CHAPTER 1

SITE INVESTIGATION
(SITE EXPLORATION)

1
 Definition

The process of determining the layers of natural soil

deposits that will underlie a proposed structure and their
physical properties is generally referred to as site
investigation or Site Exploration.

2
 The purpose of a soil investigation
program
1. Selection of the type and the depth of foundation suitable
for a given structure.
2. Evaluation of the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
3. Estimation of the probable settlement of a structure.
4. Determination of potential foundation problems (for
example, expansive soil, collapsible soil, sanitary landfill, and
so on).
5. Establishment of ground water table.
6. Prediction of lateral earth pressure for structures like
retaining walls, sheet pile bulkheads, and braced cuts.
7. Establishment of construction methods for changing subsoil
conditions.
8. Evaluation of the safety of existing structure
9. Location and selection of construction materials
3
 EXPLORATION PROGRAM
The purpose of the exploration program is to determine,
within practical limits, the stratification and engineering
properties of the soils underlying the site. The principal
properties of interest will be the strength, deformation, and
hydraulic characteristics. The program should be planned
so that the maximum amount of information can be
obtained at minimum cost.

4
 Cont’d
 The planning of a program for soil exploration depends
upon :
i. The nature of sub-soil
ii. The type of structure
iii. The importance of structure

5
 Steps of subsurface exploration
program [Stage 1]
Desk study - Assembly of all available information on
dimensions, column spacing, type and use of the structure,
basement requirements, and any special architectural
considerations of the proposed building. Foundation
regulations in the local building code should be consulted for
any special requirements. For bridges the soil engineer
should have access to type and span lengths as well as pier
loadings. This information will indicate any settlement

limitations, and can be used to estimate foundation loads. 6 6

 Steps of subsurface exploration
program [Stage 2]
Reconnaissance of the area:
This may be in the form of a field trip to the site which can
reveal information on the type and behavior of adjacent
structures such as cracks, noticeable sags, and possibly
sticking doors and windows. The type of local existing
structure may influence, to a considerable extent, the
exploration program and the best foundation type for the
proposed adjacent structure.
7
 Steps of subsurface exploration
program [Stage 3]
A preliminary site investigation:
In this phase a few borings are made or a test pit is opened
to establish in a general manner the stratification, types of
soil to be expected, and possibly the location of the
groundwater table. One or more borings should be taken to
rock, or competent strata, if the initial borings indicate the
upper soil is loose or highly compressible. This amount of
exploration is usually the extent of the site investigation for
8
small structures.
 Steps of subsurface exploration
program [Stage 4]
A detailed site investigation:
Where the preliminary site investigation has established the
feasibility of the project, a more detailed exploration
program is undertaken. The preliminary borings and data are
used as a basis for locating additional borings, which should
be confirmatory in nature, and determining the additional
samples required.

9
 METHODS OF EXPLORATION

 Methods of determining the stratification and engineering

characteristics of sub-surface are :

Test pits
Boring and sampling

Field tests

Geophysical methods

Laboratory tests
10
 Test Pits
 The simplest and cheapest method of shallow soil
exploration is to sink test pit to depths of 3 to 4 m.

11
 Soil Boring and Sampling
 Soil boring :- is the most widely used method. It provides
samples from shallow to deeper depths for visual inspection
as well as laboratory tests.

 The most commonly used methods of boring are: -

 Auger boring

 Wash boring

 Percussion drilling

 Rotary drilling

12
 Auger boring
Operated by hand or by power:

 Used in cohesive and other soft soils above water table

 Hand augers are of two types:

a) helical and b) post hole

13
 Cont’d

 It can be used for depths up to 3 to 5m. Diameter of holes

varies from 5 to 20cm.

 Generally suitable for all types of soils above water table but
suitable only below water table in clay soils. Soils with
boulders & cobbles are difficult to investigate using augers.

14
 Cont’d
 Also limited use in sandy soils b/c they do not stick to the
auger.

 Are generally used for making subsoil explorations for high

ways, runways, railways

etc where the explorations are generally confined to depths of

about 5m or so.

 Machine operated auger: are suitable in all types of soils and

can go to deeper depths. 15
 Cont’d
 The hollow stem can be used for sampling or conducting
SPT test and plugged when not in use. They are capable
of penetrating up to 50m.

16
Cont’d

17
 Cont’d

Auger boring Power drills 18

 Wash boring
Is fast and simple method for advancing holes in all types of soils
-

(except for boulders and rock)

 Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more.

