Department of Chemical Engineering

Unit Operation Laboratory Manual

(CHS581-BT)

Particulars
General Instructions to the Students
Syllabus
Guidelines for the preparation of laboratory reports
Laboratory Plan
Experiment No: 1 Determination of thermal conductivity of metal rod
Experiment No: 2 Determination of thermal conductivity and thermal resistance offered by
individual layer of composite walls
Experiment No: 3 Determination of the experimental and theoretical heat transfer
coefficient for a horizontal tube by forced convection
Experiment No: 4 Determination of overall heat transfer coefficient using shell and tube
heat exchanger
Experiment No: 5 Determination of emissivity for black body and test plate
Experiment No: 6 Determination of Diffusion Coefficient an Organic Vapour in Air
Experiment No: 7 Study the Characteristic of Simple Batch Distillation
Experiment No: 8 Experimental Study on Flooding and Loading Phenomena in a Packed
Absorption Tower
 General Instructions to the Students
Do’s:
 Laboratory uniform, shoes & safety glasses are compulsory in the lab.
 Be on time. At the start of the lab period, there will be a short introduction to the experiment
you will perform that day. It is unfair to your partner and to others in the lab if you are not up
to speed when the work begins.
 Inform the instructor if there is a problem. You will have their immediate attention if you
have cut yourself (even if you consider it minor), if something broke and needs cleaning up,
or if you are on fire.
 Be aware of all the safety devices. Even though the instructor will take care of emergencies,
you should know where to find the first aid kit, the chemical spill kit, the eye wash and the
safety shower.
 Keep all your belongings like bags at a safe distance in chairs so that it does not hamper the
work of others.
 Wash your hands before you leave the lab for the day.
 Always wear gloves before handling acids and keep a safe distance from your clothes.
 Be aware of others in the lab. Areas of the room may be crowded at times and you should
take care not to disturb the experiments of others in the lab.
 Bring your lab manual and observation copy every day and be open mind to every lab
meeting.
 During experiments material may fail and disperse, please wear safety glasses and maintain a
safe distance from the experiment.
 If any part of the equipment fails while being used, report it immediately to your supervisor.
Never try to fix the problem yourself because you could further damage the equipment and
harm yourself and others in the lab.
 Keep the work area clear of all materials except those needed for your work and cleanup after
your work.
 Before conducting any experiments, in the first lab students are instructed by the laboratory
technician and teaching assistants to abide by safety rules and take all necessary precautions
to ensure a safe work environment in order to safeguard their health, and the health of their
coworkers.
 This lab deals with boiling water hot surfaces, which can cause serious burns. All lab
instruments have been designed such that all exposed surfaces are well-insulated and not hot
to touch.

Don’ts:
 Don’t touch anything with which you are not completely familiar. Carelessness may not only
break the valuable equipment in the lab but may also cause serious injury to you and others
in the lab.
 Don’t start the experiment unless your setup is verified & approved by your supervisor.
Please follow instructions precisely as instructed by your supervisor.
 Don’t leave the experiments unattended while in progress.
 Don’t crowd around the equipment’s & run inside the laboratory.
 Don’t eat, drink, chew gum, smoke or apply cosmetics in the lab. Just being in lab makes
your hands dirtier than you can imagine and you don't want to accidentally eat any reagent.
 Don’t put pieces of lab equipment in your mouth and do not try to smell any reagent. It may
be toxic or obnoxious.
 Don’t work with chemicals until you are sure of their safe handling. This includes some
awareness of their flammability, reactivity, toxicity, and disposal.
 Don’t use the phone or computer with gloves on your hands.
 National Institute of Technology Durgapur
Mahatma Gandhi Avenue, Durgapur - 713209, West Bengal.
Department of Chemical Engineering

Unit Operation Laboratory Manual

(CHS581-BT)

Subject Code: CHS581-BT Hours/Week: 03

Report preparation Marks: 60 Viva Marks: 40

List of Experiments

Experiment No: 1 Determination of thermal conductivity of metal rod

Experiment No: 2 Determination of thermal conductivity and thermal resistance offered
by individual layer of composite walls
Experiment No: 3 Determination of the experimental and theoretical heat transfer
coefficient for a horizontal tube by forced convection
Experiment No: 4 Determination of overall heat transfer coefficient using shell and tube
heat exchanger
Experiment No: 5 Determination of emissivity for black body and test plate
Experiment No: 6 Determination of Diffusion Coefficient an Organic Vapour in Air
Experiment No: 7 Study the Characteristic of Simple Batch Distillation
Experiment No: 8 Experimental Study on Flooding and Loading Phenomena in a Packed
Absorption Tower
GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION OF LABORATORY REPORTS
1. TITLE PAGE
The following items are to be included in the front page lab report according to this order:
a) Student's name
b) Course and section Number
c) Number and title of the experiment
d) Date the experiment was performed
e) Names of group members
f) Date the report is presented
2. TITLE OF THE EXPERIMENT
In this Section, mention the appropriate title of the experiment.
3. OBJECTIVE
The objective of the experiment should be stated on a separate sheet of paper with the
heading OBJECTIVE. State the objective clearly. A few explanatory sentences may be
included, if needed.
4. THEORY
In this section state and explain any equations or theoretical principles and assumptions that
were used in the experiment and the analysis. Define all parameters used.
5. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Give a detailed description of how you accomplished the experimentation. This should
include equipment used in the experiment as well as how it was used. The description should
have sufficient details; so that another experimenter could duplicate your efforts. Use
sketches, diagrams, or photos to describe the experimental set-up. Label the main
components. Provide dimensions and material of test samples where applicable. The
equipment listing in the Appendices is the appropriate place for model numbers and serial
numbers. In the methods section, use generic names for the equipment, e.g., the fluid network
apparatus.
6. OBSERVATION TABLE:
During the experimentation draw an observation table and note all the parameters. Mention
all the observed parameters with appropriate units.
7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
Summarize your results in an introductory sentence. Relate your results to your objective.
Present the results in the easiest way for your reader to understand: graphs, tables, figures,
etc. All tables and figures must be referenced in the text, use a numbering system for
identification of each one.
Explain the results of the experiment; comment on the shapes of the curves; compare results
with expected results; give probable reasons for discrepancies from the theory; answer any
questions outlined in the instructions and solve any problems that may have been presented.
Tell why things happened, not only that they did happen. Comparisons should include
numerical values and corresponding error percentages where relevant.
Do not present calculations and formulas in this section. Your calculations should be detailed
in the Appendices under SAMPLE CALCULATIONS. Formulas should be discussed in the
THEORY section.
8. CONCLUSIONS
State your discoveries, judgments and opinions from the results of this experiment.
Summarize your primary results in comparison with theory in two or three sentences. These
should answer the objective of the experiment. Make recommendations for further study.
Suggest ways to improve the experiment.
Consider that in the real world, information like that in the RESULTS and CONCLUSIONS
will be all that upper management will want to receive. Beyond that, figures may be
skimmed. Make the most of these sections.
 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
UNIT OPERATION LABORATORY (CHS581-BT)
Group-1 Group-2 Group-3 Group-4 Group-5 Group-6 Group-7 Group-8
Day-1 Exp-1 Exp-2 Exp-3 Exp-4 Exp-5 Exp-6 Exp-7 Exp-8

