoxy coating
• Fusion bonded epoxy
6. PROPER STORAGE & STACKING OF REINFORCING STEEL
• Steel reinforcement should be stored in such a way as to avoid distortion and
to prevent deterioration and corrosion. It is desirable to coat reinforcement
with cement wash before stacking to prevent scaling and rusting.
• In case of long storage, reinforcement bars should be stacked above ground
level by at least 150 mm. Also in coastal area or in case of long storage; a coat
of cement wash shall be given to prevent scaling and rusting.
NAME ANIKA SETHI
SUBJECT CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIAL
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4RD YEAR SEM -8, SECTION-A, 2020-21
DESIGN AND PREVENTIONS
The steel is the most liable to the corrosion and hence the study
of steel corrosion is of paramount importance.
To minimize the chances of development of corrosion of steel in
concrete, the following preventive measures may be taken:
• Avoiding heavily congested reinforcement especially at the
intersection of beams and columns;
• Avoiding the steel to come into contact with bricks, soil, wood
and other porous non-alkaline materials;
• Avoiding the use of materials which accelerate the process of
corrosion i.e., aggregates with high salt contents, water
containing salts, etc.;
• Cleaning the reinforcement with wire-brush to remove the
rust scales before placing of concrete;
• Maintaining a high degree of workmanship;
• Proper structural design with due provision of cover;
• Providing cathodic protection to the reinforcement by some
suitable method;
• Providing surface coatings with paints, tars, asphalts, etc.;
• Use of high quality and impermeable concrete;
• Using stone pebbles in place of badly made cover blocks;
• Using the correct water-cement ratio; etc.
REFERENCES
• Effects of Corrosion in Reinforcement | Signs & Preventive Measures - CivilDigital –
• Forms of Corrosion on Buildings and Structures - TIGER TMT
• Corrosion of Metals: Causes, Factors, Theories, Forms and Effects | Metals | Engineering
(engineeringenotes.com)
ROLL NO. 1805181010
SHEET
1C
 Defects in timber doors and windows -
• The weathered bottom half of a wooden door
• Timber surfaces exposed to the weather must be sealed using two
coats of paint, varnish or sealer on both faces and edges top to
bottom.
• Timber finishes should be regularly checked and maintained in order
• to prevent timber decay.
• Frequency of maintenance depends on the environment and finish
• Doors/ Windows are of good quality and open/close smoothly.
• The hinges should be selected based on the required adequacy of
• Doors/windows and are properly screwed.
• The hardware used is of good quality and properly fitted.

Termites Beetles Marine borers Additionally, windows and doors can be defective in other
Manners-
• Common window and door defects include:
• Window leaks, Door leaks, including sliding glass doors
Wind crack in timber shake in timber Twisted fiber • Difficult or inoperable windows and doors
• Plugged or damaged window weeps
• Missing head or sill flashings at windows and doors
• Improperly lapped or missing flexible, self-adhesive window flashings.
Seasoning Dry rot in timber Callus
-
RAR-802 CONSTRUCTION $MATERIAL

Defects due to dampness in timber doors/windows

4 TH YEAR SECTION- A
Defects in timber doors and windows Warning signs
• Check for rotten wood using a penknife, paying particular attention to the bottom of windows and doors, the sill, and lower parts of the frame.
• Look for loose, cracked, or damaged putty.
• Open windows and doors to ensure they move freely and balance, but remember that timber may swell and shrink with the seasons.
• Check sash cords and hinges.
• On sash windows, open weight pockets to check for obstructions and damp if problems are suspected.
• Ensure doors and windows swing smoothly on their hinges.
• Test that door and window furniture is working properly.
• Feel for draughts and draught-proof when overhauling windows and doors.

Maintenance
• Draught proofing While overhauling doors and windows, it is worth draught-proofing them at the same time. As well to the various DIY solutions available, specialist window repair
companies can install inconspicuous but effective ‘brush’ strips in grooves routed out along the edges of the sashes. A special silicone system is available for draught-proofing metal
windows.
• Cracks around door frames This type of cracks occur due to shrinkage of wooden frames or due to loose fixing of door frames. Loose fixing causes vibration of frame and cracks
develop at the junction. Cracks may also develop when the timber of the frame is not properly seasoned. The timber should be properly seasoned as a preventive measure and the
frame should be rigidly fixed.
• As a remedial measure the junction of frame and masonry should be concealed by an architrave.

Defects due to dampness in timber doors/windows RAR-802 CONSTRUCTION $MATERIAL

4TH YEAR SECTION- A

INTRODUCTION WHAT IS RISING DAMP ?
Dampness in building may occur due to bad design, faulty Rising damp is a relatively rare form of damp that affects the walls of buildings. It occurs when moisture from the
construction and use of poor quality of materials. This dampness not ground travels up through the walls by capillary action. This means that ground water is effectively sucked up
only affects the life of the building but also creates unhygienic through tiny tubes in the bricks, like a series of straws. This water contains salts that also travel up through the
conditions of the important items of work in the construction of a wall. Generally rising damp is first noticed by the
building. damage it causes to the internal walls of a
The treatment given to keep the walls, floors and basement dry is building. Plaster and paint can deteriorate and
termed as damp proofing. any wallpaper tends to loosen. A visible stain
often appears on the wall in the form of a tide
Wall plaster has a tough job in today’s buildings. Many types of wall plaster act almost like blotting paper and mark at the point where the ground water has
are highly susceptible to both internal and external sources of Dampness. reached .We may also see salts blooming on
Wall plaster becomes contaminated with Dampness from walls, floors and the atmosphere. The presence of a the internal surface. This will lead to the
Damp Stain or salting on the surface of the plaster is a sure sign that something is going on that needs debonding of paints and even plaster work.
professional investigation. Externally, mortar may crumble and white salt
stains may appear on the walls.
CAUSES OF DAMPNESS ON SURFACE FINISHES : CAUSES OF RISING DAMP :

Dampness in exterior wall is mainly due to rains. Too much of dampness on wall can damage the plaster of
that wall.. Dampness on wall could be due to various reasons like rain water accumulation, improper plumbing,
pipe defect, and crack in wall or porosity.. Usually one would think that, damage is caused only where
dampness is seen. But as per water capillary action, water can travel to other areas of the wall and cause
damage to other areas or other wall too.
Damp on interior walls most often develop due to condensation. Water contained in the air condenses on cold
surfaces, such as walls, resulting in a moist environment perfect for mould spores to thrive.
Most buildings have some form of barrier installed at the lower level of the
wall to prevent water rising up in this way known as DPC. These can be
made of non-absorbant, water-resistant materials such as slate, bitumen
and plastic depending on the period the property was built. Sometimes
these physical DPCs may fail over time; in older houses they may not exist
at all. If we don’t have a DPC or there is evidence that it has failed then
there is nothing to prevent the water from travelling up the wall.

PENETRATING DAMP : REMEDIES :

Penetrating damp occurs when water from outside penetrates the
building substrate. This can occur due to a variety of building defects
including faults in the joints, roofing, and masonry; failed external
render and poor pointing, and damaged or blocked guttering and
downpipes. Water soaks through the exterior wall and is absorbed into
the substrate, where it travels through to the interior walls. There,
moisture manifests as wet spots on the wall. These patches of
penetrating damp damage wallpaper, plaster and the walls
themselves. This creates a damp environment that causes spores in
the air to settle, growing mould and mildew.
1. Damp proof paint for internal walls can reduce the risk of damp resurfacing, acting as a barrier against
water. It is easy to apply and maintain.Damp proof paint is a non-toxic product (free from solvents and
plasticizer)
2. Damp proof wall membranes are made from High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) or Polypropylene. Each
membrane comes as a sheet with a thickness of between 0.5mm – 1mm with varying sized studs from
1mm – 8mm. The membranes are cut to size and fixed to walls and floors to prevent damp transferring to
internal finishes.
3. Renovating Plaster is designed for use after the insertion of a new damp proof course to stop salts and
control damp passing through the wall in the drying out stage. It is a is a pre-mixed, lightweight backing
plaster designed to control dampness passing through walls of older properties.
SOURCE : https://www.permagard.co.uk/advice/internal-damp-proofing-guide https://www.nemmadi.in/dampness-in-buildings-sources-prevention-causes-part-1/

NAME ANUSHKA RASTOGI

SUBJECT RAR-802, CONS. & MATERIALS ROLL NO. 1805181012
TOPIC- DEFECTS DUE TO DAMPNESS ON SURFACE FINISHES : PLASTER
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4TH YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
DEFECTS CAUSED BY DAMPNESS ON METHODS OF PREVENTING Integral Damp Proofing
SURFACE FINISHES DAMPNESS IN SURFACES This consists in adding certain water proofing compounds with
the concrete mix to increase its impermeability. Such
Following methods are generally adopted to prevent the defect compounds are available in market in powdered as well as in
The various defects caused by dampness to building may be of dampness in a structure:
summarized as under: liquid forms. The compounds made from clay, sand or lime
1. Membrane damp proofing (chalk, fuller’s earth, etc) help to fill the voids in concrete and
1. It causes efflorescence which may ultimately result in 2. Integral damp proofing
disintegration of bricks, stones, tiles etc. make it waterproof. Another form of compounds like alkaline
3. Surface treatment silicates, aluminium sulfate, calcium chlorides, etc react
2. It may result in softening and crumbling of plaster. 4. Guniting
3. It may cause bleaching and flaking of paint with the chemically when mixed with concrete to produce water proof
5. Cavity wall construction concrete. Pudlo, Imperno, Siks, etc. are some of the many
formation of colored patches.
4. It may result in the warping, buckling and rotting of commercially made preparation of water proofing compounds
timber.
Membrane Damp Proofing commonly used. The quantity of water proofing compounds to
5. It may lead to the corrosion of metals. This consists in providing layers of membrane of water be added to cement depends upon manufacturers’
6. It may cause deterioration to electrical fittings. repellant material between the source of dampness and the recommendations. In general, one kg of water proofing FLACKEY WALL FINISH DUE TO DAMPNESS FORMATION OF MOLD ON
7. It promotes growth of termites. part of the structure adjacent to it. This type of layer is compound is added with one bag of cement to render the ROOF AND WALL FINISHES
8. It creates unhealthy living conditions for the occupants. commonly known as damp proof course (DPC) and it may mortar or concrete waterproof.
comprise of materials like bituminous felts, mastic, asphalt,
plastic or polythene sheets, cement concrete, etc. Depending Surface Treatment
CAUSES OF DAMPNESS IN BUILDINGS upon the source of dampness, DPC may be provided As described earlier, the moisture finds its way through the
horizontally or vertically in floors, walls, etc. Provision of DPC in pores of materials used in finishing. In order to check the entry
Absorption of moisture by the building materials is one of the basement is normally termed as tanking. General principles to of the moisture into the pores, they must be filled up. Surface
chief causes of dampness. On account of granular nature of be observed while laying damp proof course are: treatment consists in filling up the pores of the surfaces
materials, moisture finds an easy access through the voids and • The DPC should cover full thickness of walls excluding subjected to dampness. The use of water repellant metallic
this aided by capillary action assists the moisture to travel in rendering. soaps such as calcium and aluminum oleates and stearates is
different directions. Thus, either on account of faulty design of • The mortar bed upon which the DPC is to be laid should be such effective in protecting the building against the ravages of
structure or bad workmanship or by use of defective structures made level, even and free from projections. Uneven base is heavy rain. Bituminous solution, cement coating, transparent
or by use of defective materials, moisture may find its way on likely to cause damage to DPC. coatings, paints, varnishes fall under this category. In addition
the interior of the building either through the wall, floor or • When a horizontal DPC is to be continued up a vertical face to other surface treatment given to walls, the one
roof. a cement concrete fillet 75mm in radius should be economically used is lime cement plaster. The walls plastered
provided at the junction prior to the treatment. with cement, lime and sand in proportion of 1:3:6 is found to
SOURCES OF DAMPNESS IN BUILDING • Each DPC should be placed in correct relation to other DPC serve the purpose of preventing dampness in wall due to rain
so as to ensure complete and continuous barrier to the effectively. EFFLORESCENCE
The important sources of dampness may be summarized as passage of water from floors, walls or roof.
below: Guniting
1. Dampness rising through the foundation walling. Moisture This consists in depositing an impervious layer of rich cement
from wet ground may rise well above the ground level on mortar over the surface to be waterproofed. The operation is
account of capillary action. carried out by use of a machine known as cement gun. The
2. Splashing rain water which rebounds after hitting the wall assembly broadly consists of a machine having arrangements
surface may also cause dampness. for mixing materials and a compressor for forcing the mixture
3. Penetration of rain water through unprotected tops of under pressure through a 50mm diameter flexible hose pipe.
walls, parapet, compound walls, etc may cause dampness. The hose pipe has nozzle at its free end to which water is CRACKS IN PAINT FINISH AS IT
4. In case of sloped roofs, rain water may percolate through supplied under pressure through a separate connection. The LEAVES THE WALL
BUCKLED PANELING
defective roof covering. In addition faulty eaves course and surface to be treated is first thoroughly cleaned of dirt, dust,
eave or valley gutters may allow the rain water to descend grease or loose particles and wetted properly. Cement and
through the top supporting wall and cause dampness. sand (or fine aggregates) usually taken in proportion of 1:3 to
5. In case of flat roofs, inadequate roof slopes, improper 1:4 are then fed into the machine. This mixture is finally shot
rainwater pipe connections, and defective junction on the prepared surface under a pressure of 2 to 3 kg per
between roof slab and parapet wall may prove to be the square cm by holding the nozzle of the cement gun at the
source of dampness. distance of 75 to 90 cm from the working surface. The quantity
of water in the mix can be controlled by means of regulating
HOW TO IDENTIFY RISING DAMP DAMAGE OF valve provided in the water supply hose attachment. Since the
1. Tide marks on internal walls WALLPAPER FINISH material is applied under pressure, it ensures dense
2. Dark patches on internal walls compaction and better adhesion of the rich cement mortar
3. Stained or peeling wallpaper and hence treated surface becomes waterproof.
4. Blistering paint DAMAGE OF WALL
5. Discolouration and flaking plaster PANELING AND Cavity Wall Construction
6. Salt effloresence present CEILING TILES This consists in shielding the main wall of the building by an
outer skin wall leaving a cavity in between the two. The cavity
https://www.permagard.co.uk/advice/causes-of-damp-in-houses prevents the moisture from traveling from the outer to the
https://www.bergerpaints.com/imaginecolours/decor-culture/damp-proofing-freedom-damp-walls inner wall.
https://theconstructor.org/building/prevention-dampness-building/4577/ PAINT FALLING OFF THE WALL
EXTERIOR FINISH DEFECTS INTERIOR FINISH DEFECTS