 The method is rapid except in hard strata and soils with
boulders. The machine is light so that it can be easily
transported to relatively in accessible areas. It causes not so
much disturbance to underlying material.

 Undisturbed samples can be extracted easily by pushing thin

walled sampler (split spoon sampler).

19
 Cont’d
 However the effect of water must be taken in to
consideration.

 Disadvantages: - there may be undetected thin layer and

high alteration of moisture content.

20
 Cont’d
Procedure :
 Driving a casing with hollow drilled rod with sharp chisel or
chopping bit

 Forcing water under pressure Resulting in Chopping and

jetting action

 Forcing the cutting up ward and reviewing the color of

wash

21
Cont’d

22
Cont’d

23
 Percussion drilling
 Power operated. Hole is advanced by repeated blows of a
heavy chisel into the bottom of the hole.

 The percussion drilling used for making holes in rocks

,boulders and other hard strata

 Maximum depth of boring is 60m.

 Disadvantage: impossible to detect thin compressible layers,
high disturbance of soil, expensive

24
 Rotary drilling
 Power operated. Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating bit
which cuts the material at the bottom of the hole into small
particles which are removed by circulating fluids, which may
be water, bentonite slurry or mud slurry.

 This is the most rapid method for penetrating highly resistant

materials (e.g. bed rock).

 Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to 150m.

25
 Cont’d
 Undisturbed sample can be obtained by attaching special
sampler usually split spoon sampler.
 Disadvantage: not suitable for highly fissured rocks
(gravelly soils), as gravels do not break easily, but rotate
beneath the bit, expensive

26
 Number of borings
 Boring is an expensive undertaking. One should therefore
minimize the number of borings for a construction in a given
site. From experience, Teng has suggested the following
guideline for preliminary exploration (Table below). This
guideline has been adapted (with slight modification) by the
National Code.

27
 Cont’d
Distance between borings(m) Minimum number of
Project borings for each structure
Horizontal stratification of soil

Uniforms Average Erratic

Multi-story building 45 30 15 4

One or two story building 60 30 15 3

Bridge piers, abutments, television 30 7.5 1-2 for each foundation

towers, etc. unit

Highways 300 150 30

Source: W.C Teng, Foundation Design (1962)

Euro Code 7- recommends that the exploration points

including sounding from a grid at a spacing of 20 to
28
40m.
 Depth of Boring
 The approximate required minimum depth of the borings
should be predetermined.

 The estimated depths can be changed during the drilling

operation, depending on the subsoil encountered.

29
 Cont’d
 The depth of borings depends upon the soil condition and
the magnitude and type of the construction.
 For highways and airfields a depth of about 2m would
suffice. However, if organic soil, muck or compressible
soil is encountered, the boring should be extended well
below the bad soil.

30
 Cont’d
 Depth is governed by the depth of influence of the
foundation soil contact pressure. Bore holes should go down
to at least the depth below the foundation level at which only
5 to 40% q reaches (q=contact pressure). This translates
about 2 to 3 times the foundation width below the
foundation level.

 It is recommended to make the depth of 1 to 2 bore holes

deeper than that of the rest.
31
 Cont’d
 A minimum of 3m drilling in to a rock formation is
recommended especially in area, where occurrence of
boulders is common so as to conform that it is really a rock,
and not large boulder.

32
 Cont’d
 Different codes suggest different depths but the National Code
recommends for footing foundation a depth three times the
estimated width of the footing from the base of the foundation
but not smaller than 1.5m. For raft foundations a depth of one
and half times the width of the raft but not less than 6m from
the base of the foundation is recommended. For pile
foundations it recommends a depth of exploration that exceeds
by at least 3.0m that at which the piles may be founded.

33
 Cont’d
To determine the approximate minimum depth of boring,
engineers may also use the following rule:

1. Determine the net increase of stress, under a foundation

with depth as shown in the Figure.

2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress, ',

with depth.

3. Determine the depth, D = D1, at which the stress increase

 is equal to (1/10) q (q = estimated net stress on the
foundation).

4. Determine the depth, D = D2, at which /' = 0.05.

34
 Cont’d
5. Unless bedrock is encountered, the smaller of the two
depths, D1 and D2, just determined is the approximate
minimum depth of boring required. Table shows the
minimum depths of borings for buildings based on the
preceding rule.

