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International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Information Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijinfomgt

Online shopping post-payment dissonance: Dissonance reduction

strategy using online consumer social experiences
Tze-Hsien Liao ∗
Department of Business Management, Tatung University, Taiwan, ROC

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study applied the concept of online consumer social experiences (OCSEs) to reduce online shopping
Received 16 July 2016 post-payment dissonance (i.e., dissonance occurring between online payment and product receipt). Two
Received in revised form 13 March 2017 types of OCSEs were developed: indirect social experiences (IDSEs) and virtual social experiences (VSEs).
Accepted 13 March 2017
Two studies were conducted, in which 447 college students were enrolled. Study 1 compared the effects
of OCSEs and non-OCSEs when online shopping post-payment dissonance occurred. The results indicate
Keywords:
that providing consumers affected by online shopping post-payment dissonance with OCSEs reduces dis-
Online shopping post-payment dissonance
sonance and produces higher satisfaction, higher repurchase intention, and lower complaint intention
Online consumer social experiences
Interpersonal trust
than when no OCSEs are provided. In addition, consumers’ interpersonal trust (IPT) and susceptibility to
Susceptibility to interpersonal interpersonal informational influence (SIII) moderated the positive effects of OCSEs. Study 2 compared
informational influence the effects of IDSEs and VSEs when online shopping post-payment dissonance occurred. The results sug-
Computing need for control gest that the effects of IDSEs and VSEs on satisfaction, repurchase intention, and complaint intention are
Computer-mediated communication moderated by consumers’ computing need for control (CNC) and computer-mediated communication
apprehension apprehension (CMCA). The consumers with high CNC and low CMCA preferred VSEs, whereas the con-
sumers with low CNC and high CMCA preferred IDSEs. The effects of VSEs and IDSEs on consumers with
high CNC and CMCA and those with low CNC and CMCA were not significantly different.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Worldwide use of the Internet has increased exponentially in
recent years, changing people’s lives in numerous ways (Byrne
et al., 2016). One such example is online shopping. Online stores are
more convenient and offer more selection than do physical stores
(Chen, Gillenson, & Sherrell, 2002); therefore, the number of peo-
ple who engage in online shopping across the globe is expected to
continue increasing (Ahn, Ryu, & Han, 2004).
In contrast to consumers who shop at physical stores, online
shopping consumers must wait for purchased products to be deliv-
ered before using them (Comegys, Hannula, & Väisänen, 2009; Liao
& Keng, 2013). Because online shopping involves remote transac-
tions (Comegys et al., 2009), information asymmetry may occur
(Yoon & Occeña, 2015); thus, consumer post-payment dissonance
(i.e., the dissonance occurring between payment and receiving the
product) may be more common in online shopping consumers than
∗ Correspondence address: No.40, Sec. 3, Zhongshan N. Rd., Zhongshan District,
Taipei City 104, Taiwan, ROC.
E-mail addresses: tzehsien@ttu.edu.tw, tzehsienliao@gmail.com
in offline shopping consumers (Liao & Keng, 2013), and requires
further discussion.
Online shopping post-payment dissonance can be defined as a
psychologically uncomfortable state experienced by consumers in
the period between payments and receiving products. Such disso-
nance is caused by an inconsistency between the beliefs, attitudes,
and/or behaviors involved in online shopping (Festinger, 1957;
Liao & Keng, 2013). Post-payment dissonance results in negative
outcomes (e.g., dissatisfaction, negative repurchase intention, and
positive complaint intention) (Keng & Liao, 2009), and therefore
must be overcome.
Festinger (1957) suggested that consumers may engage in
dissonance reduction strategies such as searching for additional
information to support purchase decisions (Keng & Liao, 2009),
as well as canceling orders and seeking refunds (Nadeem, 2007).
Online consumers cannot use a product immediately after the
payment; therefore, other options available to online marketers
for consumer dissonance reduction and preventing undesirable
actions by consumers (e.g., order cancelation) must be considered.
Additionally, providing consumers with positive product informa-
tion can enable them to experience products before actual use.
Some studies have examined online consumer experiences
(Daugherty, Li, & Biocca, 2008; Griffith & Chen, 2004; Keng, Ting,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2017.03.006
0268-4012/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538 521