Day-2 Exp-8 Exp-1 Exp-2 Exp-3 Exp-4 Exp-5 Exp-6 Exp-7

Day-3 Exp-7 Exp-8 Exp-1 Exp-2 Exp-3 Exp-4 Exp-5 Exp-6

Day-4 Exp-6 Exp-7 Exp-8 Exp-1 Exp-2 Exp-3 Exp-4 Exp-5

Day-5 Exp-5 Exp-6 Exp-7 Exp-8 Exp-1 Exp-2 Exp-3 Exp-4

Day-6 Exp-4 Exp-5 Exp-6 Exp-7 Exp-8 Exp-1 Exp-2 Exp-3

Day-7 Exp-3 Exp-4 Exp-5 Exp-6 Exp-7 Exp-8 Exp-1 Exp-2

Day-8 Exp-2 Exp-3 Exp-4 Exp-5 Exp-6 Exp-7 Exp-8 Exp-1

 EXPERIMENT NO: 1
DETERMINATION OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD
Objective: Study of conduction heat transfer in metal rod to determine the thermal
conductivity of metal bar.
Theory:
Thermal conductivity of a substance is a physical property, defined as the ability of a
substance to conduct heat. Thermal conductivity of material depends on chemical
composition; state of matter, crystalline structure of a solid, the temperature, pressure and
whether or not it is a homogeneous material.
The heater will heat the bar on its end one and heat will be conducted through the bar
to the other end. Since the rod is insulated from outside, it can be safely assumed that the heat
transfer along the copper rod is mainly due to axial conduction and at steady state the heat
conducted shall be equal to the heat absorbed by water at the cooling end. The heat conducted
at steady state shall create a temperature profile within the rod. (T = f (x))The steady state
heat balance at the rear end of the rod is:
Heat absorbed by cooling water,
Q  MC p 

Heat conducted through the rod in axial direction:

dT
Q   KA
dX
at steady state
dT
Q   KA  MC p 
dX
so thermal conductivity of rod may be expressed as,
mc P 
k
 dT 
 A 
 dX 
The assumption that at steady state, the heat flow is mainly due to axial conduction can be
verified by the reading of temperature sensors fixed in the insulation material around the rod
in radial direction. Less variation in these readings shall confirm the assumption. The value of
dT / dX is obtained as the slope of graph between T vs. X
Description:
The apparatus consist of a metal bar, one end of which is heated by an electric heater while
the other end of the bar projects inside the cooling water jacket. The middle portion of the bar
is surrounded by a cylindrical shell filled with the asbestos insulating powder. The
temperature of the bar is measured at different section. The heater is provided with a dimmer
stat for controlling the heat input. Water under constant conditions is circulated through the
jacket and its flow rate and temperature rise are noted by two temperature sensors provided at
the inlet and outlet of the water.
Utilities Required:
 Electricity Supply: 1 Phase, 220V AC, 2 Amp
 Water supply.
 Drain
 Table for set-up support
Experimental Procedure:
Staring procedure:
1. Connect cold water supply at inlet of the cooling chamber.
2. Connect outlet of the cooling chamber to drain.
3. Ensure that all On / Off Switches given on the Panel are at OFF position.
4. Ensure that Variae Knob is at ZERO position, given on the panel.
5. Start water supply (say 2 LPM approx) at constant head.
6. Now switch on the Main Power Supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz)
7. Switch on the Panel with the help of Mains On/Off Switch given on the Panel.
8. Fix the power input to the Heater with the help of Variae, Voltmeter and Ammeter
provided.
9. After 30 Minutes start recording the temperature of various points at each 5 minutes
interval.
10. If temperature readings are same for three times, assure that steady state is achieved.
11. Record the final temperature.

