BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

UNIT I: Basic English Language Skills

1. Articles, prepositions, conjunctions:

ARTICLES
Articles are words that identify a noun as being specific or unspecific.

e.g.: After the long day, the cup of tea tasted particularly good.

By using the article the, we have shown that it was one specific day that was long and
one specific cup of tea that tasted good.

e.g.: After a long day, a cup of tea tastes particularly good.

By using the article a, we have created a general statement implying that any cup of tea
would taste good after any long day.

Types of articles:
English has two types of articles: definite and indefinite.

1. The definite article:

The definite article is the word the. It limits the meaning of a noun to one particular
thing. For example, your friend might ask, “Are you going to the party this
weekend?” The definite article tells you that your friend is referring to a specific party
that both of you already know about. The definite article can be used with singular,
plural, or uncountable nouns. Below are some examples of the definite article, the,
used in context:

e.g.: Please give me the hammer.

e.g.: Please give me the red hammer; the blue one is too small.

2. The indefinite article:

The indefinite article takes two forms. It’s the word a when it precedes a word that
begins with a consonant. It’s the word an when it precedes a word that begins with a
vowel. The indefinite article indicates that a noun refers to a general idea or category
of a thing rather than a specific thing.
For example, you might ask your friend, “Should I bring a gift to the party?” Your
friend will understand that you are not asking about a specific type of gift or a
specific item. “I am going to bring an apple pie,” your friend tells you. Again, the
indefinite article indicates that she is not talking about a particular apple pie. Your
 friend probably doesn’t even have any pie yet. The indefinite article appears only
with singular nouns. Consider the following examples of indefinite articles used in
context:

Please hand me a book; any book will do.

Please hand me an autobiography; any autobiography will do.
Exceptions: using a or an
There are a few exceptions to the general rule of using a before words that start with
consonants and an before words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the word honor,
for example, is a consonant, but it’s unpronounced. Despite its spelling, the word honor
begins with a vowel sound. Therefore, we use an.
Consider the example sentence below for an illustration of this concept.
Incorrect:
My mother is a honest woman.
Correct:
My mother is an honest woman.

Similarly, when the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant
sound, use a, as in the sample sentence below:
Incorrect:
She is an United States senator.
Correct:
She is a United States senator.

This holds true for acronyms and initialisms too: an LCD display, a UK-based company, an
HR department, a URL.

An article before an adjective

Sometimes an article modifies a noun that is also modified by an adjective. The usual word order
is article + adjective + noun. If the article is indefinite, use a or an based on the word that
immediately follows it. Consider the following examples for reference:
Eliza will bring a small gift to Sophie’s party.
I heard an interesting story yesterday.

Indefinite articles with uncountable nouns:

Uncountable nouns are nouns that are impossible to count, whether because they name intangible
concepts (e.g., information, animal husbandry, wealth), collections of things that are considered
as wholes (e.g., jewelry, equipment, the working class), or homogeneous physical substances
(e.g., milk, sand, air). Although most of these nouns are singular in form, because they refer to
things that can’t be isolated and counted, they never take a or an. Uncountable nouns can be
modified by indefinite adjectives like some, however. Consider the examples below for
reference:
Incorrect:
Please give me a water.
Water is an uncountable noun and should not be used with the indefinite article.
Correct:
Please give me some water.
If you describe the water in terms of a countable unit (like a bottle), you can use the indefinite
article to modify the unit.
Please give me a bottle of water.
Please give me an ice cube.

Note that depending on the context, some nouns can be countable or uncountable (e.g., hair,
noise, time):
Correct:
We need a light in this room.
Incorrect:
We need some light in this room.

Omission of articles:
Occasionally, articles are omitted altogether before certain nouns. In these cases, the article is
implied but not actually present. This implied article is sometimes called a “zero article.” Often,
the article is omitted before a noun that refers to an abstract idea. Look at the following
examples:
Incorrect:
Let’s go out for a dinner tonight.
Correct:
Let’s go out for dinner tonight.
Incorrect:
The creativity is a valuable quality in children.
Correct:
Creativity is a valuable quality in children.

Tip: The words for many languages and nationalities are not preceded by an article.
Incorrect:
I studied the French in high school for four years.
Correct:
I studied French in high school for four years.

Tip: Sports and academic subjects do not require articles.

Incorrect:
I like to play the baseball.
Correct:
I like to play baseball.
Incorrect:
My sister was always good at the math.
Correct:
My sister was always good at math.
Other rules:
All things or things in general: Use no article with plural count nouns or any noncount nouns
used to mean all or in general.
e.g.: Trees are beautiful in the fall. (All trees are beautiful in the fall.)
e.g.: He was asking for advice. (He was asking for advice in general.)
e.g.: I do not like coffee. (I do not like all coffee in general.)

Geographical names are confusing because some require the and some do not.
◊ Use the with: united countries, large regions, deserts, peninsulas, oceans, seas, gulfs, canals,
rivers, mountain ranges, groups of islands
e.g.:
the Gobi Desert
the United Arab Emirates
the Sacramento River
the Aleutians

◊ Do not use the with: streets, parks, cities, states, counties, most countries, continents, bays,
single lakes, single mountains, islands
e.g.:
Japan
Chico
Mt. Everest
San Francisco Bay

PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a short word that is employed in sentences to show the relationship nouns,
pronouns or phrases have with other parts within the respective sentences. Prepositions are
normally found positioned in the latter part of the sentence, but before a noun or pronoun.
Uses of Prepositions:
Prepositions are seen to show some key characteristics and perform some vital functions when
used in sentences. Let us look at the various uses of prepositions in English.

• They are used to show the direction of something.

• They can refer to the time of something happening.
• They can be used to denote the position or location of an object in the sentence.
• They are also used to represent spatial relationships.