& Chen, 2011; Keng, Liao, & Yang, 2012; Keng, Tran, Liao, Yao, & Study 2 explored the varying effects of IDSEs and VSEs and dis-
Hsu, 2014; Keng, Pao, Ting, & Chang, 2015; Kim & Biocca, 1997; cussed the moderating effects of CNC and CMCA.
Li, Daugherty, & Biocca, 2001; Li, Daugherty, & Biocca, 2002; Li,
Daugherty, & Biocca, 2003; Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014)
2. Theory and hypotheses
and have indicated that such experiences can positively influence
consumers, thereby reducing the frequency of post-payment dis-
2.1. Online shopping post-payment dissonance
sonance.
Online consumer experiences are typically categorized as either
The cognitive dissonance theory was developed by social psy-
indirect or virtual experiences based on controlled messaging
chologist Leon Festinger (1957), who defined cognitive dissonance
(Daugherty et al., 2008; Li et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002; Li et al., 2003;
as a psychologically uncomfortable state caused by inconsistencies
Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014) and two-way communication
between beliefs, attitudes, and/or behaviors. This discomfort moti-
(Griffith & Chen, 2004; Li et al., 2003; Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng,
vates consumers to reduce the inconsistencies (Festinger, 1957;
2014). However, the present paper proposes extending these cate-
Keng & Liao, 2009; Keng & Liao, 2013; Nadeem, 2007). Since the
gories to include “social cues” (Wang, Baker, Wagner, & Wakefield,
cognitive dissonance theory was introduced, it has been applied to
2007).
numerous studies on consumer purchase behavior (i.e., consumer
Cox, Cox, and Anderson (2005) indicated that consumers
cognitive dissonance).
desire personal attention from salespeople when shopping online,
The consumer purchase process can be divided into the fol-
thereby prompting online marketers to design websites with
lowing six stages: need for recognition, searching for information,
human-like characteristics and social cues (Wang et al., 2007).
pre-purchase evaluation, purchase (i.e., payment), consumption
Interpersonal communication can reduce consumer dissonance
(i.e., product usage), and post-consumption evaluation (Blackwell,
(Chang & Tseng, 2014; Hunt, 1970), and the present study revealed
Miniard, & Engel, 2005). Consumer cognitive dissonance occurs
that social cues (i.e., online consumer social experiences; OCSEs)
after the purchase stage (Liao & Keng, 2013), and is manifested
may be incorporated into online consumer experiences.
as doubts about whether the correct purchase decision has been
The purpose of this study is to discuss the effects of OCSEs,
made (Keng & Liao, 2009). Because consumer cognitive dissonance
namely indirect social experiences (IDSEs) and virtual social expe-
may result in negative satisfaction (Keng & Liao, 2009; Soutar &
riences (VSEs), when online shopping post-payment dissonance
Sweeney, 2003; Sweeney, Soutar, & Johnson, 1996), negative repur-
occurs, and conducted two experiments. Study 1 adopted the social
chase intention (Hunt, 1970; Keng & Liao, 2009; Mittelstaedt, 1969),
response theory (Nass, Moon, Fogg, Reeves, & Dryer, 1995), which
and positive complaint intention (Keng & Liao, 2009; Soutar &
suggests that people tend to consider computers as social actors.
Sweeney, 2003), identifying a method to overcome consumer cog-
Because IDSEs and VSEs contain social cues, this study investi-
nitive dissonance is critical.
gated whether the effects of OCSEs may be limited because of
Previous studies on consumer cognitive dissonance have
the difficulty people have in trusting or accepting opinions dis-
divided its antecedents into trait factors and state factors. Trait fac-
played on websites. Interpersonal trust (IPT) is an individual trait
tors include persuadability (Bell, 1967), self-confidence (Bell, 1967;
that plays a crucial role in online environments (Das, Echambadi, &
Cummings & Venkatesan, 1976; Katz, 1959; Keng & Liao, 2013), trait
McCardle, 2003;Feng, Lazar, & Preece, 2004; Hung, Li, & Tse, 2011;
anxiety (Cummings & Venkatesan, 1976; Katz, 1959; Keng & Liao,
Hsu, Chang, & Yen, 2011; Riegelsberger, Sasse, & McCarthy, 2005),
2013; Oshikawa, 1972), impulsiveness (George & Yaoyuneyong,
and susceptibility to interpersonal informational influence (SIII)
2010), and hedonic consumption tendencies (Saleem, Ali, & Ahmad,
represents individual characteristics and markedly influences con-
2012). State factors include purchase involvement (Cohen &
sumer decision-making processes (Bearden & Etzel, 1982; Cohen &
Goldberg, 1970; Saleem et al., 2012), state anxiety (Katz, 1959;
Golden, 1972; Prendergast, Cheung, & West, 2008). This study pro-
Keng & Liao, 2013; Menasco & Hawkind, 1978), and impulse buying
posed that low levels of these two personality variables may negate
(George & Yaoyuneyong, 2010; Saleem et al., 2012). Although many
the positive effects of OCSEs. Thus, Study 1 compared responses
studies have examined shopping dissonance among offline shop-
from consumers who presented with IDSEs and VSEs (OCSEs) with
pers, few have discussed online shopping consumer dissonance.
responses from those who did not present with IDSEs and VSEs
Liao and Keng (2013) indicated that consumer post-payment
(non-OCSEs) to determine the effectiveness of OCSEs in reducing
dissonance is more likely to occur in online shopping scenarios than
online shopping post-payment dissonance. Study 1 also analyzed
in offline shopping scenarios because consumers cannot immedi-
the influence of the moderating variables IPT and SIII.
ately use products that have been purchased online. As indicated in
Study 2 compared the differential effects of OCSEs (i.e., IDSEs and
some previous studies, post-purchase communication may reduce
VSEs). The controlling the information flow theory (Ariely, 2000)
consumer dissonance (Chang & Tseng, 2014; Hunt, 1970); addi-
suggests that people use information more effectively when the
tionally, online marketers can provide consumers with positive
information can be controlled to match their personal preferences
information or experiences after purchasing (or payment) to reduce
(Aksoy, Bloom, Lurie, & Cooil, 2006; Ylikoski, 2005). Because VSEs
consumer dissonance.
enable a higher degree of active control than do IDSEs (Daugherty
et al., 2008; Li et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002; Li et al., 2003; Liao &
Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014), this study proposed that active 2.2. Online consumer social experiences
control is more effective only when people are highly motivated
to control computers, which is referred to as “computing need for The concept of consumer experience was introduced by Mathur
control” (CNC). In addition, the uses and gratifications theory (Katz, (1971), and can be defined as the product of an ongoing transaction
1959) postulates that consumers select specific media for specific that gradually increases in quality, intensity, meaning, and value,
purposes, and choose the mediums they want accordingly (Katz, and integrates both psychological and emotional conditions (Keng
Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1974; Liang, Lai, & Ku, 2007). Because VSEs et al., 2012). Online consumer experiences are derived from the
enable a higher degree of two-way communication than do IDSEs concept of consumer experiences, and refer to consumers’ psycho-
(Griffith & Chen, 2004; Li et al., 2003), this study proposed that a logical and emotional states when interacting with products online
high level of anxiety associated with computer-assisted commu- (Li et al., 2001; Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014).
nication (i.e., computer-mediated communication apprehension; Prior research has described the positive effects of online con-
CMCA) may inhibit consumers from selecting VSEs. Consequently, sumer experiences. Kim and Biocca (1997) concluded that online
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522 T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538
consumer experiences simulate direct experiences, which in turn
result in enhanced persuadability. Li et al. (2002) and Li et al. (2003)
proposed that online consumer experiences positively influence
product knowledge, brand attitude, and purchase intention. Griffith
and Chen (2004) indicated that online consumer experiences nega-
tively affect perceived risk and positively affect product evaluation,
affect, and conation. Keng et al. (2012) suggested that online con-
sumer experiences lower consumer-perceived risk and enhance
product knowledge and brand attitude. Liao and Keng (2013)
discovered that when consumers experience an online shopping
delivery delay caused by e-tailers, providing the consumers with
online consumer experiences as part of a recovery strategy mit-
igates their unpleasant feelings, reduces complaint intention, and
increases satisfaction and repurchase intention. Additionally, other
studies have suggested that online consumer experiences may have
positive persuasion effects (Daugherty et al., 2008; Keng et al.,
2011; Keng et al., 2014; Keng et al., 2015; Li et al., 2001; Liao &
Keng, 2014).
Online consumer experiences are traditionally classified as indi-
rect and virtual experiences based on the ability to actively control
messages (Daugherty et al., 2008; Li et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002;
Li et al., 2003; Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014) and to
engage in two-way communication (Griffith & Chen, 2004; Li et al.,
2003). Active control is characterized by voluntary and instrumen-
tal action that directly influences the controller’s experience (Liu &
Shrum, 2002), and two-way communication refers to the capacity
for reciprocal communication between companies and consumers
(Liu & Shrum, 2002). Moreover, an indirect experience is when a
consumer’s experience with a product is mediated, such as through
offline or online two-dimensional (2D) advertising (Keng et al.,
2012), whereas a virtual experience occurs when a product repre-
sentation activates mental processes among consumers through a
sensory-rich mediated environment (Daugherty et al., 2008; Fortin
& Dholakia, 2005).
Li et al. (2001) indicated that virtual experiences simulated by
three-dimensional (3D) advertising consist of more active cogni-
tive and affective activities than do 2D marketing messages (i.e.,
indirect experiences). Hence, virtual experiences are richer than
indirect experiences because virtual experiences provide the capa-
bility to interact using messages (Li et al., 2002). Li et al. (2003)
and Daugherty et al. (2008) proposed that virtual experiences yield
higher degrees of product knowledge, brand attitude, and purchase
intention than do indirect experiences. Keng et al. (2012) proposed
that exposure to virtual experiences enhances product knowledge
and brand attitude, and reduces perceived risk compared with
exposure to indirect experiences. Therefore, virtual experiences
may have a greater potential to reduce consumer online shopping
post-payment dissonance than do indirect experiences.
Despite the shift toward online shopping in recent years, con-
sumers continue to demand personal attention from salespeople
(Cox et al., 2005). Thus, some online marketers include human-
like characteristics and social cues on their websites to simulate
the experience of being served for online consumers (Wang et al.,
2007). This interpersonal communication may reduce consumer
cognitive dissonance (Chang & Tseng, 2014; Hunt, 1970). To deter-
mine whether incorporating social cues into online consumer
experiences is warranted, this study also explored the effects of
OCSEs on online shopping post-payment dissonance.
This study defined OCSEs as consumers’ psychological and emo-
tional states when interacting with products and social cues online
(Li et al., 2001; Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014; Wang et al.,
2007). OCSEs differ from ordinary online consumer experiences
because of their incorporation of social cues, and consist of VSEs and
IDSEs. Notably, VSEs involve active control and two-way communi-
cation, whereas IDSEs do not (Table 1). Thus, based on the findings
of previous studies (Daugherty et al., 2008; Keng et al., 2012; Keng
Table 1
Comparison of online consumer experiences and OCSEs.
Online Consumer Experiences Online Consumer Social
Experiences (OCSEs)
Indirect Experiences Indirect Social Experiences (IDSEs)
√
Social Cue
Virtual Experiences Virtual Social Experiences (VSEs)
√ √
Active Control Social Cue
√ √
Two-way Communication Active Control
√
Two-way communication
et al., 2014; Li et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002; Li et al., 2003), this study
expected VSEs to increase consumer learning or advertising effects
more than IDSEs.
This study hypothesized that providing consumers with OCSEs
after shopping online could reduce dissonance, resulting in higher
levels of satisfaction and repurchase intention and lower lev-
els of complaint intention. Moreover, this study expected that
VSEs would be more effective in reducing dissonance than IDSEs.
Hypothesis 1 was proposed as follows, and the framework used in
Study 1 is shown in Fig. 1.
Hypothesis 1. In online shopping post-payment dissonance, pro-
viding VSEs to consumers will induce (a) higher satisfaction, (b)
higher repurchase intention, and (c) lower complaint intention
than experiencing IDSEs or non-OCSEs altogether.
2.3. Social response theory
The social response theory introduced by Nass et al. (1995)
indicates that people tend to treat computers as social actors
despite knowing that machines do not harbor feelings, intentions,
or motivation, or possess consciousness (Moon, 2000; Nass et al.,
1995). People presented with a set of characteristics typically
associated with human behavior (e.g., language, turn-taking, and
interactivity), have been revealed to respond by exhibiting social
behaviors and making social attributions (Chattaraman, Kwon, &
Gilbert, 2012; Moon, 2000; Moon & Nass, 1996; Nass et al., 1995;
Sivaramakrishnan, Wan, & Tang, 2007;Wang et al., 2007). In addi-
tion to computers, several studies have applied the social response
theory to online contexts by claiming that websites can serve
as social actors (Brown, Broderick, & Lee, 2007; Li & Li, 2014;
Wakefield, Wakefield, Baker, & Wang, 2011; Wang et al., 2007).
Chung and Ahn (2007) suggested that because humans tend to
believe that computers and websites have personalities, and thus
consider them social actors, exposure to different types of web-
sites can lead to different responses among web users. The feelings
elicited by an initial website interaction affect those elicited by
subsequent website interactions. Therefore, this study expected
websites with social cues to be more effective at influencing people
willing to accept others’ opinions than those who are unwilling.
2.4. IPT
Since the 1950s, the importance of IPT has been emphasized
in sociology, economics, and psychology (Feng et al., 2004; Young
& Tseng, 2008). With an increasing number of technologies sup-
porting remote transactions and replacing traditional forms of
interaction, IPT plays a crucial role in e-commerce (Das et al., 2003),
human–computer interaction (Feng et al., 2004; Riegelsberger
et al., 2005), and virtual communities (Hung et al., 2011; Hsu et al.,
2011).
IPT, also called personality-based trust (Johnson & Grayson,
1999), can be defined as a general expectancy held by an indi-
vidual that the word, promise, or verbal or written statement
of another individual or group is reliable (Rotter, 1967). Such
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T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538
In Online Shopping Post-Payment Dissonance Condion
Online Consumer Social
Experiences (OCSEs)
．non-OCSEs
．Indirect Social Experiences (IDSEs)
．Virtual Social Experiences (VSEs)
Interpersonal Trust
(IPT)
a
Control Variables: gender, online shopping experience, and digital camera experience.
Fig. 1. Framework of Study 1.
expectancies are learned and generalized based on an individual’s
prior experiences, and subsequently become enduring personal-
ity characteristics (Das et al., 2003) that determine the individual’s
willingness to trust another under specific circumstances (Johnson
& Grayson, 1999).
As previously discussed, the social response theory (Moon,
2000; Nass et al., 1995) suggests that people tend to consider
computers as social actors. Thus, an individual trusts or distrusts
information or comments viewed on a computer according to his
or her degree of trust (which is determined by his or her personal-
ity), similar to how he or she would react to another person. Because
OCSEs (i.e., IDSEs and VSEs) contain social cues, this study proposed
that websites that incorporate social cues influence people to be
willing to trust others more than do websites that do not incorpo-
rate social cues. In summary, OCSEs reduce consumer dissonance
through high levels of IPT. Hypothesis 2 is proposed as follows:
Hypothesis 2. In online shopping post-payment dissonance, IPT
moderates the effects of OCSEs. For consumers with high levels of
IPT, experiencing VSEs will induce (a) higher satisfaction, (b) higher
repurchase intention, and (c) lower complaint intention than expe-
riencing IDSEs or non-OCSEs altogether. The (d) satisfaction, (e)
repurchase intention, and (f) complaint intention of consumers
with low levels of IPT will not significantly differ.
2.5. SIII
SIII is a personality trait that originated from psychology litera-
ture in the 1950s (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955; Janis, 1954), and which
indicates a tendency to accept information from others as evidence
of reality (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955).
Interpersonal informational influence operates through the pro-
cess of internalization, which occurs if information from others
increases an individual’s knowledge about aspects of his or her
environment (Bearden, Netemeyer, & Teel, 1989). Interpersonal
informational influence affects consumer decision-making pro-
cesses based on product evaluation (Burnkrant & Cousineau, 1975;
Cohen & Golden, 1972; Pincus & Waters, 1977), product or brand