Closing procedure:
1. When experiment is over, Switch off heater first.
2. Adjust Varic at Zero.
3. Switch off the Panel with the help of Mains ON/Off Switch given on the Panel.
 4. Switch off Power Supply to Panel.
5. Stop cold water supply.
Schematic Diagram:

Observation & Calculation:

DATA:
Specific heat of water Cp = 4186 J/kg oC
Density of water  = 1000 kg/m3
Diameter of rod d = 0.025 m
Distance of first temperature sensor (T1) from the one end point of pipe, X1, = 0.005 m
Distance of second temperature sensor (T2) from the one end point of pipe, X2 = 0 047 m
Distance of third temperature sensor (T3) from the one end point of pipe, X3 = 0.094m
Distance of fourth temperature sensor (T4) from the one end point of pipe, X4 = 0.141 m
Distance of fifth temperature sensor (T5) from the one end point of pipe, X5 = 0.188 m
Distance of sixth temperature sensor (T6) from the one end point of pipe, X6 = 0.235 m
Observation Table
V= ________volts I = _________Amp
S. F (ml) t (sec) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
o o o o o o o o
No ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C)
Calculation:
F   106
M 
t , Kg/sec
Q  M  C p  T8  T7 
,W

A d2
4 , m2
Plot a graph of temperature (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6) vs. Length (X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6) and
 dT 
 
find slope  dX 
Q
k 
 dT 
 A  
 dX  , W/m oC

Nomenclature:
F = Volume of water collected for flow measurement
I = Ammeter reading
V = Voltmeter reading
d = Diameter of rod.
Q = Heat gained by water
t = Time
T1-T6 = Temperature of metal rod along the length from heater to cooling jacket
T7 = Inlet temp of cold water.
T8 = Outlet temp of cold water.
k = Thermal conductivity of metal bar
M = Mass flow rate of cooling water
Cp = Specific heat of water.
A = Cross- sectional area of the metal bar
dT
 Slope of the graph b/w temp. Vs length of the bar
dX

Precautions & Maintenance Instructions:

1. Use the stabilize A.C. Single Phase supply only.
 2. Never switch on main power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches
given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Voltage to heater to be starts and increases slowly.
4. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
5. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above than 240
volts.
6. Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
7. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
Result and Discussion:

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 2
DETERMINATION OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND THERMAL
RESISTANCE OFFERED BY INDIVIDUAL LAYER OF COMPOSITE
WALLS

Objective:
(i) To determine total Thermal conductivity and total thermal resistance of composite walls.
(ii) To calculate thermal conductivity of individual materials in composite wall.
(iii) To plot temperature gradient along composite wall structure.
Theory:
There are a few system of considerable practical utility which are made up of two layers of
different materials. For example, cold storage walls have a layer of bricks, a layer of thick
insulation and plaster of both the sides. The treatment of conductive heat flow in such
structures is the extension of single wall structures and known as composite walls or
composite structures. In such composite structures each layer has a different value of
resistance; the overall cumulative effect of this resistance’s has to be studied. When a
temperature gradient exists in a body, there is an energy transfer from the high temperature
region to the low temperature region. Energy is transferred by conduction and heat transfer
rate per unit area is proportional to the normal temperature gradient:

When the proportionality constant is inserted,

Where q is the heat transfer rate and is the temperature gradient in the direction of
heat flow. The positive constant k is called thermal conductivity of the material. The heat
flow is generally assumed to be one- dimensional.
A direct application of Fourier’s law is the plane wall. Fourier’s equation:
Where the thermal conductivity is considered constant. The wall thickness is X, and T1 and T2
are surface temperatures. If more than one material is present, as in the multiplayer Wall, the
analysis would proceed as follows: The temperature gradients in the three materials (A, B,
C), the heat flow may be written
Description of Apparatus
The apparatus consists of 3 layers of different materials (M.S., Bakelite and press wood)
placed in series so as to make the composite walls. The rate of heat conducted through each
layer is the same. The heater plate consists of a mica heater embedded in a single heater plate.
In the experiment, it is assumed that the total heat flow’s in the axial direction. But practically
it is not possible as the heat flows in radial direction also. The control panel consists of a
main switch, dimmerstat, voltmeter, ammeter and temperature indicator.
The temperature indicator can measure temperatures of 8 different points. Thus the
thermocouple tapings in the test section are as follows,
T1 & T2 – Temperatures within the heater plates and M.S. plates at the center of the heater.
Above and below the heater plates respectively.
T3 & T4 – Temperatures within the M.S. plates and Bakelite plates at the center. Above and
below the upper and lower M.S. plates respectively.
T5 & T6 Temperatures within the Bakelite plates and press wood plates at the center. Above
and below the upper and lower Bakelite plates respectively.
T7 & T8 Temperatures after the press wood plates at the center. Above and below upper and
lower press wood plates respectively.

Schematic Diagram of the Set-up

Specifications: -
1. Slab size-
a) M.S. : Dia. 200 mm. and 25 mm thick.
 b) Bakelite Plate : Dia. 200 mm. and 19 mm thick.
c) Press Wood : Dia. 200 mm. and 12 mm thick.
2. Heater plate: Mica heater embedded in a single heater plate.
3. Heater control unit: 230 Volts and 2 A. Single phase dimmerstat – 1 No.
4. Input to the heaters can be read by energy meter.
5. Multichannel digital temperature indicator.
6. Water cooled heat sinks at the end of composite slabs.

Experimental Procedure: -
1. Ensure the dimmerstat is at minimum position before start.
2. ‘ON’ the main switch.
3. Apply the voltage approximately up to 80 volts.
4. After the steady state is reached i.e. the temperatures of the thermocouples T1 & T2 of
the main heater surface remains constant for more than 2 minutes. Fill up the following
observation table.

Observations Table:-
Sr. HEATER T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
No. INPUT IN KW

Calculations:-
(a) Heater input: Q = V x I
(b) Mean readings: T1 + T2
T1 + T2
i. Ta 
2
T3 + T4
T3 + T4
ii. Tb 
2
T5 + T6
 T5 + T6
iii. TC 
2
T7 + T8
T7 + T8
iv. Td 
2
(c) Thermal conductivity of the slab.
Q L
K W / m. ⁰C
A  (Ta  Td )
Where, L = Length of the slab = 0.056 m

A  Area of the heater   (0.20) 2  0.0314m 2
4
Note – For calculating the thermal conductivity of the composite walls, it is assumed that due
to large diameter of the plates, heat flowing through the center portion is unidirectional i.e.
axial flow. Thus for calculations, central diameter area where unidirectional flow is assumed
is considered. Accordingly thermocouples are placed to the center of the plates.
(d) Thermal resistance of the slab –
Ta  Td
R ⁰C/W
Q
(e) Thermal conductivity of the M.S.
QL
K MS  W/m.⁰C
A  (Ta  Tb )
Where, L = Length of the M.S. = 0.025 m

A  Area of the heater   (0.20) 2  0.0314m 2
4
Thermal resistance of the M.S.
(Ta  Tb )
RMS  , ⁰C/W
Q
(f) Thermal conductivity of the Bakelite.
Q L
KB  W/m.⁰C
A  (Tb  Tc )
Where, L = Length of the Bakelite= 0.019 m
A = Area of the heater = 0.0314 m2)
Thermal resistance of the Bakelite. –
(Tb  Tc )
RB  , ⁰C/W
Q
 (g) Thermal conductivity of the Press Wood.
QL
K PW  W/m.⁰C
A  (Tc  Td )
Where, L = Length of the M.S. = 0.012 m
A = Area of the heater = 0.0314 m2)
Thermal resistance of the Press Wood –
(Tc  Td )
RPW  , ⁰C/W
Q
Results:
Sr. Materials Thermal conductivity (K) Thermal resistance (Rth)
No. W/m.⁰C ⁰C/W
1. M.S.
2. Bakelite
3. Press Wood

Precautions:-
(a) Keep Dimmerstat to ‘0’ before start the machine.
(b) Increase supply voltage gradually.
(c) Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
(d) Remove air gap between the plates slowly by moving hand press.
(e) Don’t increase voltage above 120 Volts.
(f) Operator selector switch of temperature do not disturb the thermocouples.
Conclusion:-
Thermal conductivity of the composite wall = ---------W/m.⁰C
Thermal resistance of the composite wall = --------- ⁰C/W
 EXPERIMENT NO: 3
DETERMINATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR A HORIZONTAL TUBE BY
FORCED CONVECTION

Objective: To determine the surface heat transfer coefficient for a horizontal tube losing
heat by forced convection.
Theory:
Whenever a fluid is being forced over the heated surface, forced convection heat transfer
occurs. The apparatus consists of a circular pipe, through which cold fluid, i.e. air is being
forced. Pipe is heated by a band heater outside the pipe. Temperature of pipe is measured
with thermocouples attached to pipe surface. Heater input is measured by a Voltmeter and
Ammeter. Thus, heat transfer rate and heat transfer coefficient can be calculated.
Average surface heat transfer coefficient,
Actual Heat Loss Due To Forced Convection = q - Heat Loss Due To Radiation
 Heat Loss Due To Radiation ( q1 ),

q1  0.06    A  (TS  Tm ) , ( - Stefan Boltzmann Constant)

4 4

 Actual Heat Loss = q  q1

q  q1
hExpt .  , W/m2.K
A  (TS  Tm )

where, A = Inside surface area of the pipe    di  l    0.033 0.5  0.0518 m2

di = Inside dia. Of pipe = 0.033 m
10. Reynolds number
V D
Re D  ,  = Kinematic viscosity at Tm.

D = 0.033 m.
If ReD < 2000, flow is laminar.
h D
 4.36
k air
If Reynolds number exceeds 2000, flow is turbulent.
For turbulent flow,
 h.D
Nu D   0.023  (Re D )0.8  (Pr)n , where
kair
n = 0.4 when fluid is being heated.
n = 0.3 when fluid is being cooled.
Determine htheo from Nu.

Specifications
1. Test pipe - 28 mm I.D. & 400 mm Long.
2. Band heater for pipe.
3. Multichannel Digital Temperature Indicator 0 - 300 ⁰C using Chromel / Alumel
thermocouples.
4. Dimmerstat 2Amps. 240 Volts for heater input control.
5. Voltmeter 0- 200 volts
6. Ammeter 0- 2 Amps.
7. Blower to force the air through test pipe.
8. Orifice meter with water manometer.

Schematic Diagram of the Setup

Experimental Procedure
1. Put 'ON' mains supply.
2. Adjust the heater input with the help of dimmerstat.
 3. Start the blower and adjust the air flow with valve.
4. Wait till steady state is reached and note down the reading in the observation table.
Observations and Calculations
Properties of Air
T (⁰C)  (kg/m3) Cp  × 106 k Pr v x 106
(kJ/kg.K) (N-Sec/m2) (W/m.K) (m2/Sec)
0 1.293 1.005 17.2 0.0244 0.707 13.28
10 1.247 1.005 17.7 0.0251 0.705 14.16
20 1.205 1.005 18.1 0.0259 0.703 15.06
30 1.165 1.005 18.6 0.0267 0.701 16.00
40 1.128 1.005 19.1 0.0276 0.699 16.96
50 1.093 1.005 19.6 0.0283 0.698 17.95
60 1.060 1.005 20.1 0.0290 0.696 18.97
70 1.029 1.009 20.6 0.0297 0.694 20.02
80 1.000 1.009 21.1 0.0305 0.692 21.09
90 0.972 1.009 21.5 0.0313 0.690 22.10
100 0.946 1.009 21.9 0.0321 0.688 23.13
120 0.898 1.009 22.9 0.0334 0.686 25.45
140 0.854 1.013 23.7 0.0349 0.684 27.80

S. Volt Amp. Temperatures, ⁰C Manometer

No (V) I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Difference (hw)

Calculations
1. Air inlet temp. (T1) = ⁰C
2. Air outlet temp. (T6) = ⁰C
3. Density of air at atmospheric temperature = kg/m3 (Density can be found out
from the chart of properties of air.)
4. Diameter of orifice = 14 mm.
Manometer difference = Water head = hw (m)
W
Air head, ha  hw  ( )
a
Where, W = Density of water = 1000 Kg/m3
 Air volume flow rate,

Q  Cd  aO  2 gha , m 3 /Sec.
Where, Cd = 0.64 and ao = c. s. area of orifice= 1.54 x 10-4 m2
5. Mass flow rate of air,
ma  Q   a , Kg /sec.
Q
Velocity of air, V  , m /sec.
aP
Where, ap = Cross sectional area of pipe = 6.15 × 10 -4 m2
6. Heat gained by air, q  ma  C Pa  (T6  T1 ) , W

Where, C Pa = Specific heat of air = 1 kJ/Kg.K.