35
 Cont’d

Determination of the minimum depth of boring

36
 Cont’d

Depth of Boring

37
 Cont’d
For preliminary investigation or for hospitals and office
buildings, the following rule could be used to determine
boring depth:

38
 Cont’d
When deep excavations are anticipated, the depth of
boring should be at least 1.5 times the depth of excavation.
Sometimes subsoil conditions are such that the foundation
load may have to be transmitted to the bedrock. The
minimum depth of core boring into the bedrock is about
3m. If the bedrock is irregular or weathered, the core
borings may have to be extended to greater depths.

39
 Spacing of Boring
There are no hard and fast rules for the spacing of the
boreholes. The following table gives some general
guidelines for borehole spacing. These spacing can be
increased or decreased, depending on the subsoil
condition. If various soil strata are more or less uniform
and predictable, the number of boreholes can be
reduced.

40
 Cont’d
Approximate Spacing of Boreholes

41
 Cont’d
Column or Depth (m) Spacing(m)
Wall
Borings A Borings B M N
Loads

Light 3-6 6-7.5 30 30

Medium 6-7.5 9-12 25-30 25-30
Heavy 9-12 15-25 15-25 15-25

42
 Cont’d

General guidelines for boring layout and sampling

43
 Preparation of Boring Logs
1. Name and address of the drilling company

2. Driller’s name

3. Job description and number

4. Number, type, and location of boring

5. Date of boring
6. Subsurface stratification, which can be obtained by visual
observation of the soil brought out by auger, split-spoon
sampler, and thin-walled Shelby tube sampler
44
 Cont’d
7. Elevation of water table and date observed, use of casing
and mud losses, and so on

8. Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT

9. Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected

10.In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used and, for
each run, the actual length of coring, length of core
recovery, and RQD

45
46
 SOIL SAMPLING
Two types of soil samples can be obtained during sampling
disturbed and undisturbed. The most important engineering
properties required for foundation design are strength,
compressibility, and permeability. Reasonably good
estimates of these properties for cohesive soils can be made
by laboratory tests on undisturbed samples which can be
obtained with moderate difficulty. It is nearly impossible to
obtain a truly undisturbed sample of soil; so in general
47
 Cont’d
usage the term "undisturbed" means a sample where
some precautions have been taken to minimize
disturbance or remolding effects. In this context, the
quality of an "undisturbed" sample varies widely
between soil laboratories.

48
Disturbed vs Undisturbed
Good quality samples necessary.

AR<10%
O.D.2  I.D.2
AR  2
100 (%)
soil I.D.
area ratio

sampling tube

Thicker the wall, greater the disturbance.

49
Disturbed vs Undisturbed

50
 Cont’d

Disturbed sample 51
 Cont’d

undisturbed sample 52
Common Sampling Methods

53
 ROCK SAMPLING
 Rock cores are necessary if the
soundness of the rock is to be
established.

 Small cores tend to break up inside

the drill barrel.

 Larger cores also have a tendency to

break up (rotate inside the barrel and
degrade), especially if the rock is soft
54
or fissured.
Rock coring

55
ROCK SAMPLING - DEFINITION

56
 Rock Core Drilling
 Done with either tungsten
carbide or diamond core bits

 Use a double or triple tube

core barrel when sampling
weathered or fractured rock

 Used to determine Rock

Quality Designation

core barrel 57
Rock Quality Designation RQD

58
ROCK QUALITY DESIGNATION
RQD
Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is defined as the percentage of rock
cores that have length equal or greater than 10 cm over the total drill
length.

59
 Example on Core Recovery & RQD
 Core run of 150 cm
 Total core recovery = 125
cm

 Core recovery ratio =

125/150 = 83%

 On modified basis, 95 cm
are counted

RQD = 95/150=63 %
60
 GROUND WATER TABLE LEVEL
Groundwater conditions and the potential for groundwater
seepage are fundamental factors in virtually all geotechnical
analyses and design studies. Accordingly, the evaluation of
groundwater conditions is a basic element of almost all
geotechnical investigation programs. Groundwater
investigations are of two types as follows:

 Determination of groundwater levels and pressures.

 Measurement of the permeability of the subsurface
materials. 61
 FIELD [IN-SITU] TESTS
 These tests are determining the relative densities; shear
strengths and bearing capacities of soils directly without
disturbing effects of boring and sampling

 The most commonly used field tests are:

 Penetration or sounding tests

 Vane shear test

 Plate loading test

 Pile loading test

62
 PENETRATION TESTS
 Are the most useful test and conducted mainly to get
information on the relative density of soils with little or no
cohesion.