Types of Prepositions:

Based on the different uses and functions of prepositions, they can be divided into four main
types. They are as follows:

• Prepositions of Time – used to show when something is happening.

For example:

We will be meeting on Friday.

The supermarket will be closed from 9 p.m. to 9 a.m.
Can you come after some time?
We have been asked to work from home until the end of May.
The whole country was asked to stay home during the pandemic to ensure safety and
well-being.

• Prepositions of Place – indicate the place or position of something.

For example:

I have kept the book I borrowed from you on the table.

Henry hid behind the door.
The dog jumped over the fence.
Can you place the red roses in between the white daisies?
He was waiting in front of the EB office.

• Prepositions of Direction – used to denote the direction in which something travels or

moves.
For example:

The girl ran toward her father the moment she saw him.
Jerry jumped into the river to help his sister.
 Veena passed the book to Priya.
When will Salvia be returning from London?
Neena lives across the street.

• Prepositions of Location – employed to denote the location of a particular object.

For example:

Kenny would be staying at his cousin’s place for the weekend.

Make sure you keep all the toys back in its place after you play.
I lay on the floor for a really long time.

CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are used to combine two or more objects, phrases or clauses. It can also be termed
as connectors as they are employed in sentences to make connections. Conjunctions can
normally be found in the latter part of a sentence if they are used to connect clauses. If
conjunctions are used to connect objects or phrases, they can appear in the beginning, middle or
end of the sentence according to the position of the objects or phrases.

Types of Conjunctions:
Conjunctions are mainly used to join actions, ideas and thoughts. They are categorised into three
main types:
• Coordinating conjunctions – used to combine two independent clauses. Examples of
coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so.
• Subordinating conjunctions – used to combine an independent clause and a dependent
clause. Examples of subordinating conjunctions are if, although, though, after, before,
because, as if, unless, until, when, while, etc.
• Correlative conjunctions – used to combine two phrases or parts of the sentence which
have equal importance within a sentence. Examples of correlative conjunctions are not
only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, whether…or, rather…or, if…then, etc.

Examples of Conjunctions:

Have a look at the following sentences to understand how conjunctions can be employed
in sentences:
Sruthi and I visited Gokarna last weekend.
Do you have a rough notebook or at least a rough sheet of paper?
I did not go to work today because I was not keeping well.
She did not like the food, yet she ate it.
I will be leaving tomorrow so I am trying to finish all the pending assignments.
2. Transformation of Sentences:
Simple Sentence:
A simple sentence is a sentence comprising of only one clause, with a single subject and
predicate. It does not have a subordinate of a dependent clause but just one independent/
main clause.

Compound Sentence:
A compound sentence is a sentence that connects two independent clauses, using a
coordinating conjunction.

Complex Sentence:
A complex sentence contains one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses linked
using a subordinating conjunction.

Transformation of Simple Sentences to Compound Sentences:

Simple sentences are statements that have a subject and predicate. A simple sentence is
basically just one independent clause. Compound sentences, on the contrary, can be said
to be two simple sentences (two main clauses) joined together by a coordinating
conjunction or a conjunctive adverb.

To learn how to transform simple sentences into compound sentences, go through the
following points and examples.

The first point you have to bear in mind while converting a simple sentence into a
compound sentence or vice versa is to do it without bringing any change in the overall
meaning of the sentence.
Simple sentences can consist of a phrase (most probably a participle phrase) and a clause.
When converting such a sentence, you can transform the participle phrase into a clause
followed by a conjunction and the main clause. This will allow you to have two main
clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction or a conjunctive adverb. The only thing
you will have to take into account when making such a transformation is to conjugate the
verb according to the verb in the main clause.

Example 1:
Raising his glass, he proposed a toast.
He raised his glass and proposed a toast.

In the above example, the participle phrase ‘raising his glass’ in the simple sentence is
converted into a clause by adding the subject ‘he’ – ‘he raised his glass’, followed by the
coordinating conjunction ‘and’, which in turn, is followed by the remaining part (the
main clause) of the existing simple sentence.
 Example 2:
Despite being handicapped, Varun is active.
Varun is handicapped, but he is active.

Example 3:
Being sick, my mom decided to take the day off.
My mom was sick, so she decided to take the day off.

Example 4:
Joanna has to work all night to complete the pending documents.
Joanna has to complete the pending documents, so she has to work all night.

Example 5:
The President congratulated Rajkumar for his valuable contribution to the field of
medicine.
Rajkumar made a valuable contribution to the field of medicine, so the president
congratulated him.

Transformation of Simple Sentences to Complex Sentences:

Complex sentences are those sentences with a dependent clause and an independent clause
combined using a subordinating conjunction. To transform simple sentences into complex
sentences, here is what you need to do.
Just like converting simple sentences to compound sentences, converting into complex sentences
also requires you to convert the phrase into a clause by adding a subject and conjugating the verb
according to the tense of the main clause.
The only difference here is that the phrase has to be converted into a dependent clause
accompanied by a subordinating conjunction.
One mistake you are likely to make when making the transformation is changing the existing
independent clause in the given simple sentence into a dependent clause. So, always see to it that
you carefully convert the phrase (not the existing clause) in the simple sentence into a dependent
clause.
Check out the following examples to learn how to transform a simple sentence into a complex
sentence.
Example 1:
Despite being rich, Claire is not happy.
Although Clare is rich, she is not happy.
Example 2:
Besides being a doctor, she is an artist too.
Not only is she a doctor but also an artist.
Example 3:
George is too weak to walk any further.
George is so weak that he cannot walk any further.
Example 4:
Due to his illness, Vinod did not go to work.
Vinod did not go to work because he was ill.