7. Average inside surface temperature,

T2  T3  T4  T5
TS  , ⁰C
4
8. Bulk mean temp. of air ,
T1  T6
Tm  , ⁰C
2
9. Average surface heat transfer coefficient,
Actual Heat Loss Due To Forced Convection = q - Heat Loss Due To Radiation
 Heat Loss Due To Radiation ( q1 ),

q1  0.06    A  (TS  Tm ) , ( - Stefan Boltzmann Constant)

4 4

 Actual Heat Loss = q  q1

q  q1
hExpt .  , W/m2.K
A  (TS  Tm )

where, A = Inside surface area of the pipe    di  l    0.033 0.5  0.0518 m2

di = Inside dia. Of pipe = 0.033 m
10. Reynolds number
V D
Re D  ,  = Kinematic viscosity at Tm.

D = 0.033 m.
If ReD < 2000, flow is laminar.
h D
 4.36
k air
If Reynolds number exceeds 2000, flow is turbulent.
For turbulent flow,
 h.D
Nu D   0.023  (Re D )0.8  (Pr)n , where
kair
n = 0.4 when fluid is being heated.
n = 0.3 when fluid is being cooled.
Determine htheo from Nu.

NOTE:
The calculated values and actual values may differ appreciably because of heat losses. The
heat loss through natural convection, conduction and heat loss through insulation over the
heater is not considered, but they are present. Also, the heat flux is not uniform practically, as
assumed in theory, which gives difference between actual & theoretical value.
Precautions:
1. While putting 'ON' the supply, keep dimmerstat at zero position and blower switch 'OFF'.
2. Operate all the switches and controls gently.
3. Do not obstruct the flow of air while experiment is going on.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 4
DETERMINATION OF OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
USING SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
Objective:
(i) Calculate the experimental and theoretical overall heat transfer coefficient (UTheo and
UExpt.).
(ii) To Find the Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) effectiveness of Shell
and Tube type heat exchanger.
Theory:
A heat exchanger is a device used for effective the process of heat exchange between two
fluids that are two different temperatures. The heat exchangers are useful in many
engineering process like those in refrigerating and air conditioning systems, power systems,
food processing systems, chemical reactors and space or aeronautical applications. A heat
exchanger in which two fluids exchange heat by coming into direct contact is called a direct
contact heat exchanger. Examples of this type are open feed water heaters, desuperheaters
and jet condensers. Recuperators are the heat exchangers in which the fluids are separated by
a wall. The valve may be a simple plane wall or tube or complex configuration involving fins,
baffles and multiple passes of tubes. These units, also called surface heat exchanger are more
commonly used because they can be constructed with large heat transfer surfaces in a
relatively small volume and are suitable for heating, cooling, evaporating, condensing
applications. A periodic flow type of heat exchanger is called a regenerator. This type of heat
exchanger, the same space is alternatively occupied by the hot and cold gases between which
heat is exchanged. Regenerators find their applications in pre heaters for steam power plants,
blast furnaces, oxygen producers etc.
Common examples of Heat exchanger are the radiator of a car, the condenser of the back of
the domestic refrigerator, the steam boiler of a thermal power plant.
Heat exchanger can be classified in three categories:
1. Transferred Type
2. Storage Type
3. Direct Contact Type
A Transferred Type heat exchanger is one in which both fluid pass simultaneously through
the device and the heat is transferred through separating walls. In practice most of the heat
exchangers used are transferred type one. The transferred type heat exchanger are further
classified according to the flow arrangement as
1. Parallel Flow: In which fluids flow in the same direction
2. Counter Flow: In which they flow in opposite direction
3. Cross Flow: In which they flow at right angles to each other.

Figure 1. Parallel Flow Arrangement

Figure 2. Counter-Current Flow Arrangement

 Figure 3. Cross Current Flow Arrangement

When large quantities of heat are to be transferred the heat transfer area requirement of heat
exchanger also becomes large. In a single pass heat exchanger this requirement can be met
either by increasing length of tubes or by decreasing the diameter and increases the nos. of
tubes at the same time. Neither these methods is practical because due to limitations of sides,
the length of tube cannot be increased arbitrarily and large pressure drops could occur which
smaller diameter tubes. These difficulties lead us to multi pass arrangement. The fluid
flowing through the tubes is called the tube fluid whereas the fluid flowing outside the tubes
are called the shell fluid. Depending upon the heat transfer area requirement we can have
multi tubes and /or shell pass. The flow conditions for shell and tube type heat exchanger are
neither parallel flow nor counter flow type. To create turbulence in the shell side fluid and
enhance the cross flow velocity of this fluid relative to the tubes, baffles are generally
provided. This results in a higher heat transfer coefficient for the outer tube surface.
Logarithmic mean temperature difference
For the derivation of temperature difference of two fluids, the following assumptions must be
made:
1. The overall coefficient of heat transfer U is constant over the entire length of path.
2. The fluid flow is constant obeying the steady state requirement.
3. The specific is constant over the entire length of path.
 4. There are no partial phase changes in the system i.e. vaporization or condensation.
The derivation is the application for the sensible heat changes and when vaporization
or condensation is isothermal over the whole length of path.
5. The heat loss is negligible.

(i) Calculate Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

(ii) Calculate overall theoretical and experimental heat transfer Coefficient

Apparatus Description
Shell and Tube heat exchanger are popular in industries because they occupy less space and
offered reasonable temperature drop. The apparatus consist of fabricated SS shell, inside
which tubes with baffles on outer side are fitted. This is one pass heat exchanger so that hot
water passes to one end of shell through the tubes and from other end comes out. The cold
water is admitted at the one end of the shell, which passes over the hot water tubes. Valves
are provided to control the flow rate of hot and cold water. Flow rates of hot and water are
measured using Rota meters. A magnetic drive pump is used to circulate hot water from a
recycle type water tank which is fitted with heaters and digital temperature controller.

Schematic Diagram
Procedure
Starting Procedure
1. Clean the apparatus and make the water bath free from dust.
2. Close the entire drain valve provided.
3. Fill the water in the bath and switch on the heater.
4. Adjust the required temperature of hot water using DTC.
5. Adjust the valve. Allow the hot water to recycle in bath through by pass by switching
on the magnetic pump.
6. Start the flow through the shell and run the exchanger.
7. Adjust the flow rate on cold water side with the help of Rotameter.
8. Adjust the flow rate on hot water side with the help of Rotameter.
9. Keeping the flow rates same, wait till steady state conditions are reached.
10. Record the temperatures on hot water and cold water side accurately.
Closing procedure
1. When experiment is over switch off the heater first.
2. Switch off magnetic pump for hot water supply.
3. Switch off power supply to the panel.
4. Drain water bath with help of drain valves.
Utilities required
 Water supply and drain.
 Electricity supply: I phase, 220 volt AC, 4 kW.
 Floor area of 1.5 m x 0.7 m
Observation & Calculation:
Given Data:
Tube inside diameter (di) = 0.013 m = 1.3 cm
Tube inside diameter (do) = 0.016 m = 1.6 cm
Shell Diameter (DS) = 0.2 m = 20 cm
Length of the Tube (L) = 0.5 m
Triangular Pitch, Pitch Length (Pt) = 1.25 × do
No of Tubes = 32, No of tube passes = 2
No of Baffles = 0
Observation Table:
S. No. Fh LPH T1 oC T2 oC Fc LPH T3 oC T4 oC
1.
2.

Calculations:
T1  T2 T3  T4
Find the properties of water (Cph, ρh) at Th  and (Cpc, ρh) at Tc 
2 2
From data book.
Cph = -------------kJ/kgoC
Cpc = -------------kJ/kgoC
ρh = -------------kg/m3
ρc = -------------kg/m3
Calculate the experimental and theoretical heat transfer Coefficient for 1-2 shell and tube heat
exchanger.

Calculation Table:
UExpt. UTheo.
S.No. Fh LPH T1 oC T2 oC Fc LPH T3 oC T4 oC
W/m2oC W/m2oC
1.
2.

Conclusion:

Nomenclature:
Ai = Inside heat transfer area, m2
Ao = Outside heat transfer area, m2
Cph = Specific heat of hot fluid at mean temperature, kJ/kgoC
Cpc = Specific heat of cold fluid at mean temperature, kJ/kgoC
do = Outer diameter of tube, m
di = Inner diameter of tube, m
DS = Shell Inner Diameter, m
Pt = Pitch Length, m
Fh = Flow rate of hot water, LPH
Fc = Flow rate of cold water, LPH
L = Length of tube, m
Mh = Mass flow rate of the hot water, kg/s
Mc = Mass flow rate of the cold water, kg/s
Q = Average heat transfer from the system, W
Qc = Heat gained by the cold water, W
Qh = Heat loss by the hot water, W
Th = Mean temperature of hot wateroC
Tc = Mean temperature of cold water, oC
T1 = Inlet temperature of the hot water, oC
T2 = Outlet temperature of the hot water, oC
T3 = Inlet temperature of the cold water, oC
T4 = Outlet temperature of the cold water, oC
ρc = Density of cold water at mean temp, kg/m3
ρh = Density of hot water at mean temp. kg/m3

Precautions & Maintenance Instructions:

1. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180volts and above than 230 volts.
2. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches
given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Operator selectors switch off temperature indicator gently.
4. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 5
DETERMINATION OF EMISSIVITY FOR BLACK BODY AND TEST
PLATE
Objective:
Study of Radiation heat transfer by black body and test plate to determine the emissivity of a
test plate
Theory:
All substances at all temperature emit thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is an
electromagnetic wave and does not require any material medium for propagation. All bodies
can emit radiation and have also the capacity to absorb all of a part of the radiation coming
from the surrounding towards it.
An idealized black surface is one, which absorbs all the incident radiation with
reflectivity and transmissivity equal to zero. The radiant energy per unit time per unit area
from the surface of the body is called as the emissive power and is usually denoted by e.
The emissivity of the surface is the ratio of the emissive power of the surface to the emissive
power of a black surface at the same temperature. If is noted by E.
E = E/Eb
For black body absorptivity = 1 and by the knowledge of Kirchoff's Law of emissivity of the
black body becomes unity. Emissivity being a property of the surface depends on the nature
of the surface and temperature. The present experimental set up is designed and fabricated to
measure the property of emissivity of the test plate surface at various temperatures.
Description:
The experimental set up consists of two circular copper plates identical in size and is
provided with heating coils sand witches. The plates are mounted on bracket and are kept in
an enclosure so as to provide undisturbed natural convection surroundings. The heating input
to the heater is varied by separate dimmerstat and is measured by using an ammeter and a
voltmeter with the help of double pole double throw switches. The temperature of the plates
is measured by Pt-100 sensor. Another Pt-100 sensor is kept in the enclosure to read the
ambient temperature of enclosure.
Plate 1 is blackened by a thick layer of lampblack to form the idealized black surface whereas
the plate 2 is the test plate whose emissivity is to be determined. The heater inputs to the two
plates are dissipated from the plates by conduction, convection and radiation. The
experimental set up is designed in such a way that under steady state conditions the heat
dissipation by conduction and convection is same for both the cases. When the surface
temperatures are same the difference in the heater input readings is because of the difference
in radiation characteristics due to their different emissivity.
Utilities Required:
1. Electricity Supply: 1 Phase, 220 V AC, 4 Amps, 5-15 amp socket with earth connection
2. Table for set-up support
Schematic Diagram:

Experimental Procedure:
Starting Procedure:
1. Ensure that Mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel is at OFF position & dimmer
stat is at zero position.
2. Connect electric supply to the set up.
3. Switch ON the Mains ON / OFF switch.
4. Set the test plate heater input by the dimmer stat, voltmeter in the range 40 to 100V.
5. Set black plate heater input by dimmer state, voltmeter, 2 V above than test plate
heater.
6. After 0.5 hrs. Observe the difference in surface temperature of black plate (T1) and
test plate (T2) and adjust the heater input of black plate to make both the sensor reading same.
7. Wait for 5 minutes every time after changing the black plate heater input and then
again change the input if required.
8. At same surface temperature note down the reading of voltmeter, ampere meter and
temperature sensors in the observation table.
Closing Procedure:
1. After experiment is over set the dimmer stat to zero position.
2. Switch OFF the Mains ON/OFF switch.
3. Switch OFF electric supply to the set up.
Observation & Calculation:
DATA:
8
Stefan Boltzmann’s Constant, σ = 5.67 10 W/m2 K
Diameter of Test Body, DS = 0.16 m
Diameter of Black Body, DB = 0.16 m
Emissivity of Black Plate, EB = 1

Observation Table
S. No VB IB VT IT T1 T2 T3
o o o
Volts Amps Volts Amps C C C

Calculation: (At T1 = T2)

QB  VB  I B , Watt = ___________ W

QT  VT  I T , Watt = ___________ W


A  DS
2

4 , m2 = ___________ m2
TB  T1  273.15 , K = ___________ K

TE  T3  273.15 , K = ___________ K

ET  E B 
QB
 QT 

A    TB  TE
4 4
 = __________
The emissivity of the test plate can be calculated at various surface temperatures of the plates.
Conclusions:

Nomenclature:
 = Stefan Boltzmann Constant
DS = Diameter of Test Plate, m
DB = Diameter of Black Plate, m
EB = Emissivity of black plate.
VB = Voltmeter reading of Black plate, volts
IB = Ammeter reading of Black plate, Amps
VT = Voltmeter reading of Test plate, volts
IT = Ammeter reading of Test plate, Amps
QB = Heat Supplied to the black plate, watt
QT = Heat supplied to the test plate, watt
T1 = Temperature of Test plate, oC
T2 = Temperature of Black plate, oC
T3 = Temperature of Enclosure, oC
A = Area of disc, m2
TB = Temperature of Black plate, K
TE = Temperature of Enclosure, K
ET = Emissivity of Test Plate

Precautions & Maintenance Instructions:

1. Use the stabilize A.C. Single Phase supply only.
2. Never switch on mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches given
on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Voltage to heater starts and increases slowly.
4. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
5. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above than 240 volts.
6. Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
7. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
Troubleshooting:
1. If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light. Check the fuse and also check
the main supply.
2. If D.T.I displays “1” on the screen check the computer socket if loose tight it.
3. If temperature of any sensor is not displays in D.T.I check the connection and rectify that.
4. If the temperature is not shown proper in D.T.I some air gap is there between the surface
of the plate and the sensor. Paste that by using heat sink chemical.
5. Voltmeter showing the voltage given to heater but ampere meter does not. Tight the
heater socket & switch if ok it means heater burned.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 6

DETERMINATION OF DIFFUSIVITY OF A HYDROCARBON LIQUID

THROUGH AIR
Objectives
1. To calculate the rate of diffusion at different interface levels
2. To determine the diffusion coefficient
Theory
Molecular diffusion may be defined as the spontaneous intermingling of miscible fluids
placed in mutual contact, accomplished without the aid of mechanical mixing. In the present
experiment, a steady state unidirectional molecular diffusion may be conducted by placing
the liquid component A inside a small narrow vertical glass tube, as shown in Fig. 1. The
liquid in the tube is held at nearly constant temperature (T) by placing the tube in a pool of
water column. Natural current of air (component B) passes over the liquid column almost in a
laminar motion through the horizontal tube as shown in Fig. 1.
For steady state unidirectional molecular diffusion of a fluid (A) through a non-diffusing gas
(B), the diffusional flux of A through the distance z is given as follows:
DAB P( p A1  p A 2 )
NA  (1)
RTzpBM

Where,
NA: Diffusional flux, moles/(time)(area)
DAB: Diffusion coefficient of component A in component B
P: Total pressure
R: Universal gas constant
T: Absolute temperature
z: Height of the T-junction from the liquid surface
PA1: Partial pressure of A at the liquid surface (Vapour pressure of A at the liquid surface)
PB1  PB 2
pBM 
P
ln B1
PB 2

Again, NAmay be written as:

 dz
NA  ( ) (2)
ML d

where,
ρ: Density of A
θ: Time
ML: Molecular weight of A
A graph of z vs. θ will be drawn. The rate of diffusion at different levels may be evaluated
from the slope of the line using equation (2).
The average value of diffusion coefficient (DAB) may be calculated from the slope obtained
by plotting a graph of NAvs. 1/z. The counter diffusion of air to replace the evaporated liquid
has been assumed to be neglected.
Procedure
The given sample of liquid is poured slowly and very carefully into a small narrow glass
tube. The tube and liquid are held at constant temperature. Air flows gently over the top of
the tube. The level of the interface is measured by means of a cathetometer and the time is
noted. An interval of at least 20 minutes is maintained.

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the Stefan tube

Observation
Sample of liquid used:
Molecular weight of liquid sample:
Density:
Table 1: Cathetometer reading
Observed Temperature Temperature Elapsed Cathetometer Level Level of
time of liquid of air time (θ, s) reading: (cm) interface
(h:min:s) (°C) (°C) Main scale + from the
Vernier scale top (z)
(cm) (cm)

Calculation
Sample Calculation:
dz
(a) Slope determined from the plot of z vs. θ. NA is calculated using the following
d
equation:
 dz
NA  ( )
ML d

(b) Determination of Diffusion coefficient (DAB)

The slope of the line obtained by plotting NA vs. 1/zis determined.
RTpBM
DAB  ( slope)
P( p A1  p A2 )

Results and discussion:

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 7
STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SIMPLE BATCH
DISTILLATION
Objectives
To study the characteristics of Simple Distillation
Theory:
Distillation is one of the most important but also the most energy intensive separation process
that chemical engineers should be concerned about. Thus, a good understanding of the
theories and application of this unit operation is essential in order to minimize energy
consumption. There are many types of distillation operations, depending on the process
followed, the type of equipment and the number of volatile components present in the
solution to be purified. In this laboratory exercise the one using the concept of a binary
equilibrium relationship by operating a simple batch distillation set-up is investigated. The
binary system applied is ethanol-water where students will investigate the validity of the
Rayleigh’s equation.
Distillation is a unit operation commonly used for purifying liquids and separating a liquid
mixture of miscible and volatile substances into individual components or, in some cases,
into groups of components. A liquid can be classified as volatile when it is readily vaporized
at a relatively low temperature. The boiling of the more volatile components of the mixture
drives the distillation process. When the vapor is cooled, the more volatile material condenses
in a greater proportion than the less volatile material.
The components are separated based on their physical properties, specifically, relative
volatilities. Relative volatility, a tool used to express the magnitude of the equilibrium
distribution, is defined as

, where, α = Relative volatility

y = Vapor composition; x = Liquid composition
A = More volatile component; B = Less volatile component
There are two types of distillation classified according to its mode of operation. These are
continuous and the batch distillation. In a batch system, the column can handle different
mixtures by simply changing its operating conditions. The main disadvantage of using this
kind of system, however, is that the longer the components are exposed to high tempemture,
the better the chances that the components are broken down via thermal degradation. Along
with this, the energy requirements are usually higher for a batch system. Conversely,
continues distillation, as the name implies, feed is continuously supplied and separated into
two or more products over some period. On the other hand, batch distillation involves the
processing of a batch of feed at a given time and split into products by selectively removing
the more volatile fractions over time.
A. Differential Distillation
When a binary solution of volatile liquids is subjected to batch differential distillation, the
concentration of the solution in the distillery still decreases in the more volatile component as
the boiling point of the solution increases. The resulting vapor is allowed to condense through
a condenser and collected together as the distillate product.
The problem in this case is to relate the initial amount of feed together with its concentration
and the amount of overall distillate collected and the concentration.
At any given time, the concentrations may be related by material balance. Referring to Figure
1, if W is the amount in the still at any time of concentration x, a more volatile component
balance yields

Integrating, considering the initial feed as F and concentration xf,

Figure. 1 Distillation system

This equation is referred to as Rayleigh Equation. The instantaneous liquid composition, x,
and the corresponding vapor composition, y are assumed to be in equilibrium with one
another. Vapor Liquid Equilibria (VLE) data may be determined from Vapor-Pressure-
Temperature, Boiling Point Composition diagram or equilibrium data, or x-y diagram for the
binary system.
The Rayleigh Equation may be simplified to various forms such as:
1. If Henry’s law applies, y = mx where m = H/P. The integrated equation yields

This equation, however, is applicable only for dilute solutions, where the partial pressure of
the vapor is a linear function of composition.
2. If the relative volatility, αAB may be assumed practically constant then,

Substituting this in the previous equation and integrating gives

or in terms of individual components,

Subscript 1 refers to the initial amounts and subscript 2 refers to the final amounts found in
the solution. The amount of distillate may be determined by material balance together with its
composition.
If the above assumptions could not be applied, the best way to evaluate the integral of
Equation 2 is by graphical or numerical methods. The graphical method is shown in Figure 2.
Graphically, plot versus x at different stages of the experiment to relate the amount

distilled at any time with composition and temperature by getting the area under the curve
and comparing this area and composition with the experimental data obtained. The validity of
the simplified equation may also be compare with the experimental data.
 Figure 2. Graphical method

Experimental Procedure:
A. Preparation of a calibration curve
1. Prepare a 0,10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,90 (%v/v) Methanol solution.
2. Use the refractrometer to determine the refractive indices of the different solutions.
3. Plot the refractive index versus methanol concentration.
B. Batch or differential distillation experiment
1. Set up the batch distillation apparatus.
2. Make 10 % methanol solution.
3. Heat up the setup until the first drop of condensate is collected. Record the initial
temperature reading and start the time.
4. For regular interval of time, say every 5-10 minutes collect the 10 ml sample of
condensate and bottom product and record the corresponding temperature
5. Using a refractrometer, determine the refractive index of the sample collected.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until you have at least six ryns or until 60 -70% of the solution is
distilled.
Figure. 3 Simple Batch Distillation column
Observation and Calculation:
Calibration Curve
Calibration data for concentration Vs Refractive index
Concentration of CH3OH- Refractive Index
H2O (% v/v)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Data from the literature
1. Molecular weights of