DAMAGED WALL PAINT DAMAGED CEILING

FLAKEY PAINT EFFLORESCENCE AND WATER MARKS

DAMAGED WALLPAPER AND FLOORING DAMAGED GYPSUM BOARD CEILING

EXTERIOR WALLPAPER DAMAGED

https://www.permagard.co.uk/advice/causes-of-damp-in-houses
https://theconstructor.org/building/prevention-dampness-building/4577/
https://www.bergerpaints.com/imaginecolours/decor-culture/damp-proofing-freedom-damp-walls DAMAGED TILES DAMAGED WOODEN FLOORING
 Efflorescence Treatment on Concrete and Masonry Surfaces
INTRODUCTION following method can be adopted for the treatment of efflorescence:
1.Material selection
Efflorescence is a crystalline, salty 2.Design and detailing
deposit that can occur on the 3.Construction practices
surfaces of bricks, masonry, 1. Material Selection
• Avoid selection of materials that have a high potential to produce efflorescence. For example, use cement with low
or concrete. It is generally a white or
alkali content since the possibility of efflorescence formation increases with the increase of alkali content.
off-white color with a • Finally, materials can be tested to find out whether they potentially cause efflorescence formation or not, for
powdery appearance. While not example, test method C 67 efflorescence test for brick.
a risk structurally, it affects SAC (FOAP)
2. Design and Detailing
the appearance of a building, Generally, rainwater can ingress into all kinds of masonry walls to a certain extent, but proper design and detailing can
particularly if it features be employed to decline or eliminate the water penetration which subsequently contributes to the prevention of
colored concrete or brickwork. efflorescence formation. The design measures that are recommended to avoid efflorescence formation involve:
• Watertight Below Grade Masonry Commonly, groundwater contains a sizable quantity of soluble salts that may
while efflorescence in itself is not a accumulate in masonry and cause efflorescence creation. This source of efflorescence can be removed through
problem, it is a symptom of a watertight masonry below grade, in addition, to installing base flashing to discharge water out of the wall a few
problem, namely the presence of courses of masonry above the grade. Finally, it is recommended to use grout or mortar to support base flashing
excess water in the masonry, which below the air space.
• Proper Detailing of Movement Joints If the movement joints are adequately sized, located, and sealed, then water
can lead to more serious structural
penetration into the wall will be declined to a great extent.
and health issues.
3. Construction Practices
Beneficial construction practices that lead to decrease efflorescence formation are as follows:
• Utilized Water Use clean water free from salts.
• Material protection during transportation and construction process Masonry units shall be isolated from dirt,
contamination, groundwater, snow, and rainwater through suitable storing. In addition to covering material during
the transportation and construction process.
• Filling Joints Adequately Sufficient filling of joints such as head and bed mortar joints in solid unit masonry, face
shells head and bed joints in hollow unit masonry, and grapevine mortar joints on the exterior face of the wall are
considerably critical factors that must be considered to eliminate efflorescence. This is will create an adequate bond
between masonry units and prevent the ingression of wind-driven water into masonry walls.
• Covering unfinished brickwork Covering partially completed masonry works with waterproofing membranes at the
end of each working day is a must. If such measure is not considered, the masonry works may be subjected to
rainwater and saturated which takes a long time to dry. Consequently, the likelihood of efflorescence formation will
increase.

Causes of Efflorescence Removal of Efflorescence

•The removal of efflorescence is conducted using one of the
The condition in which efflorescence occurs is unique and all conditions should be met otherwise following methods:
concrete and brick masonry would not suffer from it. Three main conditions offer excellent conditions for •Drybrush
efflorescence formation on concrete and brick masonry walls. These conditions are as follows: •Rinsing with water or other acceptable liquid
•Hand washing BOUNDARY WALL(NADWA COLLAGE)
• Concrete and brick masonry wall should contain •Sandblasting
soluble salts and the salt might be in masonry brick, •Utilize a special chemical cleaner
mortar, adjacent soil, and backing material •Ordinary chemical cleaners such as muriatic
• Water should be present in concrete and brick Several factors control the selection of efflorescence removal.
masonry walls and need to be in contact with soluble
salt to dissolve it. For example, if the salt is soluble, it is recommended to apply
• Concrete and brick masonry walls shall possess a pore a dry brush. Hand washing is recommended to choose for
structure to permit the migration of soluble salt to small efflorescence batches. It should be known that the
the surface where water may evaporate and leave the removal and cleaning of the efflorescence on the masonry
salt. surfaces would not solve the problem. So, it is required to seal
the wall to tackle the problem permanently.
ARNAV SINGH
DEFECTS CAUSED BY EFFLORESCENCE 4 YEAR – A VIII SEM FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE AND
PLANNING ,AKTU
CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIAL
Fitted cabinets and almirahs can trap moisture, especially if they are up against the external wall. This leads to mould and mildew, which is
not only unhealthy and unsightly but can also ruin the contents of your cupboard. Bacteria can grow in dark and damp places and can be the
cause of disease in your home.

REASONS FOR DAMPNESS AND ITS PREVENTION

External Sources of Water Seepage
Start by cutting off any external sources of moisture. Check to ensure that there is no water seepage from the walls, roof or floor. If there is a
bathroom on the floor above that is not adequately waterproofed, there could be seepage through the roof that is making the walls of your
cupboard wet. A crack in the wall could lead to rainwater coming in.

Mould that is Already Present in Wardrobes

If there is any mould or mildew that is already growing in your closets, you can clean it with a solution of 50:50 water and vinegar. Pour
some concentrated vinegar on the surface to kill hidden spores and leave it to dry. Once all the surfaces are clean, wipe down with water
and dry it out completely.
Mould in Bathrooms
Mould in bathrooms can be removed using bleach and disinfectant. Be careful to read the instructions and use it as appropriate on surfaces
like wood or marble. Bleach is a potent substance, even when diluted, and could cause damage to the finish.

Bad Good Air Flow

Every once in a while, you could leave the shutters open to air out the contents of the cupboards. Do not pack things too tightly, and make
sure there is room for air to circulate. The lack of adequate ventilation can contribute to the growth of mould.
Especially in the shoe cabinet, it’s a good idea to have louvres on the shutters as footwear does tend to be damp and can get smelly. Also,
consider louvred shutters for the cabinet where you have stored the gas cylinder.

Some steps to prevent dampness Keep Humidity Levels Low

De-clutter and Deep Clean Reduce the moisture level in your home to
Every once in a while, you should de-clutter your wardrobes and prevent damp conditions; you can keep air
throw out anything that is not in use. Wipe off any dust and shake circulating by opening doors and windows
out anything that hasn’t been used in a while and allowing some cross-ventilation to occur.

Line Shelves with Paper Use of sunlight

Use lining paper on the shelves; it will serve as the first control of
Sunlight is a natural disinfectant and will dry
humidity inside a closed space. You can use absorbent paper rolls
all the surfaces. Remember to keep the
or newspapers as well. Alternately, you could use plastic liners that
exhaust fans running when you have a bath
can be washed and reused.
or when you are cooking in
Do Not Use Carpets or Rugs in Damp Areas the kitchen. Bathroom ventilators should be
Remove rugs or mats from the bathroom, foyer balconies and any kept open to let in the fresh air
other spaces that are likely to get wet. While these mats are drying,
they will cause the humidity of the rooms to increase.

NAME ARPIT AGARWAL

DAMPNESS IN CABINETS AND ALMIRAHS SUBJECT CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS ROLL NO. 1805181015

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

1
Faculty Of Architecture & Planning Lucknow

Construction and materials

RAR- 802

Ashwin Chandra
Roll no. 1805181016
B.Arch 4th year
LOAD BEARING WALLS: VERTICAL CRACKS
Minor cracks are usually tend to appear on internal walls and are the result movement in
materials
major vertical cracks running on exterior walls of your property (minimum of 3mm in
width) this can indicate serious settlement issues or foundation problems.
The causes of wall cracks
• Settling and subsidence.
• Reactive soils.
• Climate and seasonal changes.
• Excavation and construction works in your area.
• Poor initial design or poorly-constructed extension work.
• Water damage.
• Trees in close proximity to the property.
• Degradation of building materials.