selection (Bearden & Etzel, 1982; Lee, 2015; Park & Lessig, 1977),
and advertising (Prendergast et al., 2008).
According to the social response theory (Moon, 2000; Nass et al.,
1995), people consider any characteristics associated with human
behavior (e.g., language, turn-taking, and interactivity) adopted
by computers as social attributions (Chung & Ahn, 2007; Moon,
2000; Nass et al., 1995; Wang et al., 2007). Because OCSEs (i.e.,
IDSEs and VSEs) contain social cues, people may consider OCSEs
similar to social actors. Thus, the effects of OCSEs may be lim-
ited in people whose personalities render them unwilling to accept
computer-generated opinions (Moon, 2000; Nass et al., 1995). In
summary, OCSEs can reduce consumer dissonance among individ-
uals with high levels of SIII more than in those with low levels of
SIII. Hypothesis 3 is thus proposed as follows:
523
．Sasfacon a
H1(a)-(c) ．Repurchase Intenon a
H2(a)-(f) ．Complaint Intenon a
H3(a)-(f)
Suscepbility to Interpersonal
Informaon Influence (SIII)
Hypothesis 3. In online shopping post-payment dissonance, SIII
moderates the effects of OCSEs. For consumers with high levels of
SIII, experiencing VSEs will induce (a) higher satisfaction, (b) higher
repurchase intention, and (c) lower complaint intention than expe-
riencing IDSEs or non-OCSEs altogether. The (d) satisfaction, (e)
repurchase intention, and (f) complaint intention of consumers
with low levels of SIII will not significantly differ.
2.6. Controlling the information flow theory
Ariely (2000) introduced the controlling the information flow
theory, and found that although information control allows con-
sumers to manage information systems that fit their personal
information needs and are more flexible, such control might not
always be beneficial for enhancing consumer decision-making
quality, memory, knowledge, or confidence. Rather, excess infor-
mation control may increase consumers’ cognitive loads because
considerable time must be spent managing information flow (e.g.,
choosing what information to present first, for how long, which
aspects of information to pursue, and in what order) (Ariely, 2000;
Sohn, Ci, & Lee, 2007).
Thus, information control may not always produce positive
effects for all consumers (Sicilia, Ruiz, & Munuera, 2005; Wu & Lin,
2012; Wu, Wang, Wei, & Yeh, 2015); indeed, consumers can use
information more effectively when information control matches
their personal preferences (Aksoy et al., 2006; Ylikoski, 2005).
2.7. CNC
The concept of desire for control was introduced by Burger and
Cooper (1979). Desire for control is a stable personality trait reflect-
ing the extent to which people are motivated to control life events
(Burger, 1985). People with a high desire for control are assertive,
decisive, and proactive; they seek to influence others when such
influence is advantageous to them, and avoid unpleasant situations
or failure by manipulating events to ensure their desired outcomes
(Burger & Cooper, 1979; Charlton, 2005). People with a low desire
for control are nonassertive, passive, and indecisive; they are less
likely to attempt to influence others, and may prefer others to make
decisions on their behalf (Burger & Cooper, 1979).
Charlton (2005) applied Burger and Cooper (1979) theory of
desire for control to develop the CNC scale, which describes a
person’s motivation to control computers. The CNC scale items tar-
get motivational issues surrounding both the satisfaction obtained
from getting computers to do what one wants them to do and the
general desire to exert as much control as possible over computers
when using them (Charlton, 2005). In addition, these items seek
to identify the extent to which individuals are willing to rely upon
their own efforts or the efforts of others in controlling computers.
According to the controlling the information flow theory (Ariely,
2000), excessive information control is not always effective; people
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524 T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538
can use information more effectively only if their levels of control
match their preferences (Aksoy et al., 2006; Ylikoski, 2005). Notably
VSEs enable a higher degree of active control over messages than do
IDSEs (Daugherty et al., 2008; Li et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002; Li et al.,
2003; Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014). Therefore, the present
study proposed that VSEs are more effective when the level of infor-
mation control matches the consumer’s preferences. In summary,
consumers with high CNC levels are motivated to control web-
site messages, and their dissonance reduction is likely to be more
affected by VSEs than by IDSEs. By contrast, for consumers with
low CNC levels, dissonance reduction is likely to be more affected
by IDSEs than by VSEs because such consumers are less motivated
to control website messages.
2.8. Uses and gratifications theory
Katz (1959) introduced the uses and gratifications theory to
address the issues of media choice and consumption and to deter-
mine how people use media (Liang et al., 2007). The theory states
that media audiences access information with certain purposes in
mind and play an active role in selecting the source and the infor-
mation they would like to access (Katz et al., 1974). The theory
comprises the following three basic tenets: (a) media users’ behav-
iors are goal-oriented, (b) media users use media actively, and (c)
media users are aware of their needs and use media that gratifies
those needs (Alonzo & Aiken, 2004; Katz et al., 1974).
The uses and gratifications theory has been applied to inter-
active media, such as the Internet (Grace-Farfaglia, Dekkers,
Sundararajan, Peters, & Park, 2006; Morris & Ogan, 1996), social
networking sites (Hunt, Atkin, & Krishnan, 2012; Ifinedo, 2016;Lee,
Hansen, & Lee, 2016; Pai & Arnott, 2013; Zywica & Danowski, 2008),
and online games (Li, Liu, Xu, Heikkilä, & van der Heijden, 2015; Wu,
Wang, & Tsai, 2010).
Some studies (Ku, Chu, & Tseng, 2013; Wilson & Lu, 2008) have
applied the uses and gratifications theory to discuss the usage of
computer-mediated communication technology. Palmgreen et al.
(1980) asserted that gratification sought and gratification obtained
are the two key concepts of the uses and gratifications theory. Sub-
sequently, Ku et al. (2013) defined gratification sought as users’
expectations of being gratified by computer-mediated communica-
tion technology before using it, and gratification obtained as users’
experiences of gratification when using a particular computer-
mediated communication technology. Hence, consumers actively
use computer-mediated communication technology when expect-
ing computer-mediated communication technology to satisfy their
preferences or needs.
2.9. CMCA
Communication apprehension was introduced by McCroskey
(1977), who defined it as an individual’s level of fear or anxi-
ety associated with either real or anticipated communication with
other people. Some studies have applied the communication appre-
hension theory to computer-mediated communication and have
termed the concept “computer-mediated communication appre-
hension” (Fuller, Vician, & Brown, 2006; Hunt et al., 2012; Liu &
Shrum, 2002).
As a personality characteristic (Fuller et al., 2006), CMCA refers
to the level of anxiety associated with communicating with oth-
ers via a computer (Liu & Shrum, 2002). People with high levels of
CMCA can be novice computer users who are anxious about using
computers or people with high levels of general communication
anxiety (Flaherty, Pearce, & Rubin, 1998). Liu and Shrum (2002)
indicated that people with high levels of CMCA may be less satis-
fied with highly interactive online experiences involving frequent
two-way communication than people with low levels of CMCA. In
addition, people with high levels of CMCA may be more likely to
enjoy less interactive online experiences than those with low levels.
As previously noted, the uses and gratifications theory (Katz,
1959) posits that active media users are aware of their needs and
use media that gratifies those needs (Alonzo & Aiken, 2004; Katz
et al., 1974). VSEs enable a higher degree of two-way communica-
tion than IDSEs do (Griffith & Chen, 2004; Li et al., 2003). Therefore,
a high level of anxiety associated with computer-assisted com-
munication inhibits consumer preferences for VSEs. In summary,
VSEs reduce dissonance in consumers who believe that two-way
communication enables them to satisfy their preferences or needs.
Thus, for consumers with low levels of CMCA, VSEs are more effec-
tive than IDSEs in reducing dissonance because such consumers
are more likely to actively communicate via computers. By con-
trast, consumers with high levels of CMCA are less likely to actively
communicate via computers, and their dissonance is reduced more
by IDSEs than by VSEs.
In accordance with the aforementioned literature review of the
controlling the information flow theory (Section 2.6), CNC (Section
2.7), uses and gratifications theory (Section 2.8), and CMCA (Sec-
tion 2.9), the present study proposed that CNC and CMCA moderate
the effects of OCSEs on online shopping post-payment dissonance,
and tested this proposition on consumers with high and low levels
of CNC and CMCA. Moreover, based on the information flow con-
trol theory (Ariely, 2000) and uses and gratifications theory (Katz,
1959), this study argued that dissonance among consumers with
high levels of CNC and low levels of CMCA is more affected by
VSEs, dissonance among consumers with low levels of CNC and
high levels of CMCA is more affected by IDSEs, and the effects of
VSEs and IDSEs do not differ significantly between consumers with
high levels of CNC and CMCA and those with low levels of CNC and
CMCA. Hypotheses 4–7 were formulated as follows, and the Study
2 framework is presented in Fig. 2.
Hypothesis 4. In online shopping post-payment dissonance, pro-
viding IDSEs or VSEs to consumers with high levels of CNC and
CMCA does not induce a significant difference in such customers’
levels of (a) satisfaction, (b) repurchase intention, or (c) complaint
intention.
Hypothesis 5. In online shopping post-payment dissonance, pro-
viding VSEs to consumers with high levels of CNC and low levels of
CMCA induces (a) higher satisfaction, (b) higher repurchase inten-
tion, and (c) lower complaint intention than does providing IDSEs.
Hypothesis 6. In online shopping post-payment dissonance, pro-
viding IDSEs to consumers with low levels of CNC and high levels of
CMCA induces (a) higher satisfaction, (b) higher repurchase inten-
tion, and (c) lower complaint intention than does providing VSEs.
Hypothesis 7. In online shopping post-payment dissonance, pro-
viding IDSEs or VSEs to consumers with low levels of CNC and CMCA
does not induce a significant difference in such customers’ levels of
(a) satisfaction, (b) repurchase intention, or (c) complaint intention.
3. Methods
3.1. Participants
Following the methods of several previous studies (Daugherty
et al., 2008; Keng et al., 2012; Li et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002; Li
et al., 2003), the present study investigated the effects of OCSEs
by recruiting Taiwanese business college students to conduct two
experiments. College students in Taiwan typically spend consid-
erable amounts of time using the Internet, thereby constituting a
sizeable proportion of all online shopping consumers (Hsu, Lin, &
Chiang, 2013; Lu, Chang, & Yu, 2013; MIC, 2016) and Internet users
(Keng et al., 2015; Nathan & Yeow, 2011; Tsao, 2013; Wu, Ko, Tung,
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T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538
In Online Shopping Post-Payment Dissonance Condion
Online Consumer Social
Experiences (OCSEs)
．Indirect Social Experiences (IDSEs)
．Virtual Social Experiences (VSEs)
Compung Need for Control
(CNC)
a
Control Variables: gender, online shopping experience, and digital camera experience.
Fig. 2. Framework of Study 2.
& Li, 2016) in Taiwan. College students are also receptive to online
virtual advertising (Keng et al., 2012; Visinescu, Sidorova, Jones, &
Prybutok, 2015).
3.2. Products
Several studies (Daugherty et al., 2008; Li et al., 2003; Liao
& Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014) have proposed specific cri-
teria for selecting test products when comparing the effects of
consumer experiences. The first criterion was to engage the par-
ticipants by allowing them to actively evaluate the test product
(i.e., high involvement). Eight products (smartphones, notebook
computers, digital cameras, tablet computers, wristwatches, bags,
clothes, and shoes) were selected for the pretest. All of the par-
ticipants had experience using these eight products, and the
results revealed that levels of involvement (Daugherty et al., 2008)
(Cronbach’s ␣ = 0.97) differed significantly between the products
(F(7,376) = 23.175, p < 0.001); the highest four involvement scores
were obtained for smartphones (mean [M] = 31.81, standard devia-
tion [SD] = 7.78), notebook computers (M = 29.70, SD = 6.49), digital
cameras (M = 28.73, SD = 6.20), and tablet computers (M = 25.13,
SD = 7.15).
The second criterion was to select a product with bal-
anced experience and search attributes. The same eight products
were selected for the pretest, and the results revealed that the
experience of quality (Weathers, Sharma, & Wood, 2007) (Cron-
bach’s ␣ = 0.87) also differed significantly among these products
(F(7,376) = 6.056, p < 0.001); the highest four experience quality
scores were obtained for shoes (M = 12.40, SD = 1.43), clothes
(M = 11.85, SD = 1.91), bags (M = 11.48, SD = 2.15), and digital cam-
eras (M = 11.06, SD = 2.40). Additionally, search quality (Weathers
et al., 2007) (Cronbach’s ␣ = 0.81) differed significantly among
these products (F (7,376) = 10.625, p < 0.001); the highest four search
quality scores were obtained for notebook computers (M = 9.73,
SD = 2.36), wristwatches (M = 9.23, SD = 2.31), tablet computers
(M = 8.81, SD = 2.07), and digital cameras (M = 8.52, SD = 1.94). Thus,
the digital camera was selected as the test product.
The third criterion was to select a product based on the median
brand preference. Nine digital camera brands were selected to mea-
sure their perceived quality (with the single item: “low quality”
or “high quality”) and brand preference (with the single item:
“do not prefer” or “prefer”) in the pretest. The results showed
that brand quality (F(8,621) = 18.478, p < 0.001) and brand preference
(F(8,621) = 14.506, p < 0.001) differed significantly between brands.
The relative median level of perceived quality and brand preference
determined the test product.
3.3. Research design
In Study 1, a 3 (OCSEs: non-OCSEs, IDSEs, or VSEs) × 2 (IPT:
high-IPT or low-IPT) × 2 (SIII: high-SIII or low-SIII) factorial design
was employed, and conducted in a computer laboratory. First, a
525
H4(a)-(c) ．Sasfacon a
H5(a)-(c) ．Repurchase Intenon a
H6(a)-(c) ．Complaint Intenon a
H7(a)-(c)
Computer-Mediated Communicaon
Apprehension (CMCA)
digital camera with a list of specifications (weight, physical dimen-
sions, number of effective pixels, lens type, lens focal length, focus
distances, aperture, and image stabilization) and three sample pic-
tures (three colors: pink, white, and black) were presented to the
participants. Second, the following message was shown: “Please
imagine that you have purchased this product. The payment has
been completed and you are waiting for product delivery.” Third, an
online shopping post-payment dissonance message (Section 3.4.1)
was shown. Fourth, each participant was randomly assigned to one
of the following three types of OCSEs: non-OCSEs, IDSEs, or VSEs.
A countdown timer was incorporated into the experimental IDSE
and VSE websites, and the participants were required to spend
more than 60 s browsing the websites. Finally, information on sat-
isfaction, repurchase intention, complaint intention, IPT, SIII, and
demographics was requested from all of the participants.
In Study 2, a 2 (OCSEs: IDSEs, or VSEs) × 2 (CNC: high-CNC or
low-CNC) × 2 (CMCA: high-CMCA or low-CMCA) factorial design
was used. This study was conducted in a computer laboratory. The
first three steps of this experiment were identical to the steps in
Study 1. At the fourth step, each participant was randomly assigned
either IDSEs or VSEs, and all of them were asked to spend at least
60 s browsing the experimental websites. Finally, the participants’
satisfaction, repurchase intention, complaint intention, CNC, CMCA,
and demographic information were requested.
3.4. Manipulations
3.4.1. Online shopping post-payment dissonance
A pretest was conducted to understand how to manipulate
online shopping post-payment dissonance. For the pretest, 12 digi-
tal camera attributes (boot speed, file format, appearance, lens type,
shutter speed, digital zoom, liquid crystal display monitor size,
shooting modes, wireless capability, operational interface, image
stabilization, and number of effective pixels) were selected to mea-
sure their importance to the participants.
The results showed that degrees of importance differed signifi-
cantly among these attributes (F(11,564) = 12.411, p < 0.001). The two
most crucial attributes were number of effective pixels (M = 6.63,
SD = 0.57) and image stabilization (M = 6.35, SD = 0.61), and thus
these attributes were selected to manipulate online shopping
post-payment dissonance. Specifically, the following message was
presented to the participants: “Many thanks for your purchase!
Your payment is complete and we will deliver your digital cam-
era soon. The following are photos taken using this digital camera
for you to enjoy on your PC screen.” Three pictures were then pre-
sented on the screen. For consumers who were not presented with
online shopping post-payment dissonance manipulation, the three
pictures were clear and in high definition, whereas for customers
who were presented with manipulation, the three pictures were
fuzzy and in low definition were presented in the online shopping
post-payment dissonance manipulation.
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526 T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538