Transforming Compound Sentence to Complex Sentence:

When transforming a compound sentence into a complex sentence, you will have to change one
independent clause into a dependent clause and retain the other independent clause. Now,
knowing which of the independent clauses has to be made dependent is something that requires
careful consideration and execution. Changing the conjunctions is the one thing you will have to
do as the rest of the sentence would mostly remain the same. Here are a few examples that will
help you learn how to do it.
Example 1:
We were not sure of the outcome, but we went forward with it. (Compound)
Though we were not sure of the outcome, we went forward with it. (Complex)
Example 2:
Rachel was not happy with her current job and so she quit. (Compound)
As Rachel was not happy with her current job, she quit. (Complex)
Example 3:
Keren has to work hard or she will not make it. (Compound)
If Keren wants to make it, she has to work hard. (Complex)
Example 4:
It is very cold and so I turned off the fan. (Compound)
It is so cold that I had to turn off the fan. (Complex)
Transforming Complex Sentence to Compound Sentence:
When transforming a complex sentence into a compound sentence, you will have to locate the
dependent clause and convert it into an independent clause. This can be done by replacing the
subordinating conjunction with an appropriate coordinating conjunction and altering the sentence
structure accordingly to retain the meaning of the sentence.
Example 1:
Though it was raining, we went out. (Complex)
It was raining, but we went out. (Compound)
Example 2:
If you want to reach the station in time, you should leave now. (Complex)
You should leave now, or you will not reach the station in time. (Compound)
Example 3:
Not only did we finish our work early but also went for a walk in the park. (Complex)
We finished our work early and went for a walk in the park as well. (Compound)

Change of conjunctions in sentence transformation:

Simple Sentence Compound Sentence Complex Sentence
In spite of + verb + ing But Though
Despite + verb + ing Yet Although
still Even though
Verb + ing/ being And/ and so As/ since/ because
On + verb + ing If… can/ will/ would/ could
In case of And… at once Unless… cannot
In the event of Or… not As soon as
As a result of
On account of
Because of And so Since
Due to And As
Owing to therefore because
In order to/ to And so So that
Too..to Very…and so So…that..can/ could not
Besides + verb + ing And.. as well Not only.. but also
Without + verb + ing Must… otherwise After/ only after
 3. Tenses:
Tenses denote the time of action.

A. Present Tense:

Types of Present Tense:

The present tense can be used in four different forms, namely,

• Simple Present Tense – used to indicate the current action or an action that takes place
regularly.
• Present Continuous Tense – used to denote an action that is continuing at the present
moment.
• Present Perfect Tense – used to indicate an action that is used to denote an action that is
indefinite and still has its effect on the subject or object in the sentence.
• Present Perfect Continuous Tense – used to represent an action that began in the recent
past and is still continuing.

Structure of Present Tense

Have a look at the following table to understand the structure of the present tense.

Structure of Present Tense

Simple Present Tense Present Continuous Present Perfect Tense Present Perfect
Tense Continuous Tense

Subject + Verb in the Subject + Helping Subject + Helping Verb Subject

base form/third person Verb(am/is/are) + (have/has) + Past + Have/Has +
plural form + the rest of Main verb+ing + the participle of the main Been +
the sentence rest of the sentence verb + the rest of the Verb+ing + the
sentence along with the rest of the sentence
time frame

Example: I go to school Example: Tharun is Example: Venu has left the Example:
everyday. watching a movie. hall They have been
I have reached home. waiting for you for
He plays cricket. a long time.
 They are planning a Archana has been
birthday party for their checking her
friend. phone every now
and then.

Also, take a look at the following table to understand how the general format in which the
present tense behaves in the positive, negative and imperative format.

Positive Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative

Subject + Verb Subject + Do Do/Does + Subject + Verb Don’t/Doesn’t + Subject + Verb

not/Does not
(Don’t/Doesn’t)
+ Verb

Example: Example: Example: Does she like pizzas? Example: Doesn’t she like pizzas?
She likes pizzas. She does not
like pizzas.

Examples of Present Tense

Given below are a few examples of the present tense.

• Theo sings wonderfully.

• Marley and Noah are on the way to the park.
• Does Rachel dance?
• Naveen is practising for the annual day.
• Rani has kept this notebook for so many years.
• It has been raining for quite some time now.

B. Past Tense:

Types of Past Tense

The past tense has four different forms to indicate the varied nature of actions that happened in
the past. They are:
 • Simple Past Tense – used to indicate an action or event that happened in the past.
• Past Continuous Tense – used to depict an action or event that was continuing in the past.
• Past Perfect Tense – used to represent an event or action that happened in the past before
another event or action that happened in the past.
• Past Perfect Continuous Tense – used to denote an action or event that was taking place
in the past until another action or event happened in the past.

Structure of Past Tense

In order to understand the structure of the past tense, take a look at the following table.

Structure of Past Tense

Simple Past Tense Past Continuous Tense Past Perfect Tense Past Perfect
Continuous Tense

Subject + Verb + ed / Subject + Helping Subject + Helping Verb Subject + Had + Been
verb in the past Verb(was/were) + Main (had) + Past participle + Verb+ing + the rest
tense + the rest of the verb+ing + the rest of of the main verb + the of the sentence
sentence the sentence rest of the sentence
along with the time
frame

For example: For example: It was For example: Tony had For example:
Nathan met me at the raining. eaten his dinner before Sharan had been
park. we reached the venue. practising the guitar
when the teacher called
for him.

It would be even better if you also learn how the structure of a sentence using the past tense form
of the verb changes when used in the positive, negative, interrogative or negative interrogative
formats.
 Positive Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative

Subject + Past Subject + Did not / Did + Subject + Base form Didn’t + Subject + Base form
tense form of the Didn’t + Base form of the verb of the verb
verb of the verb

For example: For example: For For

She sang a song. She did not sing a example: Did she sing a example: Didn’t she sing a
song. song? song?

Examples of Past Tense

Given below are a few examples to show you how the past tense works.