REPAIRING AND SEALING WALL CRACKS

There are many options for repairing wall cracks. It’s relatively easy to hide wall cracks if
they are hairline cracks. Minor cracking that is purely cosmetic can be repaired or sealed
with filler and paint.
However, if your wall cracks are caused by an underlying structural defect then repairs can
be much more costly, time-consuming and inconvenient. The best method for repair for
vertical cracks in masonry is to effectively stitch the cracks back together using crack
stitching bars. These are usually either Helical-type bars that feature a course looking
thread or an epoxy-glass type rod.
The normal method for fixing is to first cut out a bedding joint in the masonry spanning the
vertical crack. Specialist dust extraction equipment should be used to ensure that all dust
and debris is removed from the joint eliminating the possibility or future failure.
Once the joints have been cut, the rods are inserted and a polyester or epoxy based resin
is injected in to bond the rods to surrounding masonry.
Once the resin has set and the length of the gap has been stitched it can then be filled
using a soft mortar mix. When mixing the mortar you should also add a shrink proofing
agent as this will then help to compensate for any further, small amounts of movement.

ASHWIN CHANDRA

CONSTRUCTION & MATERIALS RAR - 802 Roll no.- 1805181016

B. Arch 4th year 8 sem
HORIZONTAL CRACKS IN BUILDINGS
• While fine hairline horizontal cracks in plaster may be due simply to shrinkage in the plaster, 3- External Cracks at bottom level of parapet:
other horizontal cracks are more serious. • Horizontal cracks appear in masonry at parapet base
• Horizontal cracks in the wall identified during a building inspection are commonly caused by level due to the horizontal shear stress developing at
unbalanced soil pressure on concrete block foundation walls. a junction of the two different materials.
• Other horizontal cracks in walls may be caused by the pressure of a failing wall or indicative of • Furthermore, differential expansion and contraction
load bearing problems and are a safety concern. occurs in slab due to the thermal and shrinkage
effect.
Horizontal Cracks in Walls of Load Bearing Structures • Finally, it causes horizontal shear stress, and hence
external cracks develop at parapet base in topmost
1- External Cracks in Cross Walls At Ceiling Level: story
• In a load bearing structure, when a roof slab undergoes Preventive Measures
expansion and contraction alternatively. • Use low shrinkage and low slump concrete for slab pouring.
• It is due to the gain of heat from the sun and loss of • Start the brickwork of parapet after at least one month. During that time, concrete will
heat by radiation into the open sky. undergo some drying shrinkage before construction of parapet wall.
• Horizontal cracks may occur in Cross walls at ceiling • Use minimum CM 1:6 mortar for brickwork and ensure the proper bond between masonry
level due to the expansion and contraction of the RCC and concrete.
slab. • Do the plaster at least one month after construction of wall. Provide V-groove in plaster at
Preventive Measures the junction of brickwork and concrete to make it discontinuous at the junction.
• Provide the insulating materials which have a good heat insulation • Provide chicken wire mess at the junction of brickwork and concrete.
capacity along with high reflective finish. • Substitute the brickwork with RCC wall in the case of the brick-cum-iron railing.
• Provide Slip Joint at support of RCC slab, and it’s all supporting wall
as well as slab and cross wall to reduce the horizontal cracks due to
expansion and contraction of the RCC slab. 4- External Horizontal Cracks in walls at
• Provide 10 to 12 mm wide groove inside plaster to make wall plaster Lintel/Sill Level in the Topmost Story:
and ceiling plaster discontinuous. • This type of external horizontal cracks in walls
2- External Cracks in Cross Walls At Ceiling Level: occurs due to the pull exerted on the wall by the
• External horizontal cracks below slab level occur due to slab of the topmost story.
deflection of a slab and lifting up of the edge of the • The pull exerted on the wall is a result of the
bearing slab. drying shrinkage and thermal contraction.
• At the same time the horizontal movement in slab due to • These type of cracks in brick walls also occur
shrinkage also affects the horizontal cracks in walls of the when the window and room spans are large.
topmost story below slab level. Horizontal cracks are more
severe, if the slab has large span.
Preventive Measures
• Provide slip joint between the top story slab/beam and supporting walls.
Preventive Measures • Provide RCC band with adequate thickness at sill and lintel Level all through the length of
• In the case of the slab with a large span, Increase depth of the slab and beam so it will increase the wall.
stiffness. Further the thicker slab would be less impervious too. Thus it helps in both ways. Normally
increase the depth of similar top slab minimum by 1/2″ or 12 mm and probably 1″ or 25 mm. It will
reduce steel too. Hence there will not be much effective cost.
• Adopt special bearing arrangement like slip joint at support of RCC slab.
• Provide groove in the plaster at the junction of wall and ceiling so the groove mitigates the cracks.

NAME AYUSH GUPTA

SUBJECT RAR-802 ROLL NO. 1805181018
HORIZONTAL CRACKS IN LOAD BEARING WALLS FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4TH YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
Horizontal Cracks in Walls of Load Bearing Structures
5- External Horizontal Cracks in Brick 7- External/Internal Horizontal Cracks
Walls of Top Most Storey Corners: in Mortar Joints of Brick Walls:
• These type of cracks appear when the • These type of cracks appear after two or
corner of slab lift vertically upwards due three years of construction.
to the deflection in the slab in both • Horizontal cracks occur when the mortar
directions. joints are weakened due to the sulphate
• In the lower storeys, lifting of slab corner attack.
is prevented by the vertical load of the
upper storey. Hence cracks occurs only in
the top storey corner of the house.
Preventive Measures
• There is no effective curative remedy against these cracks, except the use of sulphate
Preventive Measures resisting materials at a time of construction.
• Provide adequate corner reinforcement in slabs.
What causes Horizontal Cracks in a Building?
6- Horizontal Cracks in Brick
Walls at Eaves Level in Pitched Reactive soil:
Roofs With Wooden Trusses A reactive soil is a type of soil that expands dramatically when moist and contract when dry.
• Horizontal cracks in brick walls at Clay is just one example of a reactive soil. Non-reactive soil types include sand and gravel. Soil
eaves level are found inside of the testing can assist in identifying whether your soil is reactive and might be contributing to your
wooden pitched roof home. wall cracks
• Horizontal cracks occur when house
becomes very old. Climatic and seasonal change
• They also occur when the clay tiles or Climate and seasonal changes, such as drought and flood, can cause dramatic contraction and
slate are used as roofing materials for expansion of the soil or changes in the water table far below a property leading to wall
the construction of the house. cracking.
• Sometimes, the wood of the pitched
roof becomes weak due to dry rot or Excavation and construction works in your area:
fungal attack etc. The use of heavy machinery, vibration, excessive mechanical compaction of the soil or blasting
• Hence external cracks appear due to (the use of explosives to excavate) can all cause your walls to crack. If your wall cracks appear
the outward thrust from the roof following construction in your area you should seek an urgent assessment of the cracks and
truss to the wall which supports the legal advice.
wooden truss.
Water damage:
Preventive Measures Blocked gutters, flood damage, garden sprinklers, blocked or leaking pipes can all cause wall
•Use light weight materials for roofing like G.I sheets, A.C sheets, etc. cracks and they can have the effect of saturating or even washing away soil.
•Provide anti-fungal treatment to the woodwork.
•Provide steel tie in the external wall which supports the truss. Degradation of building material:
Gravity, weathering, rotting or poor maintenance can all take their toll on building materials.
When a building material starts to degrade, its structural integrity might be undermined,
causing it to succumb to gravity.

NAME AYUSH GUPTA

SUBJECT RAR-802 ROLL NO. 1805181018
HORIZONTAL CRACKS IN LOAD BEARING WALLS FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4TH YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
WHAT IS NON-LOAD BEARING WALL?
TOPIC- Cracks On Non Load Bearing Wall
DEFECTS ON NON-LOAD BEARING WALLS
 Definition: A wall which doesn’t help the structure to stand up and holds up only itself is •Non-load bearing cracks are caused by moisture content changes and thermal movements, which are
known as a non-load bearing wall. This wall is also referred to as “curtain wall”. non-load bearing cracks. It can take place anywhere in the base wall. Certain non-structural crack
 Main Features the main features of non-load bearing walls: characteristics include:
•Small cracks of 1-2 mm width
 A non-load bearing wall doesn’t support floor roof loads above.
•Cracks at doors or windows in the corner
 It is not a part of the structural frame system. •Cracks vertical or diagonal
 Most of the time, they are interior walls whose purpose is to divide the floor into rooms. •Plaster cracks
 They are built lighter to reduce the dead load of the structure. • Since these walls do not support severe external loads, their design is often negligent and
 One can remove any non-load bearing walls without endangering the safety of the insufficiently detailed.
building. • loss of water-tightness and cracking
• One of the most recent causes for these defects is the reduced width support of the walls on
 Non-load bearing walls can be identified by the joists and rafters.
concrete slabs, in order to minimise thermal bridge effects over internal surfaces, such as mould
 They are not responsible for gravitational support for the property. It is cost effective. grow and condensations (internal and external)

Typical concrete structure of Portuguese buildings filled with

nonloadbearing masonry walls.

Types Wooden non load bearning wall

Crack on Terrace parapet wall
•Hollow Concrete Block
•Facade Bricks Wall
•Hollow Bricks Wall
•Brick Walls
Hollow Concrete Block
The walls of the concrete building are made hollow. It has the advantage of great strength. It gives stability
without any waste of material. .
models for hollow clay bricks non-bearing walls simply divide
spaces. In this example, the
Facade Bricks Remedies On Non-load Bearing Walls central walls on both floors are
It is solid, durable and practically maintenance free. Colors do not lose their radiance in this brick. Facade bearing.
bricks are ecological and sustainable. •Check for any Cracks in the Walls and Seal Them.
Hollow Bricks •Waterproof the External Walls.
They are green living. They can reduce the use of heating and cooling devices. They are strong and better •Introduce wallpaper
used. Hollow bricks are cost effective. •periodic maintenance by repainting the walls after every three to five years, depending on
Brick Walls condition of the walls. .
It is an immovable block or wall made of brick. Brick walls are easy to install.

Name Ayushi gupta (1805181019)