3.4.2. OCSEs (F(1,88) = 29.243, p < 0.001). These results confirm that manipulation
IDSEs referred to consumer experiences with social cues, but was also successfully executed in Study 2.
with low active message control and low-frequency two-way com-
munication. This experience featured static text (relative to product
3.5.2. OCSEs
function and specification) (Daugherty et al., 2008; Keng et al.,
OCSE manipulation was examined by measuring five-item
2012; Keng et al., 2014; Li et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002; Li et al., 2003;
website socialness perceptions (Wang et al., 2007) (Cronbach’s
Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014), static 2D multi-angle prod-
␣ = 0.95), four-item active control (Liu, 2003) (Cronbach’s ␣ = 0.90),
uct pictures (Daugherty et al., 2008; Keng et al., 2012; Keng et al.,
and six-item two-way communication (Liu, 2003) (Cronbach’s
2014; Li et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002; Li et al., 2003; Liao & Keng, 2013;
␣ = 0.87).
Liao & Keng, 2014), and a social function possessed by the camera
The MANOVA results of Study 1 showed that website socialness
in the form of a dynamic avatar that introduces (through audible
perceptions differed significantly among OSCSEs (F(2,87) = 455.118,
speech and readable subtitles) the product to the user (Liao & Keng,
p < 0.001). Moreover, the Scheffe multiple comparison test showed
2013; Liao & Keng, 2014; Moon, 2000; Wang et al., 2007) (Table 2).
that website socialness perceptions of VSEs (M = 21.43, SD = 1.68)
VSEs referred to consumer experiences with social cues, as
and IDSEs (M = 20.73, SD = 2.41) were significantly higher than
well as high active message control and high-frequency two-way
non-OCSEs (M = 8.43, SD = 1.41). By contrast, website socialness
communication. This experience featured static text (with prod-
perceptions did not differ significantly between VSEs and IDSEs.
uct function and specification) (Daugherty et al., 2008; Keng et al.,
The MANOVA results also showed that active control sig-
2012; Keng et al., 2014; Li et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002; Li et al.,
nificantly differed among OSCEs (F(2,87) = 318.854, p < 0.001). The
2003; Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014), a 3D dynamic and
Scheffe multiple comparison test showed that active control of
multi-angle product display (enabling the user to have control over
VSEs (M = 25.17, SD = 0.59) was significantly higher than that of
rotation and zoom) (Daugherty et al., 2008; Keng et al., 2012; Li
IDSEs (M = 15.50, SD = 1.53) and non-OCSEs (M = 14.47, SD = 2.68),
et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002; Li et al., 2003; Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao
but that active control did not differ significantly between IDSEs
& Keng, 2014), a hyperlink (Keng et al., 2012; Liao & Keng, 2013;
and non-OCSEs.
Liao & Keng, 2014), a social function possessed by the camera in
Two-way communication differed significantly among OCSEs
the form of a dynamic avatar (enabling the user to have control
(F(2,87) = 68.592, p < 0.001). Specifically, the Scheffe multiple com-
over play, pause, stop, fast-forward, rewind, and volume control)
parison test showed that two-way communication of VSEs
that introduces (through audible speech and readable subtitles) the
(M = 27.23, SD = 2.62) was significantly higher than that of IDSEs
product to the user (Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014; Wang
(M = 21.67, SD = 1.77) and non-OCSEs (M = 21.97, SD = 1.69); two-
et al., 2007), online communities (discussion forum or Q&A) (Hung
way communication did not differ significantly between IDSEs and
& Li, 2007; Keng et al., 2012; Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014;
non-OCSEs.
Yu, Paek, & Bae, 2008), and an email address (Liao & Keng, 2013;
The MANOVA results of Study 2 also showed that web-
Liao & Keng, 2014; Yu et al., 2008) (Table 2).
site socialness perceptions differed significantly among OCSEs
(F(2,87) = 212.961, p < 0.001). The Scheffe multiple comparison test
3.5. Manipulation check
showed that website socialness perceptions of VSEs (M = 22.47,
SD = 2.90) and IDSEs (M = 21.53, SD = 2.69) were significantly higher
3.5.1. Online shopping post-payment dissonance
than those of non-OCSEs (M = 9.47, SD = 2.57). However, website
Online shopping post-payment dissonance manipulation was
socialness perceptions did not differ significantly between VSEs and
assessed based on Keng and Liao’s (2013) measures of four-item
IDSEs.
cognitive dissonance (Cronbach’s ␣ = 0.95), three-item satisfaction
Moreover, the MANOVA results revealed that active control dif-
(Cronbach’s ␣ = 0.88), three-item repurchase intention (Cronbach’s
fered significantly among OCSEs (F(2,87) = 334.553, p < 0.001). The
␣ = 0.86), and three-item complaint intention (Cronbach’s ␣ = 0.85).
Scheffe multiple comparison test showed that active control of
A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) of the Study 1
VSEs (M = 25.37, SD = 0.81) was significantly higher than that of
data was conducted. Compared with consumers who were not
IDSEs (M = 15.37, SD = 1.61) and non-OCSEs (M = 14.27, SD = 2.61),
presented with online shopping post-payment dissonance manip-
but that active control did not differ significantly between IDSEs
ulation, the consumers who were presented with post-payment
and non-OCSEs.
dissonance manipulation had significantly higher cognitive disso-
Two-way communication differed significantly among OSCEs
nance (M = 21.33, SD = 6.00 vs. M = 12.04, SD = 3.77, respectively)
(F(2,87) = 39.520, p < 0.001). Specifically, the Scheffe multiple com-
(F(1,88) = 77.800, p < 0.001), significantly lower levels of satisfac-
parison test showed that two-way communication of VSEs
tion (M = 8.51, SD = 1.71 vs. M = 14.62, SD = 2.31, respectively)
(M = 27.97, SD = 3.78) was significantly higher than that of IDSEs
(F(1,88) = 203.243, p < 0.001), significantly lower repurchase inten-
(M = 22.10, SD = 3.35) and non-OCSEs (M = 21.40, SD = 2.03); two-
tion (M = 9.18, SD = 2.76 vs. M = 12.64, SD = 4.04, respectively)
way communication did not differ significantly between IDSEs and
(F(1,88) = 22.600, p < 0.001), and significantly higher complaint
non-OCSEs.
intention (M = 15.38, SD = 3.14 vs. M = 11.76, SD = 2.96, respectively)
In short, all of the MANOVA results confirm the successful
(F(1,88) = 31.724, p < 0.001). These results indicate that online shop-
manipulation of OCSEs in Study 1 and Study 2. OCSEs were
ping post-payment dissonance manipulation was effective.
demonstrated to provide social cues to consumers, and consumers
A MANOVA of the Study 2 data was also conducted. Compared
presented with VSEs were more adequately provided with active
with consumers not presented with online shopping post-payment
control and two-way communication than were consumers pre-
dissonance manipulation, the consumers who were presented with
sented with IDSEs or no OCSEs (i.e., non-OCSEs).
post-payment dissonance manipulation had significantly higher
cognitive dissonance (M = 20.73, SD = 5.74 vs. M = 11.58, SD = 3.00,
respectively) (F(1,88) = 89.920, p < 0.001), significantly lower levels 4. Results
of satisfaction (M = 8.44, SD = 1.75 vs. M = 14.36, SD = 2.38, respec-
tively) (F(1,88) = 180.437, p < 0.001), significantly lower repurchase 4.1. Demographic descriptions
intention (M = 9.51, SD = 2.90 vs. M = 12.38, SD = 4.10, respectively)
(F(1,88) = 14.688, p < 0.001), and significantly higher complaint Of the 196 business college students who participated in Study
intention (M = 15.00, SD = 3.07 vs. M = 11.42, SD = 3.17, respectively) 1, approximately 56.6% were women (N = 111) and 43.4% were
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T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538
Table 2
Comparison of OCSE manipulations.
Virtual Social Experiences (VSEs)
Manipulations
Static text (with product function and specification)
3D dynamic and multi-angle product display (with
user-control over rotation, zoom in, and zoom out)
Dynamic avatar (with user control over play, pause, stop,
fast-forward, reverse, and volume control)
Hyperlink
Online communities (discussion forum or Q&A)
E-mail (to the avatar)
men (N = 85). Approximately 86.8% (N = 170) of the participants had
online shopping experiences and 97.4% (N = 191) had experiences
with digital camera use.
Of the 251 business college students who participated in Study
2, approximately 57.8% were women (N = 145) and 42.2% were men
(N = 106). Approximately 85.3% (N = 214) of the participants had
online shopping experiences and 98.8% (N = 248) owned or had
experiences with digital camera use.
4.2. Random allocation test
A chi-square test was conducted to investigate the ran-
domness of participant assignment to the three groups of
experimental conditions (Kimes & Wirtz, 2003). Study 1 con-
sisted of three OCSE groups (i.e., non-OCSEs, IDSEs, and VSEs).
The chi-square test results showed that participant gender
(Pearson ␹2 (2) = 3.342, p = 0.188), online shopping experience (Pear-
son ␹2 (2) = 2.196, p = 0.334), digital camera experience (Pearson
␹2 (2) = 0.392, p = 0.822), IPT characteristics (Pearson ␹2 (2) = 0.122,
p = 0.941), and SIII characteristics (Pearson ␹2 (2) = 0.545, p = 0.762)
were independent of OCSE manipulation. Therefore, participant
allocation was random.
Study 2 consisted of two OCSE groups (IDSEs and VSEs).
The chi-square test results showed that participant gender
(Pearson ␹2 (1) = 0.863, p = 0.353), online shopping experience
(Pearson ␹2 (1) = 0.625, p = 0.429), digital camera experience
(Pearson ␹2 (1) = 0.314, p = 0.575), CNC characteristics (Pear-
son ␹2 (1) = 0.322, p = 0.570), and CMCA characteristics (Pearson
␹2 (1) = 0.322, p = 0.570) were independent of OCSE manipulation.
Therefore, participant allocation was again random.
4.3. Validity and reliability
4.3.1. Study 1
Study 1 developed measures based on those used in previous
studies to assess IPT (Dahlstrom & Nygaard, 1995), SIII (Bearden
et al., 1989), satisfaction (Keng & Liao, 2009), repurchase inten-
tion (Keng & Liao, 2009), and complaint intention (Keng & Liao,
2009). All of these factors were measured using a 7-point Likert
scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree).
The analytic method developed by Kohli et al. (1998) was
adopted in Study 1, and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was
applied to all items. Extraction of the factors was dependent on
principal-component analysis with the direct oblimin rotation
method, and items with factor loadings greater than 0.50 were
retained (Duhachek, 2005).
Next, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was applied to all
items. The model provided an acceptable fit according to traditional
fit indices, with ␹2 /df = 1.187, goodness-of-fit index (GFI) = 0.94,
adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) = 0.91, normed fit index
(NFI) = 0.96, non-normed fit index (NNFI) = 0.99, comparative-fit
527
Indirect Social Experiences (IDSEs)
Experiences Features Manipulations Experience Features
– Static text (with product –
function and specification)
√
Active Control Static 2D multi-angle –
product pictures
√ √
Social Cue Dynamic avatar Social Cue
√
Active Control
√
Active Control – –
√ – –
Active Control
√
Two-way communication
√
Two-way communication – –
index (CFI) = 0.99, and root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA) = 0.015 (Appendix A). All factor loadings were significant
and greater than 0.50 (p < 0.01), and the average variance extracted
(AVE) exceeded 0.50 (Appendix A), indicating that the test of con-
vergent validity was met (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Correlation
estimates between any two factors were all less than 0.85, and the
square root of the AVE for each factor was greater than its cor-
relations with other factors (Appendix A), thereby satisfying the
requirements of the test for discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker,
1981).
Finally, composite reliability (CR) was greater than 0.60, indi-
cating that the five factors had satisfactory levels of internal
consistency (Appendix A) (Brown, Dev, & Lee, 2000).
4.3.2. Study 2
Study 2 developed measures based on those used in previous
studies to assess CNC (Charlton, 2005), CMCA (Hunt et al., 2012),
satisfaction (Keng & Liao, 2009), repurchase intention (Keng & Liao,
2009), and complaint intention (Keng & Liao, 2009). All of these
factors were assessed using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly dis-
agree, 7 = strongly agree).
Similar to Study 1, Study 2 adopted EFA to all items, and retained
items with factor loadings greater than 0.50; CFA was also applied
to all items (Appendix B). The goodness-of-fit indices applied to
the model were as follows: ␹2 /df = 1.491, GFI = 0.93, AGFI = 0.90,
NFI = 0.96, NNFI = 0.98, CFI = 0.99, and RMSEA = 0.042. According to
traditional fit indices, these values were deemed an acceptable fit.
All of the factor loadings were greater than 0.50 (p < 0.01) and the
AVE was greater than 0.50, thereby satisfying the requirements of
convergent validity. In addition, correlation estimates between any
two factors were less than 0.85, and the square root of the AVE
for each factor was greater than its correlations with other fac-
tors, thereby satisfying the requirements of the test for discriminant
validity. Finally, CR was greater than 0.60, indicating that the five
factors had satisfactory levels of internal consistency.
4.4. Common method bias
Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and Podskoff (2003) indicated that
predictor and criterion variables combined from the same source
would cause common method bias. In the current study, the pre-
dictor variables were the various types of OCSEs which were
manipulated, and the criterion variables (i.e., satisfaction, repur-
chase intention, and complaint intention) were obtained from the
participants after they had experienced the OCSEs. Therefore, com-
mon method bias was considered unlikely to be a problem in this
study.
Specifically, this study conducted Harman’s single factor test to
address common method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003).
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528 T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538
Fig. 3. Two-way Interaction (OCSEs and IPT).
4.4.1. Study 1
This study conducted EFA, in which extraction of the five fac-
tors was dependent on unrotated principal-component analysis
(Appendix C). The total variance explained by a single factor
was 28.65%. In addition, this study applied CFA to compare the
five-factor and one-factor models. The results showed that the
five-factor model (␹2 /df = 1.187, GFI = 0.94, AGFI = 0.91, NFI = 0.96,
NNFI = 0.99, CFI = 0.99, and RMSEA = 0.015) had a more acceptable
model fit than did the one-factor model (␹2 /df = 13.944, GFI = 0.41,
AGFI = 0.24, NFI = 0.41, NNFI = 0.35, CFI = 0.43, and RMSEA = 0.310).
Thus, common method bias was not considered to be a significant
problem in Study 1.
4.4.2. Study 2
For Study 2, the total variance explained by a single factor
was 30.35%. Moreover, the CFA results showed that the five-factor
model (␹2 /df = 1.491, GFI = 0.93, AGFI = 0.90, NFI = 0.96, NNFI = 0.98,
CFI = 0.99, and RMSEA = 0.042) had a more acceptable model fit than
did the one-factor model (␹2 /df = 19.508, GFI = 0.35, AGFI = 0.18,
NFI = 0.45, NNFI = 0.39, CFI = 0.46, and RMSEA = 0.350) (Appendix C).
Thus, the common method bias was not considered to be a signifi-
cant problem in Study 2.
4.5. Hypotheses test
4.5.1. Study 1
A MANOVA was conducted for Study 1 to test Hypothesis
1(a)–(c) (Table 3). The OCSEs significantly affected satisfaction (F
(2190) = 30.876, p < 0.001), repurchase intention (F (2190) = 41.714,
p < 0.001), and complaint intention (F (2190) = 37.213, p < 0.001)
with control variables (e.g., gender, online shopping experience,
and digital camera experience) included. The Scheffe multiple
comparison test indicated that satisfaction for VSEs (M = 14.63)
and IDSEs (M = 13.81) was significantly higher than that for non-
OCSEs (M = 10.74), and that satisfaction did not differ significantly
between VSEs and IDSEs. Thus, Hypothesis 1(a) was partially
supported. The Scheffe multiple comparison test showed that
the repurchase intention values for VSEs (M = 13.37) and IDSEs
(M = 12.86) were significantly higher than that for non-OCSEs
(M = 8.87), and that repurchase intention did not differ significantly
between VSEs and IDSEs. Thus, Hypothesis 1(b) was partially sup-
ported. Additionally, the Scheffe multiple comparison test showed
that the complaint intention values for VSEs (M = 11.16) and
IDSEs (M = 11.94) were significantly lower than that for non-OCSEs
(M = 15.08), and that complaint intention did not differ significantly
between VSEs and IDSEs. Thus, Hypothesis 1(c) was partially sup-
ported.
Overall, Hypothesis 1(a)–(c) were partially supported. Providing
consumers who have experienced online shopping post-payment
dissonance with OCSEs reduced the negative outcomes of disso-
nance, and yielded higher satisfaction, higher repurchase intention,
and lower complaint intention than not providing them with OCSEs
(i.e., non-OCSEs) did. However, in contrast to prior expectations, the
experimental results indicated that the effects of IDSEs and VSEs on
reducing online shopping post-payment dissonance did not differ
significantly.
Following the studies of Liao and Keng (2013) and Liao and Keng
(2014), a k-means cluster was used to classify IPT into low or high
clusters (i.e., low IPT or high IPT). An analysis of variance (ANOVA)
showed that high IPT (M = 24.56, SD = 2.21) was significantly higher
than low IPT (M = 17.74, SD = 3.31) (F(1,194) = 287.405, p < 0.001).
A MANOVA was conducted to test Hypothesis 2(a) and (d)
(Table 4). Interaction between OCSEs and IPT significantly affected
satisfaction (F(2,187) = 23.335, p < 0.001) when control variables (e.g.,
gender, online shopping experience, and digital camera experi-
ence) were included. The Scheffe multiple comparison test showed
that for high IPT, significantly higher satisfaction was exhibited by
consumers presented with VSEs (M = 16.18) and IDSEs (M = 15.47)
than by those presented with non-OCSEs (M = 9.66), and that sat-
isfaction did not differ significantly between consumers presented
with VSEs and IDSEs. For low IPT, satisfaction did not differ signif-
icantly among consumers presented with VSEs (M = 13.17), IDSEs
(M = 12.16), and non-OCSEs (M = 11.90) (Fig. 3). Thus, Hypothesis
2(a) was partially supported, and Hypothesis 2(d) was wholly sup-
ported.
Another MANOVA was conducted to test Hypothesis 2(b) and
(e) (Table 4). Interaction between OCSEs and IPT significantly
affected repurchase intention (F(2,187) = 59.588, p < 0.001) when
control variables were included. The Scheffe multiple compari-
son test showed that for high IPT, significantly higher repurchase
intention was exhibited by consumers presented with VSEs
(M = 15.47) and IDSEs (M = 14.59) than by those presented with
non-OCSEs (M = 6.91), and that repurchase intention did not dif-
fer significantly between consumers presented with VSEs and
IDSEs. For low IPT, repurchase intention did not differ signifi-
cantly among consumers presented with VSEs (M = 11.39), IDSEs
(M = 11.12), and non-OCSEs (M = 10.97) (Fig. 3). Thus, Hypothesis
2(b) was partially supported, and Hypothesis 2(e) was wholly sup-
ported.
A MANOVA was also conducted to test Hypothesis 2(c) and
(f) (Table 4). Interaction between OCSEs and IPT significantly
affected complaint intention (F(2,187) = 23.663, p < 0.001) when con-
trol variables were included. The Scheffe multiple comparison test
showed that for high IPT, significantly lower complaint inten-
tion was exhibited by consumers presented with VSEs (M = 9.65)
and IDSEs (M = 11.06) than by those presented with non-OCSEs
(M = 16.41), and that complaint intention did not differ significantly
between consumers presented with VSEs and IDSEs. For low IPT,
complaint intention did not differ significantly among consumers
presented with VSEs (M = 12.58), IDSEs (M = 12.81), and non-OCSEs
(M = 13.67) (Fig. 3). Thus, Hypothesis 2(c) was partially supported,
and Hypothesis 2(f) was wholly supported.
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Table 3
MANOVA test: Effects of non-OCSEs, IDSEs, and VSEs.