 The tests are based on the fact that the relative density of
a soil stratum is directly proportional to the resistance of
the soil against the penetration of the drive point.

63
 Cont’d
 From this, correlations between values of penetration
resistance versus angle of internal friction , bearing
pressure, density and modulus of compressibility have
been developed. Penetration tests are classified as static
and dynamic penetration tests.

64
 Static Penetration Tests

1)Swedish Weight Sounding Test : This method of testing

is widely used in Scandinavia and here in Ethiopia.

 The depth of penetration is measured for each loading after

which the number of half-turns is counted by 100Kg load.
The penetration depth is then measured after 25 half-turns.
If the penetration after 25 half-turns is less than 5cm, the
rod is unloaded and driven down by a 5 to 6kg hammer

65
Cont’d

66
Cont’d

67
 2) STATIC CONE PENETRATION
TEST (DUTCH CONE
PENETROMETER TEST)
It is developed in Dutch and is now widely used all over the
world. It is a simple test widely used for soft clays and in fine
to medium course sands instead of SPT. The test does not
have any application in gravels and stiff / hard clays. It is
performed by pushing the standard cone (metallic wedge of
base area 10 cm2 and apex angle of 60˚) in to the ground at
a rate of 10 to 20 mm/sec for a depth of 13cm and the force
is measured and the end resistance of the cone called the
68
 Cont’d
cone penetration resistance (point resistance) - qc is
computed as the force required to advance the cone divided
by the end area.

 Then the sleeve is pushed until it touches the top of the

wedge followed by pushing both the wedge and the sleeve
for 7cm to obtain the combined cone and sleeve resistance,
q'c.

69
 Cont’d
 Then the side resistance (skin friction) q s = q'c- qc. This
value is important for pile design.

 Data from CPT can be used to estimate soil profile in

conjunction with bore hole driving

 CPT data may also be used to compute bearing capacity of

shallow as well as deep foundations.

70
CORRELATIONS OF CPT RESULTS
 Some correlations are suggested by different researchers :
 Lancellotta (1983) and Jumilkawiski (1985) suggested the
following correlations for the relative density of granular soil.

 where qc = point resistance (metric tone/m2) and σ’v = the

effective pressure (metric tone/m2)

71
Cont’d

72
 Cont’d
 The following table can be used to estimate ϕ and the
stress strain modulus of compressibility - Es of non
cohesive soils :

73
 Cont’d

In sands, E = 2.5-3.5 qc (for young Normally

74
consolidated sands)
 Cont’d
According to Meyerhof:
N = ¼ (Ckd)
where : N = Standard penetration number
Ckd = Static Cone resistance (kg/cm2
 For sand, modulus of compressibility (Es) can be estimated
from cone resistance from the following relationship.
ES=3/2 (Ckd)

75
DYNAMIC PENETRATION TESTS

1)Standard Penetration Test (SPT): -This is the most

commonly used in-situ test, especially for cohesion less
soils which cannot be easily sampled.

 SPT test is extremely useful for determining the relative

density and the angle of internal friction of cohesion less
soils.

 It can also be used to determine the unconfined

compressive strength of soils.
76
 Cont’d
Test procedure
1. Drill a 60 to 200 mm diameter exploratory boring to the
depth of the first test

2. Insert the SPT sampler (also known as a split spoon sampler)

into the boring. The sampler is connected via steel rods to a

63.5kg hammer,
3. Raise the hammer a distance of 760 mm and allow it to fall.
This energy drives the sampler into the bottom of the boring

77
 Cont’d
 Repeat this process until the sampler has penetrated a
distance of 450mm, recording the number of hammer blows
required for each 150mm interval

4. Compute the standard penetration number, N value by

summing the blow count for the last 300 mm of penetration.

5. Remove the SPT sampler; remove and save the soil

sample.

6. Drill the boring to the depth of the next test and repeat
steps 2 through 6 as required.

78
 Cont’d
 The test is halted if there is refusal (if 50 blows are required
for any 15cm penetration, i.e. N=100, or if 10 successive
blows produce no advance). After applying some corrections,
this blow count is correlated with important properties of the
soil, which can be used for design of foundations. The test is
run intermittently with almost all types of boring methods
and for any type of soils even if it was developed for
cohesion less soils.
79
 Cont’d
It has clearly the advantages of enabling one to extract
representative samples. It is also economical in terms of
cost per unit operation.