Subject RAR-802, cons.& material
Faculty Of Architecture & Planning, Aktu
4th Year, Section-a, 2021-21
CRACKS IN FREESTANDING WALLS & PARAPETS
Following types of cracks are generally encountered in freestanding walls, i.e. compound, garden or parapet
walls:-
• Vertical cracks at regular intervals of 5 to 8 m and at change of direction may be due to drying shrinkage
combined with thermal contraction.
• Cracks tend to close in hot weather. If wide enough, cracks may be repaired by enlarging them and filling
the same with weak mortar (1 cement, 2 lime, 9 sand).
• If no expansion joints have been provided earlier, some of the cracks may he converted into expansion
joints.
• Diagonal cracks, which are tapering and are wider at the top, are due to foundation settlement. If cracks
are wide enough to endanger the stability of the wall, affected portion should be dismantled and rebuilt
providing adequate foundation.
• Diagonal cracks, which are tapering and are wider at the bottom, may be caused by the upward thrust
exerted by the roots of any trees and plants that may be growing in the vicinity of the wall.
Main purpose of carrying out repairs to cracks in walls is to :
(a) Restore normal appearance.
(b) Minimize the possibility of cracks causing further damage to the building.
(c) To ensure that the building is serviceable and safe.
Before carrying out any repairs to cracks, it should be examined whether the cracks have stabilized and are
not widening any further. Walls which are not more than 25 mm out of plumb, or which do not bulge more
than 10 mm in a normal storey height, would not generally require repairs on structural ground. Cracks due
to thermal movement generally reoccur when repaired with mortar; therefore such cracks should be filled
with some mastic compound.
(i) Cracks up to 1.5 mm in width generally, need no repairing if bricks used are of absorbing type, as is
normally the case in India. In case of nonabsorbent bricks, there is a possibility of rainwater penetrating
through the thin cracks, hence it needs repair even in thin cracks. The cracked joints should be raked out
and filled with 1:1:6 (cement, lime, sand) mortar.
(ii) Cracks wider than 1.5 mm generally needs repairing & method depends on the type of mortar used in
the brickwork.
(a) With weak mortars, the cracks should be enlarged and raked out to a depth of about 25 mm and refilled
with 1:2:9 (cement, lime, sand) mortar and repainted or re-plastered (10 cm wide strip around crack) with
the same mortar.
(b) With strong mortar, bricks adjoining the crack should be cut out and replaced with new bricks using
1:1:6 (cement, lime, sand) mortar. The same procedure should be followed if the bricks are cracked.
TOPIC- CRACKS IN FREESTANDING WALLS: BOUNDRY
WALLS & PARAPETS
Parapet Definition
• If a short-height (3ft-4ft) wall is built on the edge of the roof, balcony and terrace of the
house, it is known as a parapet wall. It is also built on bridges and sidewalks.
• Various materials such as brick masonry, steel, RCC (reinforced cement concrete),
aluminium, glass are used for parapet wall construction. It gives our home an attractive
look.
IRON PARAPET STAINLESS STEEL PARAPET
Iron – This can be painted with different
colors also to match the theme of the
building though it requires a lot of
maintenance it tends to rust and corrodes
SOME DESIGNS OF PARAPET WALL
over time
•Stainless steel – In terms of metal today this is the most preferred option as it doesn’t rust, it is
scratch-resistant a lot of patterns can be made in terms of design, it is lightweight and cost-
effective as well.
CAUSES Cracks at the base of a parapet wall
• Drying shrinkage of concrete is 3 to 4 times that of brick masonry
• Parapets are generally built over the concrete slab before the latter undergone its drying shrinkage fully,
and
• Parapet or railing does not have much self-weight to resist horizontal shear force at its support caused by
differential thermal movement and differential drying shrinkage.
The following measures may be adopted to reduce the severity of such cracking.
a) Concrete for slab should be of low shrinkage and low slump.
b) Construction of masonry over the slab should be deferred as much as possible (at least one month) so
that concrete undergoes some drying shrinkage before construction of parapet.
c) Mortar for parapet masonry should be 1 cement: 1 lime: 6 sand and a good bond should be ensured
between masonry and concrete.
d) Plastering on masonry and RCC work should be deferred as much as possible (at least one month) and
made discontinuous at the junction by providing Vgroove in plaster. This way the cracks if they occur, will get
concealed behind the groove and will not be conspicuous. Alternatively, a 10 cm. Wide strip of metal mess or
lathing may be fixed over the junction to act as reinforcement for plaster.
e) In case of brick-cum-iron railing, cracks could be avoided by substituting the brickwork (of which there are
only a few courses) with a low RCC wall, supporting RCC railing.
NAME GAURAV SINGH
SUBJECT RAR-802, CONSTRUCTIONS & MATERIALS-VII ROLL NO. 1805181020
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4TH YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
 DEFECTS CAUSED BY SETTLEMENT OF WALLS
Walls get cracks mainly as a result of ground movement. It is rare for
modern buildings to undergo bad settlement due to foundation
overload. On the other hand older buildings were quite often built on
soft soils, their builders being unaware of the future consequences.
But all categories of structures may suffer settlement through ground
movement independent of the foundation loading. Such movements
are typically caused by mining, tunneling, earthquakes, changes to
groundwater levels, adjacent excavation and soil awelling or
shrinkage.
DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT
Differential settlement is not usually a sign of carpentry construction
flaws, although some people view it that way. Instead, the
phenomenon results when the soil beneath the structure expands,
contracts, or shifts in an uneven fashion, causing the foundation to
settle at an uneven rate.
CAUSES
Uneven settlement of a wall is always caused by some form of shifting
of the soil beneath the foundation, but this shifting can take place for
several reasons.
SOIL WITH WEAK BEARING CAPACITY
Uneven settlement of a wall is always caused by some form of
shifting of the soil beneath the foundation, but this shifting can take
place for several reasons.
POORLY COMPACTED SOIL
Building sites for commercial or residential structures often consist of
land that has been artificially leveled and filled for ease of construction.
When properly compacted, this fill soil can provide a perfectly solid
base for supporting foundations, but when not compacted, the soil
may settle and compress unevenly under the foundation, leading to
structural damage.
SETTLEMENT OF WALLS: EQUAL AND UNEQUAL
CHANGES IN SOIL MOISTURE
Soil that is either too dry or too wet can cause foundation settlement.
When moisture builds up, soils saturate and lose their load-bearing
capacity. Dry soils shrink in volume. Either situation can cause uneven
settling of the foundation.
TREES AND VEGETATION
Large trees, shrubs, and other vegetation planted along a building's
foundation or close to it can gradually draw the moisture out of the soil
and cause it to shrink.
VIBRATION
Vibration of the soil from seismic activity or even from nearby road
traffic can cause soils to settle or shift unevenly, leading to structural
damage to the building.
SYMPTOMS
Symptoms of differential settlement may appear fairly soon after a
building's construction, or they may take decades to make themselves
known. Obvious signs include cracks in the concrete slab or foundation
walls supporting the building, or doors and windows that are out of
square or hard to open and close.
CURES
Need to have the problem diagnosed early, before the symptoms
become major. It is generally possible to solve the issues, but
addressing them early is the easiest and most affordable approach.
PREVENTION
It is best prevented by careful analysis of the soil before a building
foundation is constructed. The best soils for building foundations
are nonexpansive—meaning that they contain little clay or silt content.
Ideally, the building site will be native soil rather than a site artificially
filled with outside soil.
NAME GOVIND NITIN
SUBJECT
CONST. & MATERIALS ROLL NO. 1805181021
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4TH YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
SETTLEMENT OF FLOORS
INTRODUCTION

• Inevitably, soils deform under the load of foundation structures. The total vertical FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT CAUSES
displacement that occur at foundation level is termed as settlement. The cause of foundation
settlement is the reduction of volume air void ratio in the soil. Moreover, the magnitude of Direct causes
foundation settlement is controlled by many factors type of soil and foundation structure.
• The direct cause of foundation settlement is the weight of building including dead load and live load .
Types of foundation settlement
• Differential foundation settlement (unequal settlement) Indirect causes
• Uniform foundation settlement (equal settlement)
• Failure of collapsible soil underground infiltration
Differential foundation settlement • Yielding of excavation done adjacent to foundation
• Settlement that occurs at differing rates between different portions of a building is termed differential • Failure of underground tunnels and mines
settlement. • Collapse of cavities of limestones
• Differential settlement occurs if there is difference in soils, loads, or structural systems between parts of a • Undermining of foundation while flood
building. in this case, different parts of the building structure could settle by substantially different amounts. • Earthquake induced settlement
• Consequently, the frame of the building may become distorted, floors may slope, walls and glass may crack, • Finally, due to extraction of ground water and oil.
and doors and windows may not work properly.
• Uneven foundation settlement may force buildings to shift out of plumb which lead to crack initiation in COMPONENTS OF TOTAL SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATIONS
foundation, structure, or finish.
• Majority of foundation failures are attributable to severe differential settlement.
• Lastly, for conventional buildings with isolated foundations, 20mm differential settlement is acceptable. And Immediate settlement
50mm total settlement is tolerable for the same structures.
• It is also called short term settlement.
Uniform foundation settlement • Immediate settlement take place mostly in coarse grained soils of high permeability and in unsaturated fine-grained
soils of low permeability.
• when foundation settlement occurs at nealy the same rate throughout all portions of a building, it is called • Lastly, it occurs over short period of time which about 7 days. So, it ends during construction time.
uniform settlement.
• If all parts of a building rest on the same kind of soil, then uniform settlement the most probable type to take
place. Primary settlement
• Similarly, when loads on the building and the design of its structural system are uniform throughout, the
anticipated settlement would be uniform type. • It also termed as primary consolidation
• Commonly, uniform settlement has small detrimental influence on the building safety. • Take place over long period of time that ranges from 1 to 5 years or more
• However, it influences utility of the building for example damaging sewer; water supply; and mains and • Primary settlement frequently occurs in saturated inorganic fine grain soil.
jamming doors and windows. • Expulsion of water from pores of saturated fine grain soil is the cause of primary settlement.

Secondary settlement

• Secondary settlement is the consolidation of soil under constant effective stress.

• Frequently, it occurs in organic fine grain soil.
• It continues over the life span of foundation structure similar to creep in concrete.

NAME HARSH VARDHAN SAUGATROLL NO. 1805181022

TOPIC: SETTLEMENT OF FLOORS: EQUAL, UNEQUAL SUBJECT CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIAL

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4RD YEAR SEM -8, SECTION-A, 2020-21
SETTLEMENT OF FLOORS
INTRODUCTION

EQUAL SETTLEMENT UNEQUAL SETTLEMENT

Settlement in the structure is defined as the failure or the disparity of the portion under the bae of structure caused by the Uneven settlement of the soil beneath the foundation of a structure that may lead to “sinking” of different parts of the structure
unequal compression about its foundations. which causes cracks and other structural problems.
Some other reasons of uniform settlement are as below. Some other reasons of the Differential settlement are as below.
• Weak bearing capacity of soil, Highly Expansive Soil
• Less compaction during the construction of foundation, • Frost action in soils
• Change in the water content in soil, • Drought conditions of the site
• Trees and vegetation • Flooding problems
• The consolidation of soil. • Poor drainage
• Poorly compacted soil system
The uniform settlement has various application on the base of the structure such as below. • Vibration from the nearby construction site
• Foundation over poor soil
• Physical appearance of the structures, • Alternating wetting and drying of soil at foundation level
• Basic utility of the structures and
• Distortions in the structures. Other Problems from the Differential Settlement are:
• Tilting of the chimney
There are some major effects of the uniform settlement as below. • Walls bulging
• Sunken Slabs
• Cracks in the foundation and the interior walls, • Leaks through the openings
• Non-uniform setting of the doors and windows, • Sinking of exterior stairs
• The bulging of walls and sinking of slabs and chimneys and • Resistance of Differential Settlement
• Stair step cracks
• Unevenness in floor etc. Differential settlement in structures can be tolerated by the structure by several means. This tolerating capacity will depend on
the following factors:
The uniform settlement between parts of a structure should not exceed the value of 75% of the normal absolute settlement.
When we consider the earth dams and levees, we take the greater margin error. • The type of the structure
As per building codes the average settlement of the structure can be given by the type of the buildings. • The spacing of the columns and overall structural framing plan
• Structure is tied in all dimensions or separated to the buildings
• Presence of fixed arch if any will result in abutment settlement
• Greater distortion can be tolerated by simple span frames
• Pile settlement or pier construction is critical
• Truss arrangement in structure is critical

For Avoiding Differential Settlement:

• Proper geotechnical investigation of the soil
• Study the surrounding environment
• The soil over which the building is constructed must not be expansive in nature
• Proper tie beam system
• Proper soil treatment i.e. strengthening of the soil
• If possible lay all the foundations at the same level
• Avoid foundation at a layer which is in alternatively drying and wetting
• Proper tie beam system
• Proper soil treatment before laying foundation

NAME HARSH VARDHAN SAUGATROLL NO. 1805181022

TOPIC: SETTLEMENT OF FLOORS: EQUAL, UNEQUAL SUBJECT CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIAL

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4RD YEAR SEM -8, SECTION-A, 2020-21
 DIRECTION FOR TREATING CRACKS IN BUILDING STEPS:-
CRACKS IN BUILDING
A building component develops cracks To ensure your repair work holds well, the area must be Undercut the Crack's Edges
whenever stress in the component exceeds very clean. With a wire brush, clean the crack. Sweep Once the area is clean, use a cold chisel and large hammer
its strength. The forces applied to the to undercut the edges of the crack. This will help hold the
away any loose debris, then vacuum the crack. If grease,
patch in place. Be sure to wear eye protection.
structure, tensile, compressive or shear oil, or dirt remains in or near the crack, clean it
forces to the concrete. thoroughly, or you might find that the repair won't hold. Apply Bonding Adhesive
These forces generate deformation, which With a small paintbrush, coat the crack surface with
can lead to cracking. The location and • Equipment / Tools concrete bonding adhesive. Allow the adhesive to
dry completely.
geometry of the crack on the structure is • Wire brush
often characteristic; the cause can then be • Vacuum cleaner or shop-vac Prepare the Sand Mix
identified by observing the cracks. • Cold chisel Mix a suitable amount of sand mix with water as
• Hammer instructed on the bag. (Sand mix is one variety of dried
FORCES APPLIED • Safety glasses concrete products sold in bags at home stores.