OCSEs The Scheffe

non-OCSEs IDSEs VSEs Significant Effectd

Satisfactiona M 10.74 13.81 14.63 non-OCSEs <(IDSEs, VSEs)

SD 2.81 2.93 3.06
N 62 64 70

Repurchase Intentionb M 8.87 12.86 13.37 non-OCSEs <(IDSEs, VSEs)

SD 2.84 3.04 3.21
N 62 64 70

Complaint Intentionc M 15.08 11.94 11.16 non-OCSEs >(IDSEs, VSEs)

SD 2.85 2.38 3.03
N 62 64 70
a
OCSEs significantly affected satisfaction (F(2,190) = 30.876, p < 0.001) when the following control variables were included: gender (F(2,190) = 0.147, p = 0.702), online shopping
experience (F(1,190) = 0.676, p = 0.414), and digital camera experience (F(2,190) = 0.035, p = 0.852).
b
OCSEs significantly affected repurchase intention (F(2,190) = 41.714, p < 0.001) when the following control variables were included: gender (F(2,190) = 0.468, p = 0.495), online
shopping experience (F(1,190) = 0.297, p = 0.586), and digital camera experience (F(2,190) = 0.120, p = 0.730).
c
OCSEs significantly affected complaint intention (F(2,190) = 37.213, p < 0.001) when the following control variables were included: gender (F(2,190) = 2.148, p = 0.144), online
shopping experience (F(1,190) = 0.946, p = 0.332), and digital camera experience (F(2,190) = 2.468, p = 0.118).
d
Means between groups were significantly different (p < 0.05) and within group were not.

Table 4
MANOVA test: Moderating roles of IPT.

OCSEs The Scheffe

non-OCSEs IDSEs VSEs Significant Effectg

Satisfaction
High-IPTa M 9.66 15.47 16.18 non-OCSEs < (IDSEs, VSEs)
SD 2.31 2.29 2.78
N 32 32 34
Low-IPTb M 11.90 12.16 13.17 (non-OCSEs, IDSEs, VSEs)
SD 2.86 2.57 2.58
N 30 32 36

Repurchase Intention
High-IPTc M 6.91 14.59 15.47 non-OCSEs < (IDSEs, VSEs)
SD 1.89 1.66 2.63
N 32 32 34
Low-IPTd M 10.97 11.12 11.39 (non-OCSEs, IDSEs, VSEs)
SD 2.08 3.14 2.33
N 30 32 36

Complaint Intention
High-IPTe M 16.41 11.06 9.65 non-OCSEs > (IDSEs, VSEs)
SD 2.79 2.63 3.23
N 32 32 34
Low-IPTf M 13.67 12.81 12.58 (non-OCSEs, IDSEs, VSEs)
SD 2.17 1.75 1.99
N 30 32 36

Significance of two-way Interaction

1. MANOVA showed that OCSEs * IPT significantly affected satisfaction (F(2,187) = 23.335, p < 0.001) when the following control variables were included: gender (F(1,187) = 0.004,
p = 0.948), online shopping experience (F(1,187) = 0.989, p = 0.319), and digital camera experience (F(1,187) = 0.001, p = 0.997).
2. MANOVA showed that OCSEs * IPT significantly affected repurchase intention (F(2,187) = 59.588, p < 0.001) when the following control variables were included: gender
(F(1,187) = 0.014, p = 0.906), online shopping experience (F(1,187) = 0.813, p = 0.369), and digital camera experience (F(1,187) = 0.879, p = 0.350).
3. MANOVA showed that OCSEs * IPT significantly affected complaint intention (F(2,187) = 23.663, p < 0.001) when the following control variables were included: gender
(F(1,187) = 0.874, p = 0.351), online shopping experience (F(1,187) = 1.592, p = 0.209), and digital camera experience (F(1,187) = 4.080, p = 0.055).
a
F(2,92) = 63.952, p < 0.001.
b
F(2,92) = 1.326, p = 0.270.
c
F(2,92) = 160.538, p < 0.001
d
F(2,92) = 0.152, p = 0.859.
e
F(2,92) = 50.237, p < 0.001.
f
F(2,92) = 2.831, p = 0.064.
g
Means between groups were significantly different (p < 0.05) and within group were not.

Overall, the empirical results suggest that IPT traits moderated
the positive effects of OCSEs on online shopping post-payment dis-
sonance reduction. Hypothesis 2(a)–(c) were partially supported. In
other words, providing consumers who were willing to trust others’
advice with OCSEs reduced dissonance and produced higher satis-
faction, higher repurchase intention, and lower complaint intention
than not providing such consumers with OCSEs did. However, in
contrast to prior expectations, the effects of IDSEs and VSEs did
not differ significantly. Hypothesis 2(d)–(f) were thus wholly sup-
ported; OCSEs had no significant effects on consumers unwilling to
trust others’ advice.
A k-means cluster was used to divide the participants into low
and high SIII clusters (Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014). An
ANOVA showed that high SIII (M = 15.04, SD = 2.89) was signifi-
cantly higher than low SIII (M = 8.14, SD = 2.63) (F(1,194) = 304.632,
p < 0.001).
A MANOVA was conducted to test Hypothesis 3(a) and (d)
(Table 5). Interaction between OCSEs and SIII significantly affected
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530 T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538

Table 5
MANOVA test: Moderating roles of SIII.