80
CORRECTIONS TO OBSERVED SPT

 It was regularly observed that the N-value in adjacent

boreholes or when using different equipment are not the
same. The principal factor is the input energy and its
dissipation around the sampler in to the surrounding soil.
Energy measurements show that the actual in put energy to
the sampler is 70 to 100 % of the theoretical input energy.
It is believed that the discrepancies arise from the following
factors:
81
 Cont’d
 Difference in some features of SPT equipment, drilling rig,
hammer and skill of operation

 Driving hammer configuration and the way hammer load is

applied whether liner is employed or not

 Amount of overburden pressure- the bigger the o.b.p the

more is N value

 Length of the drill rod- the shorter the rod the more is N
value 82
 Cont’d
 Bore hole diameter - the smaller the size of the hole the
more is N value
 There fore, in order to get approximately the same value
for a given soil type at a given depth, it has been
suggested to correct the N value as:

83
Cont’d

84
Cont’d

85
CORRELATIONS OF SPT RESULTS

 Although the SPT is not considered as refined and

completely reliable method of investigation, the N values
give useful information with regards to consistency of
cohesive soils and relative density of granular soils.

86
Cont’d

87
 Cont’d
 Terzaghi and Peck also gave the following correlation(Table
below) between SPT value, ϕ and Dr.

88
 Cont’d
 Cohesive Soils
 The common correlations of N-values with unconfined
compressive strength of cohesive soils is: q u =K * N ;
Where K- is about 12 and qu - in MPa

89
 Cont’d
 The following correlations are suggested by Bowels
(1995) :

90
 Cont’d
 Note: Other dynamic sounding tests can be conducted by
using cone instead of split spoon sampler and driving the
cone by hammer blows. Depending on the weight of
hammer, the drop height and the tip area we have the
different types as summarized in Table :

91
Cont’d

92
 Cont’d

Standard penetration test (SPT) equipment 93

 Cont’d
Correction to be applied to measured values of SPT
 The N values of SPT as measured in the field may need to be
corrected.

 When SPT is made in fine saturated sands, saturated silty

sands, or saturated silts, correction is usually made for
possible build up of pore water pressure. The SPT values,
greater than 15 are modified as follows :

N = 15 + ½ (N’ –15) Suggested by Terzaghi and peck

where N= corrected value , N’= actual value 94

 Cont’d
2) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test:
 which is normally used to determine the relative resistance
offered by the different soil layers.

 The cone is fixed to the bottom of a rod by pushed fit.

 The cone is driven into the ground in the same way as a SPT
is performed.

 The number of blows required to penetrate 30 cms depth is

called as Nc value.
95
 Cont’d
To judge the consistency of soil from Nc values, the general
practice is to convert Nc to N values of SPT
Nc = N/C
where : N = blow count for SPT
Nc = blow count for dynamic cone
C = Constant, lies between 0.8 and 1.2
when bentonite is used.
Nc= 1.5N for depths up to 3m
Nc= 1.75N for depths between 3m and 6m
Nc Values need to be corrected for overburden pressure in
cohesion less soils like SPT
96
Cont’d

97
 Pressure-meter Test

 The pressure meter test is an in-situ testing method used

to achieve a quick measure of the in-situ stress-strain
relationship of the soil. In principle, the pressure meter test
is performed by applying pressure to the sidewalls of a
borehole and observing the corresponding deformation.
 The pressure meter consists of two parts, the read-out unit
which rests on the ground surface, and the probe that is
inserted into the borehole (ground).
98
 Cont’d
 The original Ménard-type pressure meter was designed to be
lowered into a performed hole and to apply uniform pressure to
the borehole walls by means of inflatable flexible membrane. As
the pressure increases, the borehole walls deform. The pressure
is held constant for a given period and the increase in volume
required for maintaining the constant pressure is recorded. A
load-deformation diagram and soil characteristics can be
deduced by measurement of the applied pressure and change in
the volume of the expanding membrane. 99
 Cont’d
 The test yields the pressure meter modulus, which is the
slope of the pressure-volume curve, and the limit pressure,
which is the pressure at which unlimited expansion occurs.
For evaluation in practice, the pressure meter modulus is
generally determined from the straight-line portion of the
pressure meter curve and the limit pressure is taken at a
volume expansion that is twice the original probe volume.
For all applications in general practice, these determinations
are adequate 100
 Cont’d
The major parameters obtained from the test are representative
of compressibility and strength. Compressibility is expressed by
the pressure meter modulus, which is determined from the
following formula:

101
Cont’d

102
 VANE SHEAR TEST
 This test is useful in determining the in-place shear strength
of very soft and sensitive clays, which lose a large part of their
strength when even slightly disturbed by the sampling
operation.
 The strength parameter obtained is consolidated undrained
shear strength, Cu.