• Cracks due to compression are parallel to the applied • Trowel
force. • Paintbrush
• Tensile cracks are perpendicular to the applied force. • Materials
• Shear cracks are perpendicular to the tensile stress. • Concrete bonding adhesive
• Sand mix
CRACKS IN FLOORS
The Intermediate cracks initiate within the region of maximum moment and then the individual IC
interface cracks gradually propagate, from their associated flexural and flexural/shear intermediate
cracks.
Cracks in floor developed occurred when foundation part of the building is not treated properly
CRACKS IN BALCONY
Cracks or voids should be sealed as soon as you notice them in
the balcony slab. If left unattended, they will expand more
quickly and can lead to structural issues. Even if the crack seems
small, it should be addressed before it can progress.
Fill the Crack
With a trowel, fill the crack thoroughly with the mixture.
Smooth it down with the side of the trowel and level the
surface as much as you can
Let the Patch Dry
Allow the patch to cure undisturbed as instructed
on the bag
CRACKS IN CEILING
There are two main causes of ceiling cracks: Structural damage
and the natural settling that happens as a building ages. Ceiling
cracks can also be caused by poor workmanship.
• Your home is getting older
• You have moisture damage.
• The floor above the ceiling is too heavy.
• Something is wrong with your drywall.
• You have foundation problems.

When this happens you will see a few small cracks appear here and there,
including on the ceiling. Most of the time, these small cracks do not indicate
a major structural issue. However, it’s good to know what to be on the
The result of the balcony sagging due to inadequate construction lookout for. That way, if any serious cracks do appear, you’ll be able to spot
them and take immediate action.
NAME JATIN VERMA
SUBJECT CONSTRUCTION AND ROLL NO.
TOPIC- TOPIC:-CRACKS IN
1805181023
MATERIAL

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU

FLOORS/CEILING/BALCONIES: INTERMEDIATE FLOOR 4TH YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
 JYOTISHUKLA
CONS&MAT.VI
II
CRACKESI
NFLOOR/CEI
LING :TERRACEFLOOR
1805181024SEC-A
FACUL
TYOFARCH.&PLANNI
NG ,AKTU
 THE MAIN CAUSES OF OCCURRENCE IN SLABS • Improper Curing
DEFECTS IN BUILDINGS ARE AS FOLLOWS : Improper curing of concrete may cause concrete shrinkage. Moreover, it
Defect may be considered to be failing/shortcoming in could reduce the strength of the concrete. The cracks due to improper
function/performance/statutory or user requirements of building, and might • Poor Concrete Quality curing can be shallow fine cracks that are parallel to each other.
manifest itself within structure/fabric/ services/other facilities of affected Compromising with the concrete quality is one of the Prevention for shrinkage: Excessive amount of water
building. reasons for crack developments in reinforced concrete which is used in concrete should be minimized. It can be
THE COMMON DEFECTS IN THE BUILDINGS slabs. Poor concrete quality results in lower concrete with the help of vibrations so that lesser shrinkage is low.
• Cracks strength, specifically, the tensile strength. As a result, the Excessive amount of cement should be minimized for lesser
• Dampness tensile strength of concrete reaches its maximum limit at a shrinkage.
very low magnitude of stress.
CRACKS • Large Slab Span
Cracks result from applied forces greater than those which the building or • Improper Structural Design
Another cause of crack development in an RCC slab is the When the span of the slab is longer than that of applicable standards, then
part of it can withstand. the development of cracks, especially flexural cracks, is highly likely.
These forces may have been applied externally to building, internally within low reinforcement ratio due to errors in the design stage. A
building, or have been built up in, the materials of the building as a result of lower reinforcement ratio yields a lower slab capacity to
support loads. As a result, the RCC slab cracks at smaller • Due to thermal movement:
chemical changes. Most material gets expanded when they are heated up and contracted when
There may be a single force/combination of forces, having a single/several loads.
they are cooled. The expansion and contraction which occur due to change
causes. in temperature condition in effective of crass sectional area.
TYPES OF CRACKS

Structural Cracks Non Structural Cracks

• Wrong Steel Bars Spacing

When the spacing between primary and distribution Prevention for thermal movements: The joints should be constructed with
DEFECTS CAUSED
reinforcement BY CRACKS
is greater than theIN spacing, then construction joints, expansion joints, control joints and slip joints etc. these
SLAB PROJECTIONSZ
designated
CAUSES OF DEFECTS IN SLAB PROJECTIONS AND IT’S cracks may develop in the RCC slab. joints should be planned at the time of construction and design.
REMEDIES
• Insufficient Concrete Cover • Due to creep
Insufficient concrete cover reduces the required protection Creep is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform
Concrete encompasses certain types of cracks in pre hardening as well as
for steel bars. As a result, chloride attacks would permanently under the influence of mechanical stresses, it occurs as a result
post hardening stage in the life of a structure.
cause steel corrosion, leading to cracking of concrete along to exposure to high level of stress .
Even with our extreme care and prevention we acquire certain cracks. when
steel bars.
concrete become older and harder and cracks occur on the surface, such
cracks becomes source of the leakage and seepage and give a passage to the
moisture, oxygen, chlorides, carbon dioxide etc. and other chemicals and
gases which may cause serious damage to the structure which may cause
corrosion to steel and damage to concrete and ultimately structural failure
Factors affecting creep : 1) Influence of aggregate 2) Relative humidity 3)
of the member.
a) Cracks due to insufficient concrete cover Applied stresses
Cracks that occur before hardening, primarily due to settlement,
b) Cracks due to wrong material selection Prevention for creep: Concrete should be used which has low shrinkage
construction movements, and excessive evaporation of water, are called
and low slump.
plastic cracks. Plastic cracking that can be predominantly eliminated
through close attention to the mixture design, material placement, and • Wrong Material Selection Sources : Development of cracks in concrete, preventive measures and
curing. Cracks that occur after the concrete has hardened may be due to The selection of right concrete constituent, such as treatment methods: A review Rajveer Singh Narwaria1, Archana Tiwari
variety of reasons. These may be due to mechanical loading, thermal aggregate, is essential in reducing the risk of crack
gradients, moisture and incompatibility due to chemicals reactions. initiation in the reinforced concrete slab. The use of alkali- https://theconstructor.org/building/causes-cracks-reinforced-concrete-
aggregate in concrete can cause the development of cracks. slab/121026/
NAME KAJOL GUPTA
DEFECTS CAUSED BY : CRACKS ETC SLAB PROJECTIONS, SUNSHADES SUBJECT CONSTRUCTION & MATERIALS VII ROLL NO. 1805181026
AND LEDGES FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4th YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
CARBNATIN :- SPALLING OF CONCRETE:-
• Associated with the corrosion of al reinforcement • Concrete spalling is much more known as concrete cancer.
and with shrinkage. • It is a surface failure that occurs when surface is subjected to excess
• The dissolution of CO₂ in the concrete pore fluid . moisture, corrosion, weathering and much more.
• CO₂ reacts with calcium from calcium hydroxide • In the repair of a structure showing spelling, it is usual to find that
and calcium silicate hydrate to form calcite (CaCO3). there have been substantial losses of section and/or pronounced
corrosion of the reinforcement Both are matters of concern from a
REACTION INVOIVES :- structural viewpoint, and repair generally involves some urgency and
• CA(OH)₂ + CO₂ CaCO3 + H₂O some requirement for restoration of lost strength.
• A physiochemical reaction.
• Reaction between atmospheric carbon dioxide and the calcium hydroxide CAUSES OF SPALLING
generated in cement hydration. • Temperature • Water content
• The precipitation of calcium carbonate reduces the ph level of concrete. • Corrosion of reinforcement • Poor workmanship
TEMPERATURE
EFFECT OF CARBONATION ON CONCRETE • Due to freeze-thaw and hot condition.
• Compressive strength of carbonated concretes slightly Increases in • In 4 season country, concrete is not air-entrained, or prepared to this condition. When it contains tiny air
comparison with non-carbonated concretes. bubbles, it can spall when it freezes.
• Carbonation depth increases with an in- crease of carbonation time and • In hot country such as A sean country, exposure the concrete to high temperatures can make the
higher CO2 concentration has a higher carbonation depth. condition worst.
• The splitting strength of carbonated concretes slightly increases
compared to the non-carbonated concretes. WATER CONTENT
• Electrical resistivity increases with an increase of carbonation • Too high a proportion of water will weaken concrete.
• Carbonation leads to a significant reduction in the permeability and porosity of concrete. • This is a mistake that can occur when the concrete is mixed, when it's poured under wet conditions or
Exposed surface when it's being spread and leveled.
TEST
Test ofOF CARBONATION
Carbonation►The • When an overly wet
measurement of carbonation depth using the the indicator on the split surface of the concretecylinder.The mix cures,
solution becametheaconcrete willinbethe
pink colour weaker than normal
carbonated and prone
concrete.It to differentiated
can be spelling. from
• The measurement of carbonation depth using the phenolphthalein
the concrete. ► Carbonation depth upto an accuracy of 5mm can be identified with the naked eye.
solution.
• Spraying the indicator on the split surface of the concrete cylinder. CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT
• The solution became a pink colour in the carbonated concrete. • In poured concrete walls, slabs and other structural elements, steel reinforcing bars (rebar) and/or steel
• It can be differentiated from the carbonated concrete. EARLY SYTGES mesh are usually embedded in the concrete to add strength.
• Carbonation depth upto an accuracy of 5mm can be identified with the naked • If the steel begins to corrode for some reason, the surrounding concrete can break away
eye. • Once steel is more directly exposed to moisture, the corrosion and spelling cycle will accelerate

FACTORS AFFECTING CARBONATION • POOR WORKMANSHIP

• Concentration of CO2 gas in atmosphere Normally 3% but increasing annually CARBONATION • As concrete is placed in forms, it often requires vibration using special tools.
Higher in cities, due to motor vehicles and fossil fuel burning. PROGRESSION • This step helps the mix flow into all areas of the form, eliminating voids (empty spaces) that can be a
• Pore system of Hardened Concrete. cause of spelling.
• Relative humidity (for dissolution of Ca(OH)₂)
• Lower humidity, CO ₂ can not dissolve. METHOD OF REPAIRING
• But in higher humidity, CO ₂ can easily dissolve. • Standard practice for the repair of concrete spalls varies depending on the type of concrete element being
repaired, cause and extent of damage, location of the spall and repair material selected.- The repair
PREVENTION FROM CARBONATION process generally includes:
• Barrier coatings to protect from the ingress of water and CO2. 1. An inspection to document the extent and details of damage,
• Using low water cement ratio. 2. An evaluation to determine the cause of distress and the as-constructed details for the damaged element,
• Low relative humidity. 3. The selection of a repair material, and
4. The application of the repair material in accordance with standard concrete practice for Portland cement
based concretes or in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions for commercial products.
NAME KARTIKAI OMAR