OCSEs The Scheffe

non-OCSEs IDSEs VSEs Significant Effectg

Satisfaction
High-SIIIa M 9.91 15.60 16.24 non-OCSEs <(IDSEs, VSEs)
SD 2.26 2.29 2.73
N 33 30 34
Low-SIIIb M 11.69 12.24 13.11 (non-OCSEs, IDSEs, VSEs)
SD 3.10 2.51 2.56
N 29 34 36

Repurchase Intention
High-SIIIc M 7.09 14.70 15.50 non-OCSEs <(IDSEs, VSEs)
SD 2.14 1.66 2.62
N 33 30 34
Low-SIIId M 10.90 11.24 11.36 (non-OCSEs, IDSEs, VSEs)
SD 2.08 3.08 2.30
N 29 34 36

Complaint Intention
High-SIIIe M 16.30 11.00 9.59 non-OCSEs >(IDSEs, VSEs)
SD 2.77 2.70 3.20
N 33 30 34
Low-SIIIf M 13.69 12.76 12.64 (non-OCSEs, IDSEs, VSEs)
SD 2.07 1.71 1.94
N 29 34 36

Significance of two-way Interaction

1. MANOVA showed that OCSEs * SIII significantly affected satisfaction (F(2,187) = 19.940, p < 0.001) when the following control variables were included: gender (F(1,187) = 0.149,
p = 0.700), online shopping experience (F(1,187) = 1.079, p = 0.300), and digital camera experience (F(1,187) = 0.263, p = 0.609).
2. MANOVA showed that OCSEs * SIII significantly affected repurchase intention (F(2,187) = 53.837, p < 0.001) when the following control variables were included: gender
(F(1,187) = 0.244, p = 0.622), online shopping experience (F(1,187) = 0.891, p = 0.346), and digital camera experience (F(1,187) = 0.001, p = 0.994).
3. MANOVA showed that OCSEs * SIII significantly affected complaint intention (F(2,187) = 22.070, p < 0.001) when the following control variables were included: gender
(F(1,187) = 1.770, p = 0.185), online shopping experience (F(1,187) = 1.718, p = 0.192), and digital camera experience (F(1,187) = 1.962, p = 0.163).
a
F(2,91) = 65.018, p < 0.001.
b
F(2,93) = 1.577, p = 0.212.
c
F(2,91) = 144.485, p < 0.001.
d
F(2,93) = 0.211, p = 0.810.
e
F(2,91) = 48.668, p < 0.001.
f
F(2,93) = 2.813, p = 0.065.
g
Means between groups were significantly different (p < 0.05) and within group were not.

Fig. 4. Two-way Interaction (OCSEs and SIII).

satisfaction (F(2,187) = 19.940, p < 0.001) when control variables (e.g.,
gender, online shopping experience, and digital camera experi-
ence) were included. Specifically, the Scheffe multiple comparison
test showed that for high SIII, significantly higher satisfaction was
exhibited by consumers presented with VSEs (M = 16.24) and IDSEs
(M = 15.60) than by those presented with non-OCSEs (M = 9.91),
and that satisfaction did not differ significantly between con-
sumers presented with VSEs and IDSEs. For low SIII, satisfaction
did not differ significantly among consumers presented with VSEs
(M = 13.11), IDSEs (M = 12.24), and non-OCSEs (M = 11.69) (Fig. 4).
Thus, Hypothesis 3(a) was partially supported and Hypothesis 3(d)
was wholly supported.
A MANOVA was conducted to test Hypothesis 3(b) and (e)
(Table 5). Interaction between OCSEs and SIII significantly affected
repurchase intention (F(2,190) = 53.837, p < 0.001) when control vari-
ables were included. Moreover, the Scheffe multiple comparison
test indicated that for high SIII, significantly higher repurchase
intention was exhibited by consumers presented with VSEs
(M = 15.50) and IDSEs (M = 14.70) than by those presented with
non-OCSEs (M = 7.09), and that repurchase intention did not dif-
fer significantly between consumers presented with VSEs and
IDSEs. For low SIII, repurchase intention did not differ significantly
differ among consumers presented with VSEs (M = 11.36), IDSEs
(M = 11.24), and non-OCSEs (M = 10.90) (Fig. 4). Thus, Hypothesis
3(b) was partially supported and Hypothesis 3(e) was wholly sup-
ported.
A MANOVA was used to test Hypothesis 3(c) and (f) (Table 5).
Interaction between OCSEs and SIII significantly affected com-
plaint intention (F(2,187) = 22.070, p < 0.001) when control variables
were included. The Scheffe multiple comparison test showed that
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T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538
for high SIII, significantly higher complaint intention was exhib-
ited by consumers presented with VSEs (M = 9.59) and IDSEs
(M = 11.00) than by those presented with non-OCSEs (M = 16.30),
and that complaint intention did not differ significantly between
consumers presented with VSEs and IDSEs. For low SIII, complaint
intention did not differ significantly different among consumers
presented with VSEs (M = 12.64), IDSEs (M = 12.76), and non-OCSEs
(M = 13.69) (Fig. 4). Thus, Hypothesis 3(c) was partially supported
and Hypothesis 3(f) was wholly supported.
Overall, the empirical results indicate that SIII among consumers
moderated the positive effects of OCSEs on online shopping post-
payment dissonance reduction, partially supporting Hypothesis
3(a)–(c). In other words, providing consumers who are likely to
accept others’ information (i.e., high SIII) with OCSEs reduced
dissonance and produced higher satisfaction, higher repurchase
intention, and lower complaint intention than providing such con-
sumers with non-OCSEs. However, in contrast to prior expectations,
the effects of IDSEs and VSEs did not differ significantly. Hypothesis
3(d)–(f) were thus supported; providing consumers unlikely to
accept information from others (i.e., low SIII) with OCSEs had no
significant effect.
Study 1 compared the effects of presenting and not present-
ing consumers with OCSEs on the reduction of online shopping
post-payment dissonance. Study 1 revealed that OCSEs reduce such
dissonance, and IPT and SIII moderate the effects of OCSEs.
Table 3 shows that the effects of OCSEs are more desirable than
those of non- OCSEs, and Table 4 and Table 5 indicate that for high
IPT or SIII, the effects of OCSEs are more favorable than those of
non-OCSEs. For low IPT or SIII, the effects of OCSEs and non-OCSEs
did not differ from one another. Thus, both low IPT and low SIII may
harm the positive effects of OCSEs.
In contrast to prior expectations, the effects of IDSEs and VSEs
did not differ significantly. Thus, Study 2 examined whether the
consumers’ characteristics influenced their preferences toward
IDSEs or VSEs.
4.5.2. Study 2
Study 2 used a k-means cluster to classify CNC and CMCA into
low or high clusters (i.e., low CNC or high CNC; low CMCA or high
CMCA) (Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014). The ANOVA showed
that high CNC (M = 19.36, SD = 3.28) was significantly higher than
low CNC (M = 10.19, SD = 3.42) (F(1,249) = 469.815, p < 0.001), and
that high CMCA (M = 24.83, SD = 2.09) was significantly higher than
low CMCA (M = 18.03, SD = 3.42) (F(1,249) = 306.662, p < 0.001).
A MANOVA was conducted to test Hypotheses 4–7 (Table 6).
Notably, the interaction among OCSEs, CNC, and CMCA signifi-
cantly affected satisfaction (F(1,240) = 7.158, p = 0.008), repurchase
intention (F(1,240) = 9.004, p = 0.003), and complaint intention
(F(1,240) = 7.816, p = 0.006) (Fig. 5) when control variables (e.g.,
gender, online shopping experience, and digital camera experi-
ence)were included.
Among consumers with high levels of CNC and high levels of
CMCA, the effects of IDSEs (M = 12.61) and VSEs (M = 13.97) on
satisfaction did not differ significantly (F(1,57) = 3.533, p = 0.065),
the effects of IDSEs (M = 11.71) and VSEs (M = 12.60) on repur-
chase intention did not differ significantly (F(1,57) = 2.920, p = 0.093),
and the effects of IDSEs (M = 13.03) and VSEs (M = 12.33) on com-
plaint intention did not differ significantly (F(1,57) = 3.099, p = 0.084)
(Fig. 5). Thus, Hypothesis 4 was supported.
For high CNC and low CMCA consumers, satisfaction of
VSEs (M = 16.90) was significantly higher than that of IDSEs
(M = 10.17) (F(1,60) = 98.469, p < 0.001), repurchase intention of VSEs
(M = 16.03) was significantly higher than that of IDSEs (M = 7.03)
(F(1,60) = 190.193, p < 0.001), and complaint intention of VSEs
(M = 8.43) was significantly lower than that of IDSEs (M = 15.80)
531
(F(1,60) = 127.971, p < 0.001) (Fig. 5). Thus, Hypothesis 5 was sup-
ported.
For consumers with low CNC and high CMCA, satisfaction
of IDSEs (M = 16.03) was significantly higher than that of VSEs
(M = 9.26) (F(1,59) = 118.260, p < 0.001), repurchase intention of
IDSEs (M = 15.57) was significantly higher than that of VSEs
(M = 6.94) (F(1,59) = 249.787, p < 0.001), and complaint intention
of IDSEs (M = 8.10) was significantly lower than that of VSEs
(M = 17.06) (F(1,59) = 181.217, p < 0.001) (Fig. 5). Thus, Hypothesis 6
was supported.
Finally, among consumers with low levels of CNC and low lev-
els of CMCA, the effects of IDSEs (M = 12.32) and VSEs (M = 13.47)
on satisfaction did not differ significantly (F(1,56) = 3.341, p = 0.073),
the effects of IDSEs (M = 10.48) and VSEs (M = 11.27) on repur-
chase intention did not differ significantly (F(1,56) = 3.08, p = 0.088),
and the effects of IDSEs (M = 13.29) and VSEs (M = 12.50) on com-
plaint intention did not differ significantly (F(1,56) = 3.181, p = 0.080)
(Fig. 5). Thus, Hypothesis 7 was supported.
In short, the empirical results found that Hypothesis 4–7 were
supported, indicating that consumers with high levels of CNC pre-
ferred OCSEs that allow greater active control of websites (i.e.,
VSEs), and consumers with low levels of CNC preferred OCSEs that
allow less active control of websites (i.e., IDSEs). Consumers with
high levels of CMCA preferred OCSEs with weaker two-way com-
munication ability (i.e., IDSEs), and consumers with low levels of
CMCA preferred OCSEs with greater two-way communication abil-
ity (i.e., VSEs).
In summary, providing VSEs to consumers with high levels
of CNC and low levels of CMCA reduced online shopping post-
payment dissonance and yielded higher levels of satisfaction,
higher repurchase intention, and lower complaint intention than
providing IDSEs did. In addition, providing IDSEs to consumers with
low levels of CNC and high levels of CMCA reduced dissonance
and produced higher satisfaction, higher repurchase intention, and
lower complaint intention than providing VSEs did. Finally, among
consumers with high levels of CNC and CMCA and those with
low levels of CNC and CMCA, the effects of dissonance reduction
between IDSEs and VSEs did not differ significantly.
5. Discussions
5.1. Summary of findings
This study analyzed the concept of OCSEs and applied them to
online shopping post-payment dissonance reduction in the period
between payment and consumption (i.e., during product delivery).
Two studies were conducted and the findings are summarized as
follows.
Study 1 verified that OCSEs (i.e., IDSEs and VSEs) can be used as
part of an online shopping dissonance reduction strategy, which
produces higher satisfaction, higher repurchase intention, and
lower complaint intention than if OCSEs are not provided. Because
OCSEs (i.e., IDSEs and VSEs) are based on the concept of social
cues, this study determined that a consumer’s personality (i.e., IPT
and SIII) moderates the effects of OCSEs on online shopping post-
payment dissonance reduction. Specifically, consumers with high
IPT and SIII are more likely to accept OCSEs, thereby reducing dis-
sonance. Conversely, consumers with low IPT and SIII are likely to
experience fewer positive effects of OCSEs on dissonance reduction.
Study 2 further investigated the personality factors moderating
the effects of IDSEs and VSEs, because Study 1 had not differenti-
ated the effects of IDSEs and VSEs on dissonance reduction. Study
2 revealed that the effects of IDSEs and VSEs on dissonance reduc-
tion vary according to consumer CNC and CMCA. The consumers
with high CNC preferred OCSEs that strongly enabled active con-
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532 T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538

Table 6
MANOVA test: Moderating roles of CNC and CMAC.