103
 Cont’d
 In most cases a hole is drilled to the desired depth, where
the vane shear test is planned to be performed and the vane
is carefully pushed into the soil. The maximum torque is
then measured from which the shearing strength is
determined.

104
Cont’d

105
Cont’d

106
Cont’d

107
Cont’d

108
 Cont’d
 Field vane shear test overestimates the undrained shear
strength. Therefore reduction factor should be used to
estimate the design undrained shear strength.

 Cu, d = λ cu, The commonly used value of λ is 0.6. Or one

can use curves (Figure below) to obtain λ based on the PI
value.

109
 Cont’d

Figure : Bjerrum’s correction factor for vane shear test

110
Cont’d

111
 Borehole Shear Test

 Borehole Shear presents a unique alternative in shear

strength testing of soil and rock in that tests may be
conducted rapidly on the sides of the hole on relatively
undisturbed material; therefore the inherent problems
associated with obtaining equivalent information from
laboratory tests are eliminated.

112
 Cont’d

 In contrast to other methods of measuring in situ shear

strength (that is, vane shear, cone penetrometer and
pressure meter) the Borehole Shear Test (BST) and Rock
Bore hold Shear Test (RBST) give discrete values of
friction angle and cohesion; therefore more complete
analyses may be made for such fundamental problems as
bearing capacity and slope stability.

113
 Cont’d

In the past the BST has been considered a drained test

and the effective parameters ϕ' and c' have been
reported. This may not always be the case.

114
 Cont’d
 The BST is conducted by first advancing a borehole into
the soil to a desired test depth and then lowering an
expandable shear head into the borehole to engage soil
along the sides of the hole. The shear head is equipped
with shear plates that have a sharp “teeth” that grip the
soil along the sides of the hole. Once the shear head has
been expanded and sufficient time for consolidation is
given, the shear head is pulled upward slowly to induce a
shear failure in the soil. 115
 Cont’d
 The procedure gives a single measurement of the normal
stress and shear stress acting on the soil at failure. In this
way, the BST simulates, at least in part, the procedure used in
laboratory direct shear box tests where normal stress is applied
to a sample and then failure is produced by shearing the soil.
In the BST, like in the laboratory shear box, this procedure is
repeated a number of times using different values of normal
stress until sufficient pairs of data points (normal and shear
stress) are obtained to define the failure envelope of the soil.116
 Cont’d
Apparatus consists of three basic components: the shear
head, the control console, and the shear force reaction
base plate.

117
 Cont’d

Concept of Borehole Shear Test (BST).

118
 Cont’d

Idealized test results from BST 119

 Dilatometer Test

 The high pressure dilatometer test (HPD) generally

provides the shear modulus (G), elastic modulus (E) and
stiffness of rocks, consolidated/over-consolidated clay and
cemented sand in the borehole under in-situ conditions.
 The deformation behaviour of the rock is measured by
applying cycles of loading and unloading on the borehole
wall.
 Further reading !!!
120
 Inclinometer Test

 Inclinometers are used to measure displacements in ground

and in structures that lie below ground level (e.g. retaining
walls)
 For measurements a plastic tube (the inclinometer casing)
is installed in a borehole (for ground measurements) or a
void former (for measurements inside a concrete structure)
and the annulus between the ground or the concrete
structure is filled with a cement/bentonite grout.
 Further reading !!! 121
 California Bearing Ratio

 The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test, is used to

estimate the load bearing capacity and mechanical
strength of highway subbases and subgrades. Originally
developed by the California Department of
Transportation, it is now widely used in the design of
roads, pavements, car parks and similar applications.

122
 Cont’d
 The ground surface is scraped level at the formation layer
required for the test. A cylindrical plunger with a face area
of 1935mm2 is then advanced into the soil at a uniform
rate.
 A 4WD vehicle is generally used to transport the
equipment and to provide the reaction load required to
drive the CBR press.

123
 Cont’d
 Measurements of applied load and plunger penetration are
made at regular intervals and plotted onto a curve.
 The CBR bearing value is expressed as a percentage ratio
against a standard soil (California Crushed Limestone) and
obtained by dividing the plunger loads at penetrations of 2.5
and 5.0 mm by the loads given at the same penetrations in the
standard crushed stone.
 If there is well prepared surface and access, on a typical site
up to 6-8 tests can be carried out in a day, by a single
124
Cont’d

125
 PLATE LOADING TEST
 In this test a gradually increasing static load is applied to the
soil through a steel plate, and readings of the settlement and
applied load are recorded, from which a relationship between
bearing pressure and settlement for the soil can be obtained.
The test procedure
1. Pit for the test must be at least 5 times the size of the
plate.

2. The plate should be properly placed in the soil.

126
 Cont’d
In the case of cohesion less soil (to prevent early displacement
of soil under the edges of the plate), the plate must be
positioned in cast in-situ concrete.

3. Loading platform should be properly erected.

127
 Cont’d
4. Loading of the soil is conducted in steps (loading increment
is kept constant).
5. Once completion of the test, the plate is unloaded in the
same incremental steps (to draw the expansion curve).

128
Determination of Bearing
Capacity from Plate Load Test

129
 Cont’d
 The coefficient of sub-grade reaction, ks, can also be
estimated from:

130
LIMITATION OF PLATE LOADING
TEST

 Plate loading test is of short duration. Hence consolidation

settlement does not fully occur during the test.
 For settlement consideration, its use is restricted to sandy
soils, and to partially saturated or rather unsaturated clayey
soils.

131
 Cont’d
 Plate loading test can give very misleading information of
the soil is not homogeneous within the effective depth
(depth of stress influence) of the prototype foundation.

 Plate loading test should not recommended in soils which

are not homogeneous at least to depth of 1½ to 2 times
the width of the prototype foundation.

132
Cont’d

133
 PILE LOADING TEST

 This is the most reliable means for determining the load

carrying capacity of a pile.
 The load arrangement and testing procedure are more or less
similar to the plate-loading test. From the results of this test the
allowable bearing capacity and load- settlement relationship of a
group of friction piles can be estimated.

134
 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
 The methods can be used for the location of different strata
and for a rapid evaluation of the sub-soil characteristics.
However, these methods are very approximate.

 The geophysical methods can be broadly divided into the

two categories:

 Seismic methods and

 Electrical resistivity methods,

135
 SEISMIC METHODS AND

 Such method is based on the simple fact that the seismic

waves move through different types of soils at different
velocities (4000 to 7000m/s in sound rocks, 500-700m/s in
clays, and as low as 30m/s in loose weathered
materials) and are also refracted when they cross the
boundary between two different types of soils.

136
 Cont’d
 Here shock waves are induced by producing an explosion
at the surface (drop hammer or 3Kg sledge hammer
adequate for 20m penetration; deeper with explosive
shock source). The waves are then picked up through
geophones placed at various points.

137
 Cont’d
 This method can help us in plotting the soil profiles,
economically, but would fail to detect a layer having
velocity lesser than that of the upper layer. Hence a layer
of clay laying below a layer of compacted gravel, would go
undetected in this method. It is reliable for relatively thick
and distinct layers.

138
Cont’d

139
 Cont’d
 Interpretation of the test results of seismic exploration
should be done with care. Reliable information is only
obtained when the soil profile consists of relatively thick
and distinct layers. The test results may lead to
inaccurate conclusion if the soil profile consists of
relatively thin layers. The velocity of longitudinal waves is
correlated with the soil type as given in the table below.
Shear waves may also be correlated with the soil type.
140
Cont’d

141
 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD

 This method uses the principle that different soils exhibit

different resistivity. As a result four electrodes are inserted
in to the ground and current is made to flow. The
resistance is then measured. This method requires good
contrast in resistivity between the soil layers. If
difference between the layers is not substantial, or if the soil
is wet and contains a considerable amount of dissolved salt,
the reading may be wrong.
142
 Cont’d
 Clean dense sand above the water table, will therefore
have high resistivity, because it will have very small
saturation and dissolved salts. Saturated clay of high void
ratio will similarly have low resistivity, because there would
be a lot of pore water and free ions in it, so as to act as
good conductors of electricity, offering very low resistance.

143
Cont’d

144
 Cont’d

 By increasing electrode spacing, there will be an increase

in influence depth. As long as the stratum does not change,
ρ remains the same and if ρ changes a new stratum is
encountered at a certain depth (approximately at a depth
equal to x).

 Interpretation of the test results of electrical resistivity

method can be made with the help of the following table.

145
Cont’d

146
 Reading Assignments

 Electromagnetic Methods
 Remote Sensing Techniques
 Ground Penetration Radar (GPR)
 Microgravity

147
 LABORATORY TESTS
 Laboratory tests are useful in providing reliable data for
calculating ultimate bearing capacity of soils, stability and
settlement behavior of foundation, and for determining physical
characteristics of soils.

 Results of laboratory tests should be used in conjunction

with borehole records and results of field test.

148
 GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN REPORTS
 At the end of all subsoil exploration programs, the soil and/or
rock specimens collected from the field are subjected to
visual observation and appropriate laboratory testing. After
the compilation of all of the required information, a soil
exploration report is prepared for the use of the design office
and for reference during future construction work. Although
the details and sequence of information in the report may
vary to some degree is depending on the structure under
consideration and the person compiling the report.
149
 SUBSOIL EXPLORATION REPORT
1. A description of the scope of the investigation
2. A description of the proposed structure for which the subsoil exploration
has been conducted
3. A description of the location of the site, including any structures nearby,
drainage conditions, the nature of vegetation on the site and surrounding
it, and any other features unique to the site
4. A description of the geological setting of the site
5. Details of the field exploration—that is, number of borings, depths of
borings, types of borings involved, and so on
6. A general description of the subsoil conditions, as determined from soil
specimens and from related laboratory tests, standard penetration
resistance and cone penetration resistance, and soon
7. A description of the water-table conditions
8. Recommendations regarding the foundation, including the type of
foundation recommended, the allowable bearing pressure, and any special
construction procedure that may be needed; alternative foundation design
procedures should also be discussed in this portion of the report
9. Conclusions and limitations of the investigations
150
 SUBSOIL EXPLORATION REPORT
The following graphical presentations should be attached to
the report:

1. A site location map

2. A plan view of the location of the borings with respect to
the proposed structures and those nearby

3. Boring logs

4. Laboratory test results

5. Other special graphical presentations

151
 Example Table of Contents for
a Geotechnical Investigation (Data) Report
1. INTRODUCTION
2. SCPE OF THE WORK
3. SITE DESCRIPTION
4. FIELD INVESTIGATION PROGRAM & INSITU-TESTING
5. DISCUSSION OF LABORATORY TESTS PERFORMED
6. SITE CONDITIONS, GEOLOGIC SETTING, & TOPOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
7. SUMMARY OF SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS AND SOIL PROFILES
8. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
1. GENERAL
1. Sub grade & Foundation Soil/Rock Types
2. Soil / Rock Properties
2. GROUND WATER CONDITIONS/ OBSERVATIONS
3. SPECIAL TOPICS (i.e. Dynamic Properties, Seismicity, Environmental)
4. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
9. FIELD PERMEABILITY TESTS
10. REFERENCES
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A : Boring Location Plan and subsurface profile
Appendix B : Test boring logs and core logs with Core Photographs
Appendix C : Cone Penetration Test Soundings
Appendix D : Flat Dilatometer , Pressure meter, Vane shear test results
Appendix E : Geophysical Survey Data
Appendix F : Field Permeability Test Data & Pumping Test Results
Appendix G : Laboratory Test Results
Appendix H : Existing Information
LIST OF FIGURES 132
LIST OF TABLES
 EXAMPLE ON SPT
 The observed standard penetration test value in a deposit of
fully submerged sand was 45 at a depth of 6.5 m. The
average effective unit weight of the soil is 9.69 kN/m3. The
other data given are (a) hammer efficiency = 0.8, (b) drill
rod length correction factor = 0.9, and (c) borehole
correction factor = 1.05. Determine the corrected SPT value
for standard energy (i) Res= 60 percent, and (ii) Res= 70
percent
153
 Solution
N60 = CN*η1* η2* η3* η4*N

154
Cont’d

155
Cont’d

156
Cont’d

157
Example on Core Recovery & RQD
 Core run of 150 cm
 Total core recovery
= 125 cm
 Core recovery ratio =
125/150 = 83%
 On modified basis,
95 cm are counted
RQD = 95/150=63 %

158
 Example on Vane shear Test

At a depth of 5.8m from the ground level at a site, a shear

vane test gave a torque value of 80Nm when fully inserted.
The vane is of r=37.5mm.
a) Determine the undrained shear strength of the clay and its
consistency
b) If the clay has LL=60%, PL=30%, what would be the
undrained shear strength for design

159
 Cont’d

PI =60-30=30, For PI=30, λ = 0.87 (Figure) ⇒ cu, d =

0.87∗51.65 =44.9ΚPa
160
161