CARBONATION AND SPALLING OF CONCRETE

SUBJECT RAR-802 ROLL NO. 1805181027
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4TH YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
DEFECTS IN BUILDING:
Building defect is one of the major components of building
problems that significantly needed attention. When a
building fails to function as it should, we must immediately
seek for the determination. Building defect occurs to either
the new building or the old ones. However, various defects
are more common in an old structure. Defects are defined
as the deterioration of building features and services to
unsatisfactory quality levels of requirement of the users.
CATEGORY OF BUILDING DEFECTS : The defect
can be divided into two categories, which are:
A) STRUCTURAL DEFECT
Structural defect means any defect in a structural element
of a building that is attributable to defective design,
defective or faulty workmanship or defective material and
sometimes any combination of these.
B) NON-STRUCTURAL DEFECT
A non-structural defect in a residential building is
described as a defect in a non-structural element of the
building as a result of defective residential building work.
1) ELASTIC DEFORMATION
It occurs when a material strains under stress. When two
materials (having different elastic properties) built
together under the effect of load then different shear
stresses in these materials create cracks at the junction.
Dead and live loads are the main cause of elastic
deformation in any structural components of a building.
DEFECTS CAUSED BY : MOVEMENT
SOURCE :- file:///C:/Users/Predator/Downloads/defects-and-remedies-of-building.pdf
Development of cracks in concrete, preventive measures and treatment methods: A review Rajveer Singh
Narwaria1, Archana Tiwari
Preventive Measures: Create slip joints under the
support of concrete slab on walls. Provide horizontal
movement joints between the top of brick panel and
reinforced cement concrete beam/slab.
2) THERMAL MOVEMENT
Most materials expand when they are heated, and
contract when they are cooled. The expansion and
contraction with changes in temperature occur
regardless of the structure's cross-sectional area. It is
one of the most potent causes of cracking in buildings
which need attention.
Preventive Measures: Joints should be constructed like
construction joints, expansion joints, control joints and
slip joints. The joints should be planned at the time of
design and be constructed carefully.
3) FOUNDATION MOVEMENT AND
SETTLEMENT OF SOIL
Shear cracks in buildings occur when there is large
differential settlement of foundation and it may be
either due to the following reasons:
DEFECTS CAUSED BY CRACKS IN SLAB PROJECTIONS
Unequal bearing pressure under different parts of the
structure
• Bearing pressure on soil being in excess of safe
bearing strength of the soil
• Low factor of safety in the design of foundation
Preventative Measure: The design of foundation
should be based on sound engineering principles and
good practice.
NAME
SUBJECT
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4) EARTHQUAKE
Crack may occur due to sudden shift in lower layer of the earth.
The voids in the earth might have suddenly collapsed and be
filled with soil from the above. Many geological events can
trigger earth movements but is continuous movement.
Preventive Measures: Construct the foundation of buildings on
firm ground while doing construction. Tie up the building with
connecting beams at foundation level, door level and roof level.
5) VEGETATION
Fast growing trees in the area around the walls can sometimes
cause cracks in walls due to expansive action of roots growing
under the foundation. The cracks occur in clay soil due to
moisture contained by roots.
Preventive Measure: Do not grow trees too close to the building.
Remove any saplings of trees as soon as possible if they start
growing in or near of walls.
6) POOR CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
There is a general lack of good construction practices either due
to ignorance, carelessness, greed or negligence. For a healthy
building it is absolutely necessary for the construction agency
and the owner to ensure good quality materials selection and
good construction practices.
Preventive Measure: Proper monitoring and use of good quality
of materials is required at the time of construction
KRITI KUMARI
CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIAL ROLL NO. 1805181028
4th YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
 •DUE TO INCREASE IN WATER CONTENT: TIMBER
Timber -Timber is one type of wood. Any type of 2. Cup 5. Honeycombing
wood can be capable of deforming in a If the timber planks curve along its width, Honey combing occurs in the inner part of the timber, which can
then it is called Cupping of timber. be identified by just seeing. It is mainly due to stresses developed
minimum dimensional size and the required
during the drying of timber.
shape is referred to as timber.
The timber is also known as LUMBER
In Canada and US. Raw timber is used
in structural work and finished timber is used
for furniture. All timber is made up of wood.
.
Shrinkage and swelling
Shrinking and swelling occur as the wood 3.CHECK
Check is the formation of a crack in the wood, 6.SPLIT
changes moisture content in response to daily as which will separate the wood fibers. They form due Split forms when a check extends from one end to the other
well as seasonal changes in the relative humidity to over seasoning of timber. end, which will split the wood into a number of pieces
of the atmosphere, i.e., when the air is humid,
wood adsorbs moisture and swells; when the air
is dry, wood loses moisture and shrinks.

Defects in Timber

1. Bow
When the converted timber is stored for a longer
4.TWIST Wood Flooring Problems from Excessive
time, some timber planks may have a curve along Moisture
Twist forms when the timber piece is
its length, which is known as Bow. Wood flooring expands when moisture content
distorted spirally along its length. It looks
like a propeller blade after twistin. increases and contracts when its moisture content
decreases.

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES NAME KULDEEP YADAV

(DEFECT IN TIMBER DUE TO INCREASE WATER CONTENT ) SUBJECT RAR 802, CONSTRUCTION & MATERIALS ROLL NO 18051081029
REFERENCES:
 Types of Defects in Timber as a Construction Material (theconstructor.org)https://gharpedia.com/blog/causes-treatments-alga FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
• Different Types of Defects in Timber as a Building Material (gharpedia.com) 4TH YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
 •DUE TO INCREASE IN WATER CONTENT: TIMBER

Wood Flooring Problems from Excessive Preservation of Timber –

Moisture 1.Preservation of timber against these decaying agencies requires
Wood flooring expands when moisture content careful selection of the environment where wood is to be used:
increases and contracts when its moisture content dry and properly protected from rain and wind and direct sun.
decreases. 2.The durability of timber can be considerably increased by
Common excessive moisture related problems are treating it with certain chemicals, grouped together as
cupping, buckling, and crowning. preservatives, before use.
3. The preservatives may be water solvable salts or oil solvable
WOOD CUPPING- salts or volatile base salts.
Cupping occurs when the moisture content of the Examples are zinc chloride, coal tar, creosote oil, and creosote
bottom surface of the flooring is greater than the petroleum blends respectively.
moisture content at the face of the boards. The
Methods of Preservation of Timber.
excess moisture at the back of the board works its
way to the surface and as it moves through the 1.Brush applications- in this method, timber is given one or two
board the floor develops higher edges giving it a Wood Cupping- coats of the preservative with the help of a brush
cupped appearance.
2.dipping,-The timber part to be treated is made to dip in the
CROWNING – preservative and kept immersed in it for various periods from a
.
The reverse of cupping is crowing. It occurs when few hours to few days.
the moisture content at the face of the board is It is used when organic preservative solvents are to be applied.
greater than the moisture content of the bottom
surface. With crowning the centers of the boards 3.open tank immersion,-In this method, the timber is kept
become distorted upwardly. Crowning occurs immersed in a suitable metallic tank of proper size till a proper
when the cupped floor is sanded prior to saturation is obtained.
CROWNING –
obtaining the proper moisture level for the To ensure deeper penetration of the preservative, the tank is
environment in which it is installed. heated while the timber is immersed in it
BUCKLING –TENTING-
Tenting and buckling are often used
synonymously as the same wood flooring
problem. Buckling and tenting are the result of
excessive moisture.
BUCKLING –TENTING-

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES NAME KULDEEP YADAV

(DEFECT IN TIMBER DUE TO INCREASE WATER CONTENT ) SUBJECT RAR 802, CONSTRUCTION & MATERIALS ROLL NO 18051081029
REFERENCES:
 Types of Defects in Timber as a Construction Material (theconstructor.org)https://gharpedia.com/blog/causes-treatments-alga FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
• Different Types of Defects in Timber as a Building Material (gharpedia.com) 4TH YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
DEFECTS CAUSED DUE TO INCREASE IN WATER CONTENT: BRICKS
• The absorption of water, even in the form of water vapour, may lead to a considerable
permanent expansion from chemical changes.
• The defects occur in the masonry made from bricks having excessive soluble salts. When the
brick comes in contact with the water the soluble salts are dissolved and it appears in the form
crystals on the brick surface. This is also called efflorescence.
• This defect causes the brickwork to disfigure and makes them look ugly.
• The efflorescence is solved by brushing and washing of surface repeatedly.
DEFECTS CAUSED DUE TO INCREASE IN WATER CONTENT: TILES
• Buckling: The buckled tiles defect is defined as the lifting of tiles from their originally installed
position when start pushing other tiles against one another. Therefore, it creates a ‘tent like’ bump
on the floor.
• Caused due to moisture absorption by tiles. A good quality adhesive is preferred to avoid buckling.

Fig. 05: The image above depicts the buckling in the Fig. 06: The image above depicts the blobbing in the
tiles referred from https://www.designingbuildings. tiles referred from https://homedecorbliss.com/
co.uk /wiki/material-defects bathroom-tiles-falling-off/

Fig. 01: The image above depicts the Fig. 02: The image above depicts the spalling in the
efflorescence in the bricks captured in the bricks captured in the lane Mukarimnagar, Lucknow
campus of Fine Arts University, Lucknow
• The sulphate salt is present in the brickwork and it reacts with alumina content of cement and
hydraulic lime in lime mortar and it causes a noticeable increase in the volume of the mortar.
The result of this is the chipping and spalling of the bricks and form cracks in joints and
rendering.
• This defect occurs in where brickwork is exposed to boundary walls, parapets, etc. or it is in
contact with the moisture like manholes, retaining walls, etc.
DEFECTS CAUSED DUE TO INCREASE IN WATER CONTENT: PLASTERS
• Blistering of the plastered surface occurs when small patches swell out beyond the plane of
the plastered surface. Blistering is seen in case of plastered surface inside the building
• This can be prevented by ensuring appropriate mixing between cement and it’s components
used to form plaster.
• Size Variation In Tiles: The tiles shrink during the manufacturing and that shrinkage may vary from
tile to tile, it is known as size variation in tiles.
• Blobbing In Tiles: This happens when the tiles begin to leave the wall due to loosing of grip
through plaster.
• The most likely reason your bathroom tiles are moving is due to the amount of moisture in this
room. Tiles are porous and therefore, as time passes, they will absorb all of the excess moisture in
the room and begin to grow in size as a result.
DEFECTS CAUSED DUE TO INCREASE IN WATER CONTENT: DADO
• Freeze/thaw damage can occur to a dado facade when the ceramic tile, grout. or bonding mortar
absorption rate is greater than 10% by weight. Internal pressures caused by the formation of ice
crystals can result in cracking, spalling. bulging or complete failure of the dado tile.