• Marcel finished his speech.

• Did they go to the hospital?
• Nandhini and Padmini were talking about you.
• Salim had found the keys before his parents found out about it.
• Selena found out that Trinita had not been taking her medicines for the last few weeks.
• Didn’t you know about his accident?

List of Past Tense Verbs

Take a look at the following table of past tense verbs with the past and past participle forms that
you can refer to when you are using the past tense.

Base Verb Past Form of the Verb Past Participle Form of the Verb

Check Checked Checked

Reach Reached Reached

Teach Taught Taught

 Sing Sang Sung

Buy Bought Bought

Throw Threw Thrown

Sink Sank Sunk

Fly Flew Flown

Dance Danced Danced

Drink Drank Drunk

C. Future Tense

Types/Forms of the Future Tense

The future tense can be used in four different forms in order to show how the actions in the
future behave differently in various situations, and they are:

• Simple Future Tense – used to denote an action that will happen in the future.
• Future Continuous Tense – used to indicate an action that will be taking place in the
future.
• Future Perfect Tense – used to represent an action that starts in the present and will
happen in the future.
• Future Perfect Continuous Tense – used to depict an action that is happening in the
present and will complete at some point in the future.

Structure of the Future Tense

Look at the following table in order to understand the structure of the future tense.
 Structure of Future Tense
Simple Future Tense

Subject + Auxiliary verb(will) + Base form of the main verb + the rest of the sentence

For example: Karthik will meet me at the gym.

Future Continuous Tense

Subject + Helping Verb(will) + Be + Main verb+ing + the rest of the sentence

For example: Karthik will be meeting me at the gym.

Future Perfect Tense

Subject + Helping Verb (will) + Have + Past participle form of the main verb + the rest of
the sentence along with the time frame

For example: Karthik will have met me at the gym.

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Subject + Helping verb(will) + Have + been + Main verb+ing + the rest of the sentence

For example: Karthik will have been meeting me at the gym.

Analysing how the future tense changes its structure when used in the positive, negative,
interrogative and negative interrogative sentences.

Positive Negative Interrogative Negative Interrogative

Subject + Will Subject + Will Will + Subject + Base form of Won’t + Subject + Base form of
+ Base form of not/Won’t + the verb the verb
the verb Base form of
the verb
 For example: For example: For For
Sindhu will Sindhu will example: Will Sindu walk to example: Won’t Sindhu walk to
walk to school not/won’t school tomorrow? school tomorrow?
tomorrow. walk to school
tomorrow.

Examples of the Future Tense

Here are a few examples that would help you understand the future tense.

• Navya will write a song for the sectionals.

• Katherine will be coming home for the holidays.
• Bharath will have left work by now.
• Will he be studying for tomorrow’s exam?
• They will not have performed at the concert.
• Will you think over, and let me know?
 4. Subject-verb agreement:
Subject-verb agreement is the grammatical rule that the verb or verbs in a sentence must
match the number, person, and gender of the subject; in English, the verb needs to match just
the number and sometimes the person. For example, the singular subject it and the plural
subject they use different versions of the same verb: “it goes . . . ” and “they go . . . ”

1. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular too.

Example: She writes every day.

Exception: When using the singular "they," use plural verb forms.
Example: The participant expressed satisfaction with their job. They are currently in a
managerial role at the organization.

2. If the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.

Example: They write every day.

Sometimes, however, it seems a bit more complicated than this.

3. When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns
connected by and, use a plural verb.

Example: The doctoral student and the committee members write every day.

Example: The percentage of employees who called in sick and the number of
employees who left their jobs within 2 years are reflective of the level of job
satisfaction.

4. When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the sentence
must agree with the subject.

Example: Interviews are one way to collect data and allow researchers to gain an in-
depth understanding of participants.

Example: An assumption is something that is generally accepted as true and is an

important consideration when conducting a doctoral study.

5. When a phrase comes between the subject and the verb, remember that the verb still
agrees with the subject, not the noun or pronoun in the phrase following the subject of
the sentence.

Example: The student, as well as the committee members, is excited.

Example: The student with all the master’s degrees is very motivated.
Example: Strategies that the teacher uses to encourage classroom
participation include using small groups and clarifying expectations.

Example: The focus of the interviews was nine purposively selected participants.

6. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by "or" or "nor," use a
singular verb.

Example: The chairperson or the CEO approves the proposal before proceeding.

7. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun
joined by "or" or "nor," the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is
closest to the verb. This is also called the rule of proximity.

Example: The student or the committee members write every day.

Example: The committee members or the student writes every day.

8. The words and phrases "each," "each one," "either," "neither," "everyone,"
"everybody," "anyone," "anybody," "nobody," "somebody," "someone," and "no one"
are singular and require a singular verb.

Example: Each of the participants was willing to be recorded.

Example: Neither alternative hypothesis was accepted.

Example: I will offer a $5 gift card to everybody who participates in the study.

Example: No one was available to meet with me at the preferred times.

9. Noncount nouns take a singular verb.

Example: Education is the key to success.

Example: Diabetes affects many people around the world.

Example: The information obtained from the business owners was relevant to include
in the study.

Example: The research I found on the topic was limited.

10. Some countable nouns in English such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings,
proceeds, contents, and valuables only have a plural form and take a plural verb.

Example: The earnings for this quarter exceed expectations.

Example: The proceeds from the sale go to support the homeless population in the city.
Example: Locally produced goods have the advantage of shorter supply chains.

11. In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb.
Since "there" is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb.

Example: There is little administrative support.

Example: There are many factors affecting teacher retention.

12. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but are considered
singular and take a singular verb. Some examples are "group," "team," "committee,"
"family," and "class."

Example: The group meets every week.

Example: The committee agrees on the quality of the writing.

