Prof.

Marcelo F Videtta

Grammar I

LEXICAL CATEGORIES

a) Lexical Categories

Words are divided in two different groups:

a- Lexical categories: categories with semantic content.

→ Noun, Verb, Adjective, Preposition, ADVerb

b- Functional categories: lack of semantic content

→ Determiner, Quantifier, Auxiliaries, etc.

Prototype

A prototype is a lexical category which has the full set of distinctive properties.

house = N

house / houses → prototypical noun

collapse = V

collapses / collapsed / collapsing → prototypical verb

There are two criteria (criterion – sing) to sort words out:

a- Morphological Criterion

The MC helps us to describe what kind of inflections and word-formation affixes

the words can take.

b- Distributional Criterion

We look at the position in the sentence where the word occurs. We consider the

words with which they combine horizontally.

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SUMMARY

Lexical Morphological Properties Distributional Properties

Category
N Some nouns inflect for number Nouns can be preceded by
(plural) and gender (feminine). D(eterminers), Q(uantifiers) and
Some nouns inflect for case possessives.
(genitive).
V Verbs inflect for person and Verbs can be preceded by AUX and
number. the particle TO.
They inflect for tense.
They inflect for aspect: Present /
Past Participles.
They can be nominalised: Gerunds.
A Adjectives inflect for degree. Adjectives can be used attributively
They do not inflect for number, and predicatively.
gender or case. Some adjectives can be used
postpositively.
P Prepositions are invariable. Prepositions are followed by the
string: D + N
They are also followed by gerunds.
ADV Some adverbs are morphologically Adverbs modify:
related to adjectives by the addition a- Verbs
of the suffix –ly. b- Adjectives
Some are identical to adjectives in c- Adverbs
form. If so, they inflect for degree. d- Sentences

Examples:

1- Nouns Inflect for case

Peter’s (N in the genitive case) house at the seaside has collapsed completely.

Charles’s wife

The assistants’ tickets

2- Nouns are preceded by D, Q, and Possessives

The / A / His house has collapsed recently.

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3- Verbs inflect for person and number

The girl goes to school on foot.

4- Verbs inflect for aspect

The house at the seaside has collapsed completely.

The man has been driving for the last three hours.

5- Verbs inflect for tense

The old houses at the seaside collapsed completely last week.

6- Nominalisations

Running is good for you.

7- Verbs can be preceded by AUX or the particle TO

The man has been driving for the last three hours.

The houses at the seaside happened to collapse completely last week.

8- Adjectives can be used (a) attributively, (b) predicatively, and (c) postpositively.

(a) The old man was waiting for his grandchild.

This is the old man I talked to you about.

(b) This is interesting.

That looks amasing.

(c) Prince Charles is the heir apparent.

9- Prepositions can be followed by the string D + N

The old house at the seaside has collapsed.

The boy is at Ø school.

[DP Hypothesis: All nominal are DP. In some cases the D has no phonological

realisation / has no phonological content / is not phonologically realised.]

10- Prepositions can be followed by gerunds.

What was her reaction on hearing the news?

11- Adverb or Adjective?

Can you drive faster? (Faster inflects for degree and modifies the verb «drive».)

This is a complete (A) failure. / You have failed completely (ADV).

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Going further: -ING and -ED

Walking

a- Present Participle → The verb has verbal force.

I was walking in the park.

I have been walking in the park.

I will have been walking…

b- Gerund → The verb is nominalised; therefore, we can say that the verb has lost its

verbal force.

Walking is good for your health.

I love walking.

Walked

a- Past Participle: -ED expresses aspect when used with perfect tenses.

I have prepared a cake.

This is a Perfect Past Participle.

b- Past Participle: - ED expresses voice when used in the passive.

A cake has been prepared.

This is a Passive Past Participle.

Phrasal categories

The word is defined as a minimal projection.

The phrase is defined as a maximal projection.

HP Maximal Projection

H(ead) C(omplement)
Minimal Projection

NB: H and C are functions.

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Examples of maximal projections

a- Noun phrase (NP) → destruction of the city

NP

N PP
destruction 
of the city

The N merges with the PP to form a NP.

b- Verb phrase (VP) → kill the man

VP

V DP
kill 
the man

The V merges with the DP to form a VP.

c- Adjectival phrase (AP) → fond of music

AP

A PP
fond 
of music

The A merges with the PP to form an AP.

d- Prepositional phrase (PP) → at the seaside

PP

P DP
at 
the seaside

The P merges with the DP to form a PP.

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e- Adverbial phrase (ADVP) → happily for the boys

ADVP

ADV PP
happily 
for the boys

The ADV merges with the PP to form an ADVP