Fig. 07: The image above depicts the freeze/thaw Fig. 08: The image above depicts the ways of permanent
damage in the tiles referred from https://www.tile- moisture expansion referred from https://www.qualicer.
magazine.com/articles/ org/recopilatorio/ponencias/pdfs/9423022e.pdf
Fig. 03: The image above depicts the blistering Fig. 04: The image above depicts the crazing in the
in the plaster captured at Vishwakarma Boys plaster captured on the terrace of Vishwakarma • Permanent moisture expansion of ceramic tiles mortars. and substrates can result from long term
Hostel, FOAP, AKTU, Lucknow Boys Hostel, FOAP, AKTU, Lucknow exposure to moisture.
• Consequently, the wetting cycles of a ceramic tile clad concrete wall may cause some of the wall
• Crazing – It is a network of fine cracks like spider web. They are usually very fine and do not
components to expand permanently.
extend through the whole depth of the plaster.
• It occurs due to presence of excess fine content in the sand or due to dry base on which • This permanent expansion could produce tensile stresses between the
concrete wall and the ceramic tile mortar, WEBSITES CITED
plaster is applied – when base absorbs the water and fines accumulate on the surface, it leads
leading to bond failure. https://www.qualicer.org/recopilatorio/ponencias/pdfs/9423022e.pdf
to crazing. https://theconstructor.org/building/defects-bricks-identification/6941/
• It can be avoided by proper curing of the plaster in order to slow down any rapid drying. https://www.tile-magazine.com/articles/87145-a-look-at-freeze-thaw-resistance-testing-advancement
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/bad-workmanship-leads-to-defective-plaster/articleshow/228714.cms

Construction & Materials - VII SEM - VIII F.O.A.P., A.K.T.U., LAKSHYA GUPTA SIGN.
DEFECTS CAUSED BY CHANGES IN SIZE RAR-802 SESSION 2021-22 LUCKNOW 1805181030
The presence of excessive water in a concrete mix
although may facilitate the easy placement of concrete
but it also lowers the quality of the overall product. The
damage to concrete structures due to excessive water in
a concrete mix is very common and the repercussions
due to this are briefly explained.
Scaling of concrete also occurs due to excess
water content in concrete. In this case, the top
layer of the hardened concrete surface is
removed. It is due to the reaction of water with
freeze and thaw effects.

Strength Reduction-Compressive strength is the major

property of hardened concrete and the superfluous
quantity of water reduces the compressive strength of
concrete. The excess water will not participate in the Water Cement Ratio:- Water Cement
hydration process and retains in concrete even after Ratio means the ratio between the
hardening.This water will evaporate when exposed to Reduced Durability-The above-explained weight of water to the weight of
atmosphere and form voids in the concrete. These voids effects finally lead to a reduction in the cement used in concrete mix.
formed are therefore responsible for the reduction of durability of concrete. Hence, to make durable Normally water cement ratio falls
concrete, water-cement rat must be selected under 0.4 to 0.6 as per
compressive strength of concrete.
properly. Low water-cement ratio helps to get IS Code 10262 (2009) for nominal
▪ f
Drying Shrinkage-Increase in water-cement ratio more durable concrete. With the additio of air mix (M10, M15 …. M25)We all
increases the drying shrinkage and concrete becomes entraining admixtures, the durability can be know that water cement ratio will
increased with low water content which is directly affect the strength of
weaker in tensile strength and as a result, cracks will form
shown in the graph below concrete. Either it increases the
on the concrete surface.
Loss Of Abrasive Resistance-Abrasive resistance of concrete strength if used in correct
is directly proportional to its strength. When excessive water proportion or decrease it.
increases, the strength of the concrete decreases and Conclusion
therefore, the abrasive resistance also reduces. Excess water in the concrete is adversely
affecting the concrete strength and quality.
Excess water in the concrete is the result of the
higher water-cement ratio of the concrete mix.
Dusting- The excess water in concrete mix brings the fine There are various defects and the problem can
aggregate to the top, as a result, after hardening- a fine loose arise in concrete due to excess water quantity.
Therefore, it is advisable to use the proper
powder will settle on the top of the concrete surface. This amount of water while making concrete.
process is called dusting.
NAME LATIKA YADAV

TOPIC- DEFECTS CAUSED DUETO INCREASE IN WATER CONTENT

SUBJECT RAR-802 Const. & Materials ROLL NO. 1805181031
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4th YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
DEFECTS CAUSED DUE TO INCREASE IN WATER CONTENT : R.C.C
The presence of excessive water in a concrete mix although may facilitate the
easy placement of concrete but it also lowers the quality of the overall product.
The damage to concrete structures due to excessive water in a concrete mix is
very common and the repercussions due to this are briefly explained.
Strength Reduction-Compressive strength is the major property of hardened
concrete and the superfluous quantity of water reduces the compressive strength
of concrete. The excess water will not participate in the hydration process and
retains in concrete even after hardening.This water will evaporate when exposed
to atmosphere and form voids in the concrete. These voids formed are therefore
responsible for the reduction of compressive strength of concrete.
Drying Shrinkage-Increase in water-cement ratio increases the drying shrinkage
and concrete becomes weaker in tensile strength and as a result, cracks will form
on the concrete surface.
Loss Of Abrasive Resistance-Abrasive resistance of concrete is directly
proportional to its strength. When excessive water increases, the strength of the
concrete decreases and therefore, the abrasive resistance also reduces.
Dusting-The excess water in concrete mix brings the fine aggregate to the top, Water Cement Ratio:- Water Cement Ratio means the
as a result, after hardening- a fine loose powder will settle on the top of the
concrete surface. This process is called dusting.
Scaling-Scaling of concrete also occurs due to excess water content in
concrete. In this case, the top layer of the hardened concrete surface is
removed. It is due to the reaction of water with freeze and thaw effects..
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
B.ARCH VII SEMESTER
Dusting-The excess water in concrete mix brings the
fine aggregate to the top, as a result, after hardening-
a fine loose powder will settle on the top of the
concrete surface. This process is called dusting.
Scaling-Scaling of concrete also occurs due to
excess water content in concrete. In this case, the
top layer of the hardened concrete surface is
removed. It is due to the reaction of water with freeze
and thaw effects..
Reduced Durability-The above-explained effects
finally lead to a reduction in the durability of concrete.
Hence, to make durable concrete, water-cement ratio
must be selected properly. Low water-cement ratio
helps to get more durable concrete. With the addition
of air entraining admixtures, the durability can be
increased with low water content which is shown in
the graph below
ratio between the weight of water to the weight of cement
used in concrete mix.
Normally water cement ratio falls under 0.4 to 0.6 as per
IS Code 10262 (2009) for nominal mix (M10, M15 ….
M25)We all know that water cement ratio will directly
affect the strength of concrete. Either it increases the
strength if used in correct proportion or decrease it.
EFFORTS BY- LATIKA YADAV
CONSTRUCTION & MATERIALS
RAR-802
WHY IS BIOLOGY A PROBLEM?
▪ Many building materials have great attraction to living organisms
– As food
– As shelter
▪ Some organisms just push buildings out of their way.
▪ Some organisms change the environment that a building exists in.
TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL AGENTS:
Biological agents that can cause problems in buildings are:
▪ Insects (termites, borer beetles, triatomine bugs,
cockroaches, mosquitos, flies, etc.), Which either attack
and destroy building materials (such as timber, bamboo,
some plastics, etc.), Represent a health hazard or are
simply a nuisance to the occupants.
▪ Algae (molds, stains, rots, etc.), can be visible as grey,
black, or brown patches on the surface of the paint as
fungal or algal growth.
CAUSES AND TREATMENTS OF INSECTS/TERMITES GROWTH:
▪ Termites will survive as long as the situation or environments meet their chance of survival.
They can spread easily in a blink of an eye into larger area and build their nest there, in
the building or property. The requirements in their chance of surviving are;
i. Moisture - Termites will survive in moist environment. The sources of moist are from
leakage of water pipe, roof system and other source of water habitat such as pool, lake,
or pond.
ii. Source of food - Any surrounding area that has dead wood is probably foraged by the
termites. Any building structure material that is made from wood or timber will be easily
targeted by them if it is wet and moist.
REFERENCES:
▪ https://www.academia.edu/33846701/General_Building_Defects_Causes_Symptoms_and_Remedial_Work
▪ https://gharpedia.com/blog/causes-treatments-algaemould-growth-paint/
DEFECTS AND REMEDIES
(DUE TO BIOLOGICAL ACTION: ALGAE/MOLD & TERMITES)
i. Dark, and Low Light Intensity - If the building has a very low tolerance to light, it
will to provide a well habitat for immature grow of termites.
ii. Minimal flow of air - Minimal flow of air or low ventilation in building due to
humidity in certain area which can lead to higher chance of survival of community of
termites.
Treatment Recommendation:
▪ Eliminate or reduce moisture in and around the home, which termites need to thrive.
▪ Maintain an 18-inch gap between soil and any wood portions of your home.
▪ The filling material used for foundation gap and plinth should be treated with termite-proof chemicals.
▪ Make floor joints termite proof with the use of suitable joint fillers or metal strips.
▪ Use borate on wood before priming or painting.
▪ Place infected items in the sun.
CAUSES AND TREATMENTS OF ALGAE GROWTH:
▪ Algae/mold can be visible as grey, black, or brown patches on the surface of the paint.
▪ Algae/moulds growths are presumably to occur in damp conditions or on the surfaces with high
moisture content
▪ Also, areas that tend to be receiving little or no direct sunlight can anticipate algae/mold growth at a fast
pace.
Treatment Recommendation:
▪ Algae or mold cannot survive without its food source. So if algae occur outdoor then remove plants or
shrub from surrounding areas. And for indoor, remove plants (if any) from the affected wall and also
make arrangement for sunlight to fall on the affected wall.
▪ If there is any leakage from the concealed plumbing lines then find the source of it and get it repaired,
as it increases moisture on the surface and algae/mold can occur.
▪ Clean or remove algae/mold growth with the help of brush and water. Apply bio wash or fungicidal
wash or diluted household bleach solution on affected area to stop future growth. Once it dries out, re-
paint that affected area with the desired appearance.
NAME MADHAVI AGRAWAL
SUBJECT RAR 802, CONSTRUCTION & MATERIALS ROLL NO 1805101032
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4TH YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
 DEFECTS CAUSED BY CHANGES IN SIZE
DEFECTS DUE TO TREES ETC GROWING ON BUILDINGS
❑ The root growth of trees close to buildings can cause directly or indirectly structural damages and the necessity arises of diagnostic tools to
follow their time-spatial behavior.
❑Trees are an important factor within urban areas and archaeological sites, but they can also cause damage to buildings and structures through direct
or indirect root processes. Tree roots system, generally, differs in fine roots, primary roots of smaller diameter that have the function of water and
nutrient uptake and roots that have undergone secondary thickening and have a woody structure, and that transport and link the fine roots with the
plant.
SYMPTOMS ASSOCIATED GROWING TREES DIAGNOSIS & CAUSES
The vast majority of the time, planting trees Trees are characterized by a homogeneous
close to buildings doesn’t result in any stress distribution on the tree surface. They
damage. Occasionally, however, the roots of grow such that both local high stresses
a tree can wind up damaging the structure (potential points of rupture) as well as
of the building. locally small stresses (excessive use of
Other problems like drainage blocks and material) are avoided.
cracked pavement can also arise. In order to
decide what steps to take when dealing with DEFECTS DUE TO
problematic trees, homeowners need to TREES ETC GROWING
ON BUILDINGS.
evaluate a number of factors including the
type of soil and the foundation depth.
DESIGN & PREVENTION:
WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF TREE ROOTS ON BUILDING?
One way to avoid root problems with tall trees is to
maintain a ‘safe distance’ between the tree and the
building. Some species of trees are likely to cause more Trees that are subjected to wind loads on
problems than others. Table-1 shows the different types one side only or leaning trees subjected to a
of trees known to have caused damage, ranking in one-side bending load due to gravitation form
descending order of threat. It also shows their expected more, longer and stronger roots on the
maximum height on clay soils. tension side of the bend with a view to
reinforce the soil having a lower shear
strength on this side.

REMEDIAL WORK:
Preservation of timber means

DECAYED KNOTS
Tree roots can extend over a considerable protecting timber from fungi
distance and can extract moisture from as the sap of and insects attack so that its
deep as 6 m below the surface.
the wood life is increased.
is stained
It is, therefore, necessary to make an to bluish Timber is to be seasoned well
colour by
accurate survey of their position and obtain the action
before application of
details of the type of tree, and at the same of certain preservatives.
type of
time establish that the tree is the cause of Medium Massive Trees On fungi Injection blowing to remove
the damage. Generating Trees On Building Top Portion Over Bridge sap.
•SOURCES & REFERENCES:-
RAR-802 CONSTRUCTION & MATERIALS-VII
Websites:- books/ e-books
DEALT BY- MANISH RAWAT /1805181033
•https://civilblog.org/2018/01/30/effect-tree-roots-building/
•https://thearchitectsdiary.com/common-problems-associated-growing-trees-near-buildings/
- Defects in House-Drainage: And Their Remedies Date- 8TH SEM./2021-22 s.no.
FOAP. AKTU
•https://plusdigit.com/2014/05/14/defects-and-preservation-in-timber/ - Edward Southwick Philbrick (Author) 01 LUCKNOW
SIGN-

SHEET-1 /P.NO.-01
INTRODUCTION TO DEFECTS
Many exterior problems are inherent in architectural or structural design or materials that are
deficient or inappropriate to local weather conditions. Other problems develop as weather wears
down or infiltrates surfaces or from accidents of nature such as lightning, wind storms or rapid
temperature movements. Age inevitably plays its role as materials become brittle, weak or tired SPALL DEFECTS RUST FREEZE DEFECTS EFFLORESCENCE
from repetitive cyclical change. As with the human body, early detection, proper response and BUILDUP DEFECTS DEFECTS
timely maintenance can prolong a building's life and the quality and value of its existence DEFECTS IN WOOD
• Wood is a hygroscopic material. This means it naturally absorbs and releases water (moisture)
•Every structure is vulnerable to the wind driven snow, sleet and rain. to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment.
• the city's extreme temperatures and rapid temperature changes exacerbate exterior problems • It is subjected to fluctuating humidity. Shrinkage and swelling may occur in wood when there
by causing expansion and contraction of building facing units are changes in humidity and temperature. This may eventually result in cracks, gaps, and weak
•that create lifting and heaving of building materials. joints
• By the time you notice the effects of weather, it's probable that serious deterioration has • Its outer layers to dry out more rapidly than the interior ones.in the wood tissues occurs, and
already occurred to masonry, supporting steel and wall ties. consequently splits and cracks occur if these stresses across the grain exceed the strength
• the damage starts at the top of the structure through leaking roofs and flashing. In more across the grain
modern buildings, leaks in and around metal window frames can migrate and cause damage to • Since wood shrinks and changes shape as it dries, the bulk of that shrinkage and change of
the wall and to interior spaces. shape should occur before a woodworker starts working with it.
• Rusting of supporting elements can affect the integrity of exteriors. This can be seen in
concrete spalling at columns, spandrels, floor slabs and balconies, as reinforcing bars rust and
expand.

Spalled terracotta due to Sealant failure led to Rusting iron can cause Spall on limestone
weather affect building major deterioration of caused by rusting anchor
underlying Rusting steel. behind it.
exterior.

COMMON DEFECTS AND CONDITIONS

DEFECTS IN COATING
• Spall:
A fragment of masonry or concrete that delaminates from the masonry unit or concrete surface.
• Rust Buildup:
The oxidation, stratification and enlargement of embedded structural steel to a volume of up to
ten times the original cross section.
• Freeze/Thaw:
A cyclical freezing and thawing of moisture within a wall that causes stress to materials and can
Fig. 2 Alligator Ing (Crocodiling) Blistering is associated with
lead to their displacement or disintegration. Fig. 1. Adhesion Failure Very large cracking that resembles the skin of an
Paint fails to adhere to cathodic disbonding, thermal
• Efflorescence: alligator or crocodile. Cracks may penetrate gradients related to cold-wall
substrate or underlying coats of through to the undercoat or down to the
Salts drawn from masonry that form a deposit on exterior walls. paint. Probable Causes: Surface effects
substrate. Probable Causes: Internal stresses in
contamination or condensation, the coating where the surface shrinks faster than
the body of the paint film

NAME NASHRA MUMTAZ

DEFECTS CAUSED BY CHANGE IN SIZE, DUE TO SUBJECT RAR-802, CONSTRUCTION ROLL NO. 1805181038
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
CHEMICAL ACTION, EFFECT OF WEATHER 4th YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
DEFECTS DUE TO BIRDS IN BUILDING. DEFECTS DUE TO PESTS.
1. Fouling 1. Disease and allergies
Unsightly droppings can build up in roosting sites, foul paved
areas nearby, causing a slip and fall risk for staff in businesses • Cockroaches, mosquitos and rats are all common carriers for
and members of the public in urban areas. Birds also foul disease, as are many other insects and rodents.
vehicles parked nearby and for businesses spoil raw materials • Not only can these pests carry maladies, they can also transfer them
and finished goods, causing financial loss. to your beloved animal companions both inside and outside of the
home.
2. Physical damage • Many rodents and insects can cause allergies and some have
poisonous venom that can hurt, and sometimes kill, people.
Larger birds such as pigeons can dislodge roof tiles. Bird • Pests can carry allergens into the home. Their feces can also cause
droppings corrode stone, metal, paintwork and other allergic reactions and their shedding skin can pollute your indoor air.
building materials, while birds gaining access to roof spaces
can damage insulation. The damage can result in high cost of 2. House damage
repairs for the building owners.
• Insects can also cause structural damage to your home.
3. Blocked drainage systems and water damage • If you have any wood
structure in your home that
Nests block guttering and drain pipes leading to flooding on is not treated for insects and
the roof, which can then become breeding sites for flying and these pests take over, you'll
biting insects. The flooding can cause internal leaks, rotten quickly find yourself paying
timbers, metal corrosion, damaged plaster and other wall high costs for repairs.
coverings and flooring inside the building.
• Termites are another serious problem when it comes to structural
What are the signs of a bird infestation? damage, especially given that they are attracted to humid
environments.
It is important to recognize the signs of an infestation as early as possible to keep the costs • Mouse and other rodents often
of control to a minimum. The common signs of a bird infestation are: chew on electrical wires, causing
•Birds settling: on roofs, ledges, cables and wires shorts that can start house
•Droppings: on roofs, ledges, paved areas, vehicles and goods fires.Keep in mind the sheer level
•Bird noises: continuous bird cries, especially from young chicks of destruction and harm pests
•Bird nests: on roofs, ledges, gutters, roof spaces, beams can bring into your life.

NAME NIKHIL SINGH

DEFECTS DUE TO PESTS AND BIRDS

SUBJECT RAR-807 ROLL NO. 1805181039
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4TH YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
 Introduction These damages could happen What counts as normal wear
intentionally, or by accidents and and tear -
Normal wear and tear is the expected decline in the condition of
a property due to normal everyday use. It is deterioration that
they could be inflicted through: 1. Bathroom wear and tear
occurs in the course of living in a property. It is not caused by Bathroom tiles that are dull or loose. Dark
abuse or neglect. ● Carelessness. aging spots on the mirror. Bathtub, sink,
● Abuse and Misuse and toilet enamel surfaces with light
Example of normal wear and tear: ● Negligence scratches and general wear. When worn
• A couple of small stains on a carpet pipes contribute to draining clogs. Rusty
• A couple of scrapes or dings in a wood floor Carelessness shower rod.
• Color of carpet or hardwood fading due to exposure to Some people do not take care of things,
sunlight especially if they are not theirs. They do
• Dirty grout not feel a pinch of pity for the landlord
• Loose door handles of the building or their investment.
• Silver finish on bathroom fixtures beginning to wear away
Abuse and Misuse
Factor affecting wear and tear When a tenant chooses to live in a rental
unit, it’s because they are OK with the 2. Hardwood floors wear
1. Age style, layout and decor. Still, if they take and tear
Introductionscrapes
2. Quality or dings in a wood floor
it upon themselves to renovate the Some darker patches that have
unit’s interior without the landlord’s lost their finish. Fading due to
AGE:- the older the item, the more wear knowledge, it will be considered abuse. sunlight exposure.
and tear it is likely to have suffered .
Negligence
QUALITY :- Spending more money on When something in the rental unit is not 3. Paint wear and tear
acting right, the tenant must inform the Fading due to sunlight
quality items is something to consider
manager in order to avoid further exposure. Minor scratches
very carefully for a rental property. The
damage. This is simply because the or other irregularities
quality of an item is relevant in helping
manager typically does not have resulting from normal
to negotiate a like for like replacement
everyday access to the building. daily activities.
cost yet inventories rarely record the
quality of items

NAME NILESH KUMAR

TOPIC- DEFECTS DUE TO WEAR/TEAR & IMPROPER SUBJECT RAR-802, Construction & Materials ROLL NO. 1805181040
HUMAN BEHAVIOUR FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4TH YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22
INTRODUCTION
Timber is a ubiquitous favourite in construction. Boasting both durability and
unmatched aesthetics, it’s been employed as a building staple for literally
thousands of years.
And while it can certainly take a punishing from the elements, as with any
material, it can be adversely affected by extreme exposure to heat.
All wood contains a trace of moisture within, which plays a key part in determining
how strong and dense the wood is. Even the most highly-treated wood will retain
some moisture and exposure to heat, as well as changes in the moisture content of
the surrounding environment, can prompt adverse reactions that precipitate
shrinkage, warping or swelling.
Timber is what’s known as a hygroscopic material – in that it absorbs and expels
water from its surrounding environment until it reaches a state of equilibrium.
As such, wood located in humid locations will be vulnerable to expansion, while
timber exposed to an excessively dry climate can release exorbitant amounts of
moisture, leading to shrinkage.
DEFECTS CAUSED BY CHANGE IN SIZE DUE TO
CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE:TIMBER COMPONENTS
EFFECTS OF EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF
TIMBER
Cracks, curling, warping, winding, or twisting are due to nothing but irregular and
uneven swelling and shrinking. Some kinds of wood shrink much in drying, others
but little. Some, after seasoning, swell or shrink and curl and warp to a marked
degree with every change in temperature and dryness. Others, once thoroughly
air-seasoned, alter much less in shape or size under ordinary circumstances.
We have already seen that the heart side of a board tends to become convex in
seasoning, owing to the shrinkage of the other side, and that if one part swells
much more than another the wood becomes out of shape, - warped, curled, or
twisted. If one part shrinks much faster than another, cracks usually result in the
quicker shrinking portion.
TREATMENTS:
• Always allow your decking or siding wood to properly acclimate on site prior to
installation. A week to two weeks is usually enough, as long as your wood is
stored properly during this period.
• Always store your deck or siding wood up off the ground. If you must let your
wood acclimate over dirt or lawn areas, always keep your wood stacked a
minimum of 8” to 12” off the ground. It will also help reduce moisture from rising
up.
• Always use “spacers” between rows of decking or siding. This allows air flow
between layers of wood, which will help the acclimation process along.
• Always use a UV inhibiting sealer on your hardwood decking or siding. The
UV inhibitors will help minimize surface checking and protect your wood after
installation. For best results a UV inhibitor should be applied before
installation or immediately afterwards.
NAME MOHAMMAD SAQUIB SABAHAT
SUBJECT CONSTRUCTION ROLL NO. 1805181036
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AKTU
4th YEAR, SECTION-A, 2021-22