OCSEs Significant Effect

IDSEs VSEs

Satisfaction
High-CNC M 12.61 13.97 F(1, 57) = 3.533, p = 0.065 > 0.05
High-CMCA SD 3.14 2.37
N 31 30
High-CNC M 10.17 16.90 F(1, 60) = 98.469, p < 0.001
Low-CMCA SD 2.26 2.96
N 35 30
Low-CNC M 16.03 9.26 F(1, 59) = 118.260, p < 0.001
High-CMCA SD 2.47 2.26
N 30 34
Low-CNC M 12.32 13.47 F(1, 56) = 3.341, p = 0.073 > 0.05
Low-CMCA SD 2.94 2.39
N 31 30

Repurchase Intention
High-CNC M 11.71 12.60 F(1, 57) = 2.920, p = 0.093 > 0.05
High-CMCA SD 2.15 2.63
N 31 30
High-CNC M 7.03 16.03 F(1, 60) = 190.193, p < 0.001
Low-CMCA SD 2.04 3.03
N 35 30
Low-CNC M 15.57 6.94 F(1, 59) = 249.787, p < 0.001
High-CMCA SD 2.1 1.91
N 30 34
Low-CNC M 10.48 11.27 F(1, 56) = 3.008, p = 0.088 > 0.05
Low-CMCA SD 1.65 2.53
N 31 30

Complaint Intention
High-CNC M 13.03 12.33 F(1, 57) = 3.009, p = 0.084 > 0.05
High-CMCA SD 1.52 1.49
N 31 30
High-CNC M 15.80 8.43 F(1, 60) = 127.971, p < 0.001
Low-CMCA SD 2.51 2.84
N 35 30
Low-CNC M 8.10 17.06 F(1, 59) = 181.217, p < 0.001
High-CMCA SD 2.26 2.74
N 30 34
Low-CNC M 13.29 12.50 F(1, 56) = 3.181, p = 0.080 > 0.05
Low-CMCA SD 2.49 1.55
N 31 30

Significance of three-way Interaction

1. MANOVA showed that OCSEs * CNC * CMCA significantly affected satisfaction (F(1,240) = 7.158, p = 0.008) when the following control variables were included: gender
(F(1,240) = 0.015, p = 0.903), online shopping experience (F(1,240) = 0.278, p = 0.599), and digital camera experience (F(1,240) = 1.486, p = 0.224).
2. MANOVA showed that OCSEs * CNC * CMCA significantly affected repurchase intention (F(1,240) = 9.004, p = 0.003) when the following control variables were included: gender
(F(1,240) = 0.110, p = 0.740), online shopping experience (F(1,240) = 1.585, p = 0.209), and digital camera experience (F(1,240) = 0.614, p = 0.434).
3. MANOVA showed that OCSEs * CNC * CMCA significantly affected complaint intention (F(1,240) = 7.816, p = 0.006) when the following control variables were included: gender
(F(1,240) = 1.23, p = 0.268), online shopping experience (F(1,240) = 0.001, p = 0.973), and digital camera experience (F(1,240) = 1.149, p = 0.285).

Fig. 5. Three-way Interaction (OCSEs, CNC, and CMCA).

trol of website messages (i.e., VSEs). By contrast, low CNC reduced
the effect of VSEs, with such consumers preferring OCSEs that only
weakly enabled active control of website messages (i.e., IDSEs).
Additionally, consumers with low CMCA preferred OCSEs with a
high level of two-way communication (i.e., VSEs). By contrast, high
CMCA reduced the effect of VSEs, with such consumers preferring
OCSEs with a low level of two-way communication (i.e., IDSEs).
Therefore, providing VSEs is an effective method for reducing online
shopping post-payment dissonance in consumers with high CNC
and low CMCA, whereas providing IDSEs is the most effective dis-
sonance reduction strategy for consumers with low CNC and high
CMCA.
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T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538
5.2. Theoretical contributions
This study examined the reductive effects of OCSEs on online
shopping post-payment dissonance reduction. Specifically, cogni-
tive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957), social response theory
(Moon, 2000; Nass et al., 1995), information flow control theory
(Ariely, 2000), uses and gratifications theory (Katz, 1959), and lit-
erature related to consumer experiences were integrated to guide
the experiments. The main theoretical contributions were exam-
ined using two approaches: consumer experiences and cognitive
dissonance.
First, Mathur (1971) and Lundh (1979) were the first researchers
to introduce the concept of experiences, and subsequent studies
(Smith, 1993; Smith & Swinyard, 1983; Wright & Lynch, 1995)
have applied this concept to consumer research (i.e., consumer
experience), classified consumer experiences as direct and indi-
rect experiences, and compared their effects. Encouraged by the
increasing worldwide use of the Internet, several studies have
examined virtual experiences (Daugherty et al., 2008; Li et al., 2001;
Li et al., 2002; Li et al., 2003), with the effects of virtual experiences
being compared with those of direct and indirect experiences. Most
recently, Liao and Keng (2013) and Liao and Keng (2014) intro-
duced the concept of online consumer experiences, and discussed
the effects of indirect experiences and virtual experiences in online
environments.
The present study extended the research of previous studies by
introducing the concept of social cues (Chattaraman et al., 2012;
Chung & Ahn, 2007; Moon, 2000; Moon & Nass, 1996; Nass et al.,
1995; Nass, Moon, & Green, 1997; Sivaramakrishnan et al., 2007;
Wang et al., 2007) in OCSEs.
In contrast to previous studies (Daugherty et al., 2008; Griffith
& Chen, 2004; Keng et al., 2011; Keng et al., 2012; Keng et al., 2014;
Keng et al., 2015; Kim & Biocca, 1997; Li et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002;
Li et al., 2003; Liao & Keng, 2013; Liao & Keng, 2014), the present
study found that OCSEs were not consistently effective, and that
the effects of OCSEs were moderated by consumer personality traits
such as IPT and SIII. Furthermore, this study verified that VSEs were
not necessarily more persuasive than IDSEs because traits such as
CNC and CMCA reduced the positive effects of OCSEs, which also
contradicts several prior studies (Daugherty et al., 2008; Keng et al.,
2012; Keng et al., 2014; Keng et al., 2015; Li et al., 2001; Li et al.,
2002; Li et al., 2003).
Some past studies (Chang & Tseng, 2014; Hunt, 1970) suggested
that interpersonal communication after purchase can reduce cog-
nitive dissonance; this study was the first to investigate applied
OCSEs that included social cues regarding consumer cognitive dis-
sonance, as well as post-payment dissonance. The results of this
research verified the positive roles of OCSEs in dissonance reduc-
tion strategies.
Second, the concept of cognitive dissonance was developed
by Festinger (1957) and has been applied to consumer purchase
research (i.e., consumer cognitive dissonance). Past studies have
discussed the antecedents (Bell, 1967; Cohen & Goldberg, 1970;
Cummings & Venkatesan, 1976; George & Yaoyuneyong, 2010;
Katz, 1959; Menasco & Hawkind, 1978; Oshikawa, 1972; Saleem
et al., 2012) and consequences (Hunt, 1970; Keng & Liao, 2009;
Mittelstaedt, 1969; Soutar & Sweeney, 2003; Sweeney et al., 1996)
of consumer cognitive dissonance, and nearly all focused on offline
environments. Consumer cognitive dissonance is more likely to
occur during online shopping rather than offline shopping (Liao &
Keng, 2013), however, only a few past studies have explored online
dissonance reduction strategies. This study extended the concept
of traditional offline shopping dissonance into the online environ-
ment, and explored online reduction strategies for online shopping
post-payment dissonance.
533
5.3. Implications for research and practice
The implications for research and practice of this study are
summarized according to the following three roles in marketing
channels: manufacturers, retailers and e-tailers, and consumers.
Product manufacturers could apply the results of this study to
develop advertising strategies. In other words, manufacturers can
include OCSEs in their advertising strategies to promote brands
and products in the pre-purchase evaluation stage of the consumer
purchase process, thereby reinforcing consumer purchase deci-
sions and decreasing dissonance in the post-payment evaluation
stage. As previously noted, OCSEs must fit consumer preferences
and personalities. Therefore, this study focused on how manufac-
turers could identify the various characteristics of consumers and
provide them with appropriate OCSEs, and suggested that man-
ufacturers can identify distinct consumer traits through various
types of media. For example, consumers with high IPT or high SIII
can be found in professional virtual communities (Chen & Hung,
2010; Lin, Hung, & Chen, 2009), and thus, OCSE advertisements
should be posted on such platforms. Manufacturers can also iden-
tify consumers with high CNC or low CMCA through interactive
advertisements on computers, smartphones, and smart televisions,
can provide such consumers with access to VSE advertising. For
traditional mass media (e.g., television) with lower levels of inter-
activity, manufacturers could design IDSE advertisements to attract
consumers with low CNC or high CMCA.
Consumers may cancel orders (Nadeem, 2007) and search for
additional information to support their purchase decisions (Keng
& Liao, 2009), actions which reduce dissonance while they wait
for a product purchased online to be delivered. Because imme-
diate usage after payment is impossible in online shopping, the
results of this study suggest a means by which OCSEs may sub-
stitute direct experience (or actual usage) for the period between
payment and consumption to reduce dissonance. E-tailers could
apply the results of this study to the design of personalized web
pages or post-purchase service systems. Rewards such as coupons
may induce consumers to participate in brand-hosted online com-
munities (Liao, Huang, & Xiao, 2017), while coupon distribution
may facilitate obtaining consumer information (Osuna, González,
& Capizzani, 2016). Thus, retailers and e-tailers could identify con-
sumer preferences by offering coupons to encourage consumer
participation in IPT, SIII, CNC, and CMCA surveys, thereby facil-
itating the understanding of consumer characteristics and the
development of a consumer database or personalized recommen-
dation system (Buder & Schwind, 2012) to provide consumers with
information on appropriate websites or service systems. Retailers
and e-tailers can also incorporate avatars into their websites (e.g.,
3M’s Virtual Presenter and Akihabara’s virtual avatar Sato Sasara)
to attract consumers with high IPT or SIII. Websites with active
control features, such as hyperlinks, 3D dynamic product displays,
or dynamic avatars with user control, may appeal to consumers
with high CNC. Meanwhile, for consumers with low CMCA, web-
sites should incorporate two-way communication features such as
discussion forums, email, or instant messenger platforms.
Online shopping post-payment dissonance is a psychologically
uncomfortable state experienced by consumers who question their
online purchase decisions (Liao & Keng, 2013). Thus, the results
of this study provide consumers with methods for reducing the
discomfort of dissonance. Consumers who perceive themselves to
be willing to trust others (i.e., high IPT) or accept others’ advice
(i.e., high SIII) should visit websites with avatars or engage in pro-
fessional virtual communities to find additional information that
reinforces their purchase decisions. Additionally, consumers who
perceive themselves to be highly motivated to control computers
(i.e., high CNC) can attempt to understand the features or functions
of products by immersing themselves in 3D dynamic product dis-
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534 T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538
plays, and consumers with a high need to communicate with others
through computers (i.e., low CMCA) can use discussion forums,
email, or instant messenger platforms to consult manufactures or
retailers and e-tailers.
5.4. Limitations and future research
This study was limited in four areas: online shopping post-
payment dissonance manipulation, research products, research
participants, and dependent variables.
First, contacting real consumers, measuring their degrees of
dissonance after purchase (i.e., post-payment) and after consump-
tion (i.e., receiving and using the product), providing them with
immediate OCSEs, and tracking subsequent behavior were not fea-
sible in this study; online retailers were also approached but they
were reluctant to provide customers who had completed purchases
with reward discounts. After referencing prior research (Cohen
& Goldberg, 1970; Holloway, 1967; Oshikawa, 1972; Sweeney,
Hausknecht, & Soutar, 2000), the present study conducted exper-
iments to investigate online shopping post-payment dissonance.
Pretests and manipulation checks were conducted to confirm
whether dissonance manipulation had been executed, and the par-
ticipants were asked to imagine that they had completed payments
and were provided with dissonance manipulation; real consumers
who experienced dissonance were not surveyed.
Because of the aforementioned limitations, this study only
focused on online shopping post-payment dissonance reduction
occurring in the period between payment (i.e., purchase) and con-
sumption to avoid orders being canceled by consumers waiting for
product delivery. Thus, the prevention of products being returned
after being received or used by consumers was not investigated;
similarly, the effects of varying durations between payment and
consumption (e.g., long vs. short time) were not considered. Fur-
ther research could conduct a longitudinal study by creating a real
online store selling real products to real customers to investigate
post-consumption dissonance reduction.
This study used “fuzzy” pictures rather than peer comments
(e.g., consumer ratings or electronic word of mouth) to manipu-
late online shopping post-payment dissonance. Further research
could use negative peer comments as dissonance manipulation;
however, such manipulation may not be effective for certain par-
ticipants (e.g., participants with low IPT or SIII). In addition, the
concept of “need for closure” refers to the tendency to reduce dis-
comfort due to cognitive uncertainty (Kossowska, 2007). For the
participants with a high need for closure, the dissonance manipula-
tion of negative peer comments may not be successful because they
tend to ignore contradictory or inconsistent comments (Amichai-
Hamburger, Fine, & Goldstein, 2004).
Second, the present study also discussed dissonance occurring in
the period between payment and consumption (i.e., post-payment
dissonance), for which a physical product was assumed to be deliv-
ered after an online payment had been made. Digital goods may
be the subject of extended and complementary research because
such products are often available for consumption immediately
after payment. In such cases, post-consumption dissonance could
Factors/Items
Interpersonal Trust (IPT) (Dahlstrom & Nygaard, 1995)
(Please imagine you are a general manager. How do you treat your subordinate
sales manager? To what extent would you agree with the following four
statements?)
IPT1 I fully trust the sales manager and think he is doing his best for me.
IPT2 I trust the sales manager to do things I cannot do myself.
be discussed instead of post-payment dissonance. Therefore, fur-
ther research could investigate digital goods to discuss the effects
of OCSEs on post-consumption dissonance reduction.
Third, recent studies have enrolled college students for mar-
keting (Choi & Winterich, 2013), consumer psychology (Park &
Bae, 2014), and technology acceptance research (Blasco-Arcas,
Hernandez-Ortega, & Jimenez-Martinez, 2013). College students
are frequent and typical Internet users (Keng et al., 2015; Nathan &
Yeow, 2011; Tsao, 2013; Wu et al., 2016) and constitute large pro-
portions of online shoppers in Taiwan (Hsu et al., 2013; Lu et al.,
2013; MIC, 2016), China (Wang, Cui, Huang, & Dai, 2016), and the
United States (Roscoe, Grebitus, O’Brian, Johnson, & Kula, 2016).
Therefore, this study enrolled college students to investigate the
reductive effects of OCSEs on online shopping post-payment dis-
sonance (Daugherty et al., 2008; Keng et al., 2012; Li et al., 2001;
Li et al., 2002; Li et al., 2003). Focusing on college students facil-
itates controlling the effects of specific demographic variables on
the research results.
Darley et al. (2010) reviewed 52 papers related to online con-
sumer behavior, and concluded that in contrast to the various
experimental results, student samples may be subject to bias
toward specific survey methods. Further research could conduct
large-scale field surveys involving consumers making real pur-
chases and demographics such as age, occupation, and income in
the research framework.
Finally, following previous studies, the present study used sat-
isfaction (Keng & Liao, 2009; Soutar & Sweeney, 2003), repurchase
intention (Hunt, 1970; Keng & Liao, 2009), and complaint inten-
tion (Keng & Liao, 2009; Soutar & Sweeney, 2003) as dependent
variables. Kim and Biocca (1997) proposed that online consumer
experiences simulate direct experiences (i.e., actual usage), which
exerts positive persuasive effects. Therefore, the present study
assumed that temporarily substituting direct experience to reduce
the dissonance of consumers who are waiting for a product to arrive
may be possible. The study participants were required to imagine
completing a payment, and were subsequently exposed to disso-
nance manipulation and OCSEs. They then indicated their levels of
satisfaction, repurchase intention, and complaint intention, and did
not consume (use) the product. Although this research design is not
consistent with a real-world scenario and thus must be improved,
this experimental procedure may still elucidate the value of OCSEs.
In other words, experiences of OCSEs may be similar to direct expe-
riences, thereby enabling consumers to experience a product while
waiting for it to arrive. Further research could use “order cancela-
tion intention” as a dependent variable to conform to real-world
online shopping scenarios.
Acknowledgment
The author would like to thank the Ministry of Science and Tech-
nology of the Republic of China (Taiwan) for financially supporting
this study under Contract No. 103-2410-H-036-003.
Appendix A. Results of CFA (Study 1).
Results of CFA (Study 1).
Factor Loading t-Value CR AVE
0.86 14.41 0.87 0.63
0.84 13.75
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T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538 535