However, the plural verb is used if the focus is on the individuals in the group. This is
much less common.

Example: The committee participate in various volunteer activities in their private lives.
5. Question Tags:
Question tags are short questions that are asked at the end of a sentence, usually in
spoken English. The question tags turn a statement into a question. They are frequently
used to verify information that we believe to be correct. Tag questions are made using an
auxiliary verb (e.g., am, is, are, have, was, has, should, could etc.) and a subject pronoun
(e.g. you, they, she, it etc.)

1. The tense of the statement and the question tag must match.
For Example: Gungun is sleeping, isn’t she?

2. Use the contracted version of “helping verb” and “not” for negative question tags. e.g.
didn’t, hadn’t, won’t etc.
For Example: Rajesh was eating his lunch, wasn’t he?

3. If the statement is positive, the question tag must be negative, and the opposite is the
case.
For Example:
He will not do his work, will he?
Rita will surely do her work, won’t she?
4. Pronouns must always be used in question tags.
For Example: Hina and Pratik are playing, aren’t they?

Rules of Question Tags in English Grammar:

Rule-1:
If the sentence starts with let us/ let’s, we use “shall we” in the question.
For Example:
Let us go to the party tonight, shall we?
Let’s meet at the pizza shop, shall we?

Rule- 2:
There is no contracted form of “am not”. We use aren’t in the question tag.
For Example:
I am fine, aren’t I?
I am right, aren’t I?

Rule-3:
In Imperative sentences, the question tag “won’t you” is used.
For Example:
Come in, won’t you?
Help me in solving the problem, won’t you?

Rule-4:
Plural verbs and plural pronouns are used when discussing individual collective noun
members or when there is disagreement among the members of the collective noun.
For Example:
The jury are divided in their opinion, aren’t they?
The audience have taken their seats, haven’t they?

Rule-5:
Since each, every, everyone, everyone, no one, nobody, and none are singular words,
they must be accompanied by singular verbs, singular pronouns, and singular adjectives;
however, the words in their question tag must be in the plural for both the verb.
For Example:
Incorrect:
Everyone has left, hasn’t he?
None of your friends like me, does he/she?
Correct :
Everyone has left, haven’t they?
None of your friends like me, do they?

Rule-6:
Singular pronouns and singular verbs are used with collective nouns in question tags.
For Example:
The committee was organizing the programme, wasn’t it?

Rule-7:
Always create a question tag in line with the main part of the statement.
For Example:
I think, he is here, isn’t he?
(It is not the primary part of the statement because “I think” is not significant in this
context.“he is here” is the fact that needs to be checked or verified)

Rule-8:
“There” will be used for the pronoun in the question tag if the sentence’s first word is
“there.”
For Example:
There is no water, is there?
There were no good schools in the town, were there?

Rule-9:
Some words are negative in meaning. e.g., hardly, seldom, scarcely, rarely, barely etc.
They will therefore use the affirmative question tag.
For Example:
He hardly ate anything for days, does he?
He found barely anything to do, did he?
He is seldom angry, is he?

Rule-10:
“Will you/would you” is used in the question tag when someone is being offered
something in an imperative statement or when they are being asked to do something.
For Example:
shut the door, would you?
Have some more tea, would you?

Rule-11:
In some cases, the sentence is lacking an auxiliary verb. The verb given in the sentence
could be either in present simple or past simple (and is positive). We use don’t, doesn’t or
didn’t (as per the tense used in the sentence).
For Example:
Rita eats cake, doesn’t she?
Rahul hides everything from us, doesn’t he?
6. Direct and Indirect Speech:
Direct speech – reporting the message of the speaker in the exact words as spoken by
him.

Direct speech example: Maya said ‘I am busy now’.

Indirect speech: reporting the message of the speaker in our own words

Indirect speech example: Maya said that she was busy then.

Rules for converting Direct into Indirect speech:

To change a sentence of direct speech into indirect speech there are various factors that
are considered, such as reporting verbs, modals, time, place, pronouns, tenses, etc. We
will discuss each of these factors one by one.

Rule 1 – Direct to Indirect Speech Conversion – Reporting Verb

When the reporting verb of direct speech is in past tense then all the present tenses are
changed to the corresponding past tense in indirect speech.
Direct: She said, ‘I am happy’.
Indirect: She said (that) she was happy.

In indirect speech, tenses do not change if the words used within the quotes (‘’) talk of a
habitual action or universal truth.
Direct: He said, ‘We cannot live without air’.
Indirect: He said that we cannot live without air.

The tenses of direct speech do not change if the reporting verb is in the future tense or
present tense.
Direct: She says/will say, ‘I am going’
Indirect: She says/will say she is going.

Rule 2 – Direct Speech to Indirect Speech conversion – Present Tense

Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect:
Direct: “I have been to Boston”, she told me.
Indirect: She told me that she had been to Boston.
Present Continuous Changes to Past Continuous:
Direct: “I am playing the guitar”, she explained.
Indirect: She explained that she was playing the guitar.

Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect:

Direct: He said, “She has finished her homework“.
Indirect: He said that she had finished her homework.

Simple Present Changes to Simple Past:

Direct: “I am unwell”, she said.
Indirect: She said that she was unwell.

Rule 3 – Direct Speech to Indirect Speech conversion – Past Tense & Future Tense

Simple Past Changes to Past Perfect:

Direct: She said, “Irvin arrived on Sunday.”
Indirect: She said that Irvin had arrived on Sunday.

Past Continuous Changes to Past Perfect Continuous:

Direct: “We were playing basketball”, they told me.
Indirect: They told me that they had been playing basketball.

Future Changes to Present Conditional:

Direct: She said, “I will be in Scotland tomorrow.”
Indirect: She said that she would be in Scotland the next day.

Future Continuous Changes to Conditional Continuous:

Direct: He said, “I’ll be disposing of the old computer next Tuesday.”
Indirect: He said that he would be disposing of the old computer the following Tuesday.

Rule 4 – Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion – Interrogative Sentences

No conjunction is used, if a sentence in direct speech begins with a question

(what/where/when) as the “question-word” itself acts as a joining clause.
Direct: “Where do you live?” asked the boy.
Indirect: The boy enquired where I lived.
If a direct speech sentence begins with an auxiliary verb/helping verb, the joining clause
should be if or whether.
Direct: She said, ‘Will you come for the party’?
Indirect: She asked whether we would come for the party.

Reporting verbs such as ‘said/ said to’ changes to enquired, asked, or demanded.
Direct: He said to me, ‘What are you doing’?
Indirect: He asked me what I was doing
.
Rule 5 – Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion – Changes in Modals

While changing direct speech to indirect speech, the modals used in the sentences change
like:
Can becomes could
May becomes might
Must becomes had to /would have to

Check the examples:

Direct : She said, ‘She can dance’.
Indirect: She said that she could dance.
Direct: She said, ‘I may buy a dress’.
Indirect: She said that she might buy a dress.
Direct: Rama said, ‘I must complete the assignment’.
Indirect: Rama said that he had to complete the assignment.

There are modals that do not change – Could, Would, Should, Might, Ought to
Direct: She said, ‘I should clean the house’
Indirect: She said that she should clean the house.

Rule 6 – Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion – Pronoun

The first person in direct speech changes as per the subject of the speech.
Direct: He said, “I am in class Twelfth.”
Indirect: He says that he was in class Twelfth.

The second person of direct speech changes as per the object of reporting speech.
Direct: She says to them, “You have done your work.”
Indirect: She tells them that they have done their work.

The third person of direct speech doesn’t change.

Direct: He says, “She dances well.”
Indirect: He says that she dances well.

Rule 7 – Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion – Request, Command, Wish,

Exclamation

Indirect Speech is supported by some verbs like requested, ordered, suggested and
advised. Forbid-forbade is used for negative sentences. Therefore, the imperative mood in
the direct speech changes into the Infinitive in indirect speech.
Direct: She said to her ‘Please complete it’.
Indirect: She requested her to complete it.

Direct: Hamid said to Ramid, ‘Sit down’.

Indirect: Hamid ordered Ramid to sit down.

In Exclamatory sentences that express grief, sorrow, happiness, applaud, Interjections are
removed and the sentence is changed to an assertive sentence.
Direct: She said, ‘Alas! I am undone’.
Indirect: She exclaimed sadly that she was broke.

Rule 8 – Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion – Punctuations

In direct speech, the words actually spoken should be in (‘’) quotes and always begin
with a capital letter.
Example: She said, “I am the best.”

Full stop, comma, exclamation or question mark, are placed inside the closing inverted
commas.
Example: They asked, “Can we sing with you?”

If direct speech comes after the information about who is speaking, a comma is used to
introduce the speech, placed before the first inverted comma.
Direct speech example: He shouted, “Shut up!”
Direct speech example: “Thinking back,” he said, “she didn’t expect to win.” (Comma is
used to separate the two direct speeches and no capital letter to begin the second
sentence).

Rule 9 – Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion – Change of Time

In direct speeches, the words that express nearness in time or place are changed to words
that express distance in indirect speech. Such as:
Now becomes then
Here becomes there
Ago becomes before
Thus becomes so
Today becomes that day
Tomorrow becomes the next day
This becomes that
Yesterday becomes the day before
These become those
Hither becomes thither
Come becomes go
Hence becomes thence
Next week or month becomes following week/month
Examples:

Direct: He said, ‘His friend came yesterday.’

Indirect: He said that his friend had come the day before.

The time expression does not change if the reporting verb is in the present tense or future
tense.
Examples:
Direct: He says/will say, ‘My girlfriend came yesterday.’
Indirect: He says/will say that his girlfriend had come the day before.

Rules of converting Indirect Speech into Direct Speech:

The following rules should be followed while converting an indirect speech to direct
speech:

Use the reporting verb such as (say, said to) in its correct tense.
Put a comma before the statement and the first letter of the statement should be in capital
letter.
Insert question mark, quotation marks, exclamation mark and full stop, based on the
mood of the sentence.
Remove the conjunctions like (that, to, if or whether) wherever necessary.
Where the reporting verb is in past tense in indirect, change it to present tense in the
direct speech.
Change the past perfect tense either into present perfect tense or past tense, as necessary.

Check the examples:

Indirect: She asked whether she was coming to the prom night.
Direct: She said to her, “Are you coming to the prom night?”
Indirect: The girl said that she was happy with her result.
Direct: The girl said. “I am happy with my result.”
 7. Voice:
The term ‘voice’ is a term that is used to denote the form of the verb which shows if the subject
in a given sentence is the doer or receiver of the action. The voice of a verb describes the
relationship between the action and the participants (subject or object) in a sentence.

The Two Voices in the English Language

There are two voices in the English language and they are as follows:

• Active Voice - The active voice, in a sentence, denotes that the noun or pronoun that acts
as the subject in the sentence is the doer of the action. In other words, the subject
performs the action or acts upon the verb.

• Passive Voice - The passive voice, on the other hand, represents that the subject is one
acted upon by the action or verb in the sentence. It can also be said that the passive voice
indicates that the subject in the sentence is no longer active but passive.

Using the Active Voice and the Passive Voice – Points to Remember

There are a few points that you have to bear in mind when using the active voice and the passive
voice. In the English language, the active voice is used generally as they give the information in
a direct and clear manner. Make sure you do not use the passive voice just because you think it
sounds better. Use it only if it is necessary. Remember that the active voice has the subject doing
the action and the passive voice has the subject receiving the action. If you want to communicate
your thoughts and ideas clearly and effectively, especially in a professional setup, it would be
best to use the active voice.

A pro tip for you to master the active voice and the passive voice is to know the structure and
formula by which they work.

Active Voice – Subject + Verb + Object

Passive Voice – Object + Verb + Subject

Difference between the Active Voice and the Passive Voice

Analysing the difference between the active voice and the passive voice is what will help you in
a much better way to learn how to use the two voices effectively. Take a look at the following
table to know how they differ.

Active Voice Passive Voice

• Denotes that the subject is performing • Denotes that the subject is acted upon by the
the action. verb or action in the sentence.

• The active voice does not require a • The passive voice uses a linking verb followed
linking verb to make sense. by the past participle of the main verb.

• The active voice focuses on the doer • The passive voice comes in handy when the doer
of the action. of the action is undetermined.

• Has a direct, clear and strong tone. • Has an indirect, weak and subtle tone.

• Examples: • Examples:
o I decorated the hall. o The hall was decorated by me.
o Devi gave Shanthi a gift. o Shanthi was given a gift by Devi.

Rules to be Followed When Converting the Active Voice to the Passive Voice

When converting the active voice into the passive voice or vice versa, there are changes in the
tenses and pronouns used in the sentences.

The table given below shows you how the tenses change when converting the active voice to the
passive voice and vice versa.
 Conversion Rules for Active Voice and Passive Voice

Tense Voice Simple Tense Continuous Tense Perfect Tense Perfect

Continuous Tense

Present Active Brendon plays Brendon is playing Brendon has Brendon has been
cricket. cricket. played cricket. playing cricket.

Passive Cricket is Cricket is being Cricket has been No Passive

played by played by Brendon. played by
Brendon. Brendon.

Past Active Brendon played Brendon was Brendon had Brendon had been
cricket. playing cricket. played cricket. playing cricket.

Passive Cricket was Cricket was being Cricket had been No Passive
played by played by Brendon. played by
Brendon. Brendon.

Future Active Brendon will Brendon will be Brendon will have Brendon will have
play cricket. playing cricket. played cricket. been playing
cricket.

Passive Cricket will be No Passive Cricket will have No Passive

played by been played by
Brendon. Brendon.
 Change of Pronouns

Active Voice Passive Voice

I Me

We Us

He Him

She Her

They Them

It It

There are a few other points that you have to know so that you can use the two voices
effectively. They are as follows:

• When converting a sentence in the active voice to the passive voice, the first thing that
you have to do is interchange the subject and the object.
• The next part of speech you have to focus on is the verb. When converting the active
voice into the passive voice, you just have to convert the main verb into its past participle
or its third form. The third form of the main verb is the past participle form of the verb.
• When you are changing the tense of the main verb, make sure you use an auxiliary
verb which maintains the tense the sentence represents.
• Always use the preposition, ‘by’ before the subject in a passive sentence.
• If there are any adverbs used in the sentence with the active voice, be sure to include it in
the passive voice as well. Do not just drop it when you convert a sentence in the active
voice to the passive voice or vice-versa.

Examples of the Active and Passive Voice

Given below are a few examples of how to convert the active voice into the passive voice.

Active Voice – Twinkle likes adventure stories.

Passive Voice – Adventure stories are liked by Twinkle.

Active Voice – Latha is learning French this year.

Passive Voice – French is being learnt by Latha this year.
Active Voice – Kurt has brought macaroons.
Passive Voice – Macaroons have been brought by Kurt.

Active Voice – Sidharth played cricket.

Passive Voice – Cricket was played by Sidharth.

Active Voice – They were making invitation cards.

Passive Voice – Invitation cards were being made by them.

Active Voice – Becky had packed the bags.

Passive Voice – The bags had been packed by Becky.

Active Voice – Mira will buy the refreshments for the party.
Passive Voice – The refreshments for the party will be bought by Mira.

Active Voice – Sanjay will have given the forms to all the participants.
Passive Voice – The forms will have been given to all the participants by Sanjay.
 8. Synonyms And Antonyms:
Before learning various words of synonyms and antonyms, let us first understand the meaning of
both the words.

What is a Synonym?

A synonym is a word/phrase, the meaning of which is the same or nearly the same as another
word or phrase. Words that are synonyms are described as synonymous.

Synonym examples:

• Artful – Crafty
• Ballot – Poll
• Chorus – Refrain
• Deceptive – Misleading
• Enormous – Immense

What is an Antonym?

An antonym is a word/phrase that means the opposite of another word or phrase. Check the
examples.

Antonym examples:

• Admire – Detest
• Bravery – Cowardice
• Crooked – Straight
• Dainty – Clumsy
• Economise – Waste
 9. Prefix, Suffix and Root Words:
Prefixes and suffixes are sets of letters that are added to the beginning or end of another word.
When we add these prefixes and suffixes to root words, we get a word with an entirely different
meaning. However, prefixes and suffixes are not words in their own right and cannot stand on
their own in a sentence.
For example,
In the word, 'unhappy', un- is the prefix and happy is the root word.
Similarly, in the word 'tasteless', taste is the root and -less is the suffix.

Addition of Suffixes and Prefixes to Root Words:

A prefix is a group of letters placed before the root of a word. For example, the word "unhappy"
consists of the prefix "un-" [which means "not"] combined with the root (stem) word "happy";
the word "unhappy" means "not happy."
A suffix is a group of letters placed after the root of a word. For example, the word flavorless
consists of the root word "flavor" combined with the suffix "-less" [which means "without"]; the
word "flavorless" means "having no flavor."

Root Words:

A basic word to which affixes (prefixes and suffixes) are added is called a root word because it
forms the basis of a new word. The root word is also a word in its own right. For example, the
word lovely consists of the root word 'love' and the suffix -ly.

Formation of Words Using Root Words:

To understand root words let us look at an example.

Let's take the root word - "hope"
We can form a new word by adding the suffix -"ful": hopeful
We can form another word by adding a different suffix - "less": hopeless

Therefore a single root word can be modified into a variety of words just by adding affixes.
 10. Homophones, Homonyms:
What are Homonyms?

The word “homonym” comes from the prefix “homo”, meaning “the same”, and the suffix “-
nym,” means “the name”. Hence, Homonyms are words that sound alike and have different
meanings. They either sound the same or are spelt the same, but their meanings are
different. Two or more words with the same spellings but different pronunciation and meaning
are called heteronyms.

Homonym Examples:

1. Address – location/ to speak to

2. Bark – the sound of dogs/ tree’s outer layer
3. Band – a ring/ a musical group
To understand the concept of English Root Words candidates can visit the linked page.

What are Homophones?

Homophones sound the same but have different meanings and have different spellings too.

Homophones Examples:

1. Altar/ Alter
2. Berth/ Birth
3. Cast/ Caste
4. Days/ Daze
5. Earn/ Urn
 11. Collocations:

Collocation is ‘a predictable combination of words‘ for example we can say heavy rain but
not strong rain because it does not sound right’ likewise, we can say ‘do exercise’ but not ‘make
exercise’. Collocations can be made up of any kinds of words such as verbs, nouns, adverbs and
adjectives. There are no rules for collocations in English Language, they are just combinations
of words that we can become familiar with and then use correctly.

Why learn collocations?

As your English language level improves, you have mastered several grammar structures and can
communicate successfully, you may find that you have reached a point where your progress has
slowed down. At this point, it is important to work on your vocabulary, by learning new words
and how to use them accurately and more naturally. Collocations can provide a short cut to
accuracy as you don’t have to learn lots of words and then figure out how to put them together,
you just learn one ‘piece of language’.

Common mistakes with collocations

Can you correct the following sentences? (You can check your answers at the bottom of the
page)

I very enjoyed the party.

I’ve made my homework

I had a strong meal this morning.

The Shard is the highest building in the UK.

I lost the train so I was late.

I did a mistake.

I’m not very good in maths.

I can’t listen the recording, it’s too quiet.

Noticing collocations

Collocations are everywhere so you don’t need to be in class to learn them. Whenever you read
something in English- a book, a news story or even a website, you can find collocations. The
important thing is to start noticing them and recording them so you can start to use them
yourself to learn English. Look at the following text, can you find any collocations? (You can
check at the bottom of the page)
After giving Mark a lift to the airport, Cathy made her way home. What an exciting life he led! At
times Cathy felt desperately jealous of him. She spent her time doing little more than taking care
of him and the children. Now her sister was getting divorced and would probably be making
demands on her too. Cathy had promised to give her sister a call as soon as she got home but
she decided to run herself a bath first. She had a sharp pain in her side and hoped that a hot bath
might ease the pain. After giving her sister a ring Cathy went to bed.

Once you have found collocations you could record them in a word web such as the one below
for collocations with ‘get’.

I hope this blog has been helpful for you and good luck with your journey of collocation
discovery!

Answers to common mistakes and noticing collocations:

I really enjoyed the party.

I’ve done my homework

I had a heavy meal this morning.

The Shard is the tallest building in the UK.

I missed the train so I was late.

I made a mistake.

I’m not very good at maths.

I can’t hear the recording, it’s too quiet.

After giving Mark a lift to the airport, Cathy made her way home. What an exciting life he led! At
times Cathy felt desperately jealous of him. She spent her time doing little more than taking care
of him and the children. Now her sister was getting divorced and would probably be making
demands on her too. Cathy had promised to give her sister a call as soon as she got home but
she decided to run herself a bath first. She had a sharp pain in her side and hoped that a hot bath
might ease the pain. After giving her sister a ring Cathy went to bed.

There are several different types of collocation. Collocations can be adjective + adverb, noun +
noun, verb + noun and so on. Below you can see seven main types of collocation in sample
sentences.

1. adverb + adjective

• Invading that country was an utterly stupid thing to do.

• We entered a richly decorated room.
 • Are you fully aware of the implications of your action?

2. adjective + noun

• The doctor ordered him to take regular exercise.

• The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage.
• He was writhing on the ground in excruciating pain.

3. noun + noun

• Let's give Mr Jones a round of applause.

• The ceasefire agreement came into effect at 11am.
• I'd like to buy two bars of soap please.

4. noun + verb

• The lion started to roar when it heard the dog barking.

• Snow was falling as our plane took off.
• The bomb went off when he started the car engine.

5. verb + noun

• The prisoner was hanged for committing murder.

• I always try to do my homework in the morning, after making my bed.
• He has been asked to give a presentation about his work.

6. verb + expression with preposition

• We had to return home because we had run out of money.

• At first her eyes filled with horror, and then she burst into tears.
• Their behaviour was enough to drive anybody to crime.

7. verb + adverb

• She placed her keys gently on the table and sat down.
• Mary whispered softly in John's ear.
• I vaguely remember that it was growing dark when we left.
12. Changing the Class of Words:
English has four major word classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. They have many
thousands of members, and new nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are often created. Nouns
are the most common type of word, followed by verbs. Adjectives are less common and adverbs
are even less common.
Many words belong to more than one word class. For example, book can be used as a noun or as
a verb; fast can be used as an adjective or an adverb:
It’s an interesting book. (noun)
We ought to book a holiday soon. (verb)
He loves fast cars. (adjective)
Don’t drive so fast! (adverb)

Typical word-class suffixes

A suffix can often, but not always, tell us if a word is a noun, verb, adjective or adverb:

Nouns verbs adjectives adverbs

station soften drinkable carefully

government identify Japanese easily
cruelty industrialize useless sadly

*******