IPT3 I generally do not trust the sales manager. 0.82 13.44

IPT4 If my sales manager cannot reach me and has to make a decision affecting 0.59 8.65
my station, I am willing to let him make the decision without me.

Susceptibility to Interpersonal Information Influence (SIII) (Bearden et al., 1989)

SIII1 If I have little experience with a product. I often ask my friends about the 0.91 16.05 0.90 0.72
product.
SIII2 I often consult other people to help choose the best alternative available 0.89 15.67
from a product class.
SIII3 I frequently gather information from friends or family about a product 0.86 14.68
before I buy.
SIII4 To make sure I buy the right product or brand. I often observe what 0.74 11.72
others are buying and using.

Satisfaction (SAT) (Keng & Liao, 2009)

SAT1 I am happy with this purchase. 0.85 14.23 0.88 0.72
SAT2 I am pleased with this purchase. 0.85 14.27
SAT3 I feel satisfied with this purchase. 0.83 13.75

Repurchase Intention (RI) (Keng & Liao, 2009)

RI1 In the future, I will continue using this product. 0.87 14.59 0.87 0.70
RI2 If I need another one, I will still purchase this product. 0.82 13.20
RI3 In the future, I intend to purchase this product. 0.80 12.90

Complaint Intention (CI) (Keng & Liao, 2009)

CI1 I will complain about this camera to other consumers. 0.89 14.53 0.81 0.59
CI2 I will complain about this camera to other stores/manufacturers. 0.81 12.79
CI3 I will complain about this camera to employees of this store/manufacturer. 0.60 8.72

Inter-Correlation and M SD IPT SIII SAT RI CI Goodness-of-fit Index ␹2 = 115.70

the square root of the IPT 21.15 4.42 0.79 df = 109
AVE SIII 11.63 4.42 −0.04 0.85 ␹2 /df = 1.187
SAT 13.13 3.37 −0.06 0.05 0.85 GFI = 0.94 AGFI = 0.91
RI 11.78 3.62 −0.08 −0.02 0.60 0.84 NFI = 0.96 NNFI = 0.99
CI 12.65 3.23 −0.02 −0.07 −0.66 −0.65 0.77 CFI = 0.99 RMSEA = 0.015

Appendix B. Results of CFA (Study 2).

Results of CFA (Study 2).

Factors/Items Factor Loading t-Value CR AVE

Computing Need for Control (CNC) (Charlton, 2005)

CNC1 When I am using a new computer software package, I like to be able to 0.91 18.48 0.93 0.72
master all of its features as quickly as possible
CNC2 If I have a computing problem, it plays on my mind until I sort it out. 0.90 18.20
CNC3 Having the skills to be able to exert great control over computers is not 0.89 17.75
particularly important to me.
CNC4 I like computers because they give me the opportunity to feel in control 0.82 15.55
of things.
CNC5 I derive no thrill from being able to complete a difficult computing task. 0.75 13.77

Computer-Mediated Communication Apprehension (CMCA) (Hunt et al., 2012)

CMCA1 When communicating using computer, I feel tense. 0.91 18.07 0.89 0.68
CMCA2 When communicating using computer, I feel calm. 0.89 17.49
CMCA3 When communicating using computer, I feel nervous. 0.86 16.51
CMCA4 When communicating using computer, I feel relaxed. 0.56 9.37

Satisfaction (SAT) (Keng and Liao, 2009Keng & Liao, 2009)

SAT1 I am happy with this purchase. 0.86 16.41 0.89 0.72
SAT2 I am pleased with this purchase. 0.85 16.01
SAT3 I feel satisfied with this purchase. 0.84 15.77

Repurchase Intention (RI) (Keng and Liao, 2009Keng & Liao, 2009)
RI1 In the future, I will continue using this product. 0.89 17.18 0.88 0.72
RI2 If I need another one, I will still purchase this product. 0.82 15.26
RI3 In the future, I intend to purchase this product. 0.82 15.11

Complaint Intention (CI) (Keng and Liao, 2009Keng & Liao, 2009)
CI1 I will complain about this camera to other consumers. 0.91 17.80 0.83 0.62
CI2 I will complain about this camera to other stores/manufacturers. 0.85 15.89
CI3 I will complain about this camera to employees of this store/manufacturer. 0.59 9.86

Inter-Correlation and M SD CNC CMCA SAT RI CI Goodness-of-fit Index ␹2 = 186.41

the square root of the CNC 14.76 5.68 0.85 df = 125
AVE CMCA 21.42 4.43 −0.05 0.82 ␹2 /df = 1.491
SAT 13.07 3.59 −0.15 −0.03 0.85 GFI = 0.93 AGFI = 0.90
RI 11.54 3.96 −0.07 0.06 0.68 0.85 NFI = 0.96 NNFI = 0.98
CI 12.70 3.69 0.13 −0.02 −0.71 −0.72 0.79 CFI = 0.99 RMSEA = 0.042
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536 T.-H. Liao / International Journal of Information Management 37 (2017) 520–538

Appendix C. Test for common method bias: Results of EFA.

Test for common method bias: Results of EFA.

Study 1 Study 2.

Items Factor Loading Items Factor Loading

IPT SIII SAT RI CI CNC CMCA SAT RI CI

IPT1 0.916 −0.045 −0.012 0.041 −036 CNC1 0.911 −0.014 −0.006 −0.015 −0.049
IPT2 0.916 −0.020 −0.036 −0.048 −0.067 CNC2 0.909 −0.014 −0.065 −0.055 0.049
IPT3 0.889 −0.027 0.082 −0.032 −0.008 CNC3 0.909 −0.036 −0.085 −0.022 −0.004
IPT4 0.825 −0.032 0.038 −0.013 0.045 CNC4 0.864 −0.051 −0.084 0.040 0.031
CNC5 0.823 −0.020 0.037 0.002 0.098
SIII1 0.074 0.893 −0.045 0.081 0.029 CMCA1 −0.002 0.915 −0.084 0.044 0.019
SIII2 0.006 0.877 −0.001 −0.050 0.024 CMCA2 −0.033 0.905 0.004 0.092 0.009
SIII3 −0.039 0.868 −0.086 −0.013 −0.039 CMCA3 −0.006 0.888 −0.078 0.085 0.004
SIII4 −0.168 0.707 0.067 −0.145 −0.100 CMCA4 −0.081 0.702 0.148 −0.176 −0.120
SAT1 0.064 −0.023 0.870 0.246 −0.133 SAT1 −0.002 0.050 0.858 0.271 −0.163
SAT2 −0.024 −0.022 0.852 0.193 −0.215 SAT2 −0.063 −0.040 0.840 0.243 −0.205
SAT3 0.041 −0.022 0.804 0.255 −0.283 SAT3 −0.134 −0.039 0.778 0.260 −0.333
RI1 −0.029 −0.046 0.206 0.848 −0.161 RI1 0.008 0.030 0.229 0.853 −0.193
RI2 −0.015 −0.057 0.216 0.838 −0.157 RI2 0.037 −0.003 0.296 0.797 −0.230
RI3 −0.022 −0.033 0.256 0.811 −0.269 RI3 −0.079 0.043 0.281 0.769 −0.360
CI1 −0.007 −0.028 −0.151 −0.071 0.830 CI1 −0.049 −0.084 −0.144 −0.157 0.807
CI2 −0.021 −0.089 −0.201 −0.322 0.781 CI2 −0.143 −0.001 −0.263 −0.349 0.739
CI3 −0.048 0.025 −0.359 −0.331 0.718 CI3 0.061 0.015 −0.375 −0.332 0.735

Chen, C. J., & Hung, S. W. (2010). To give or to receive? Factors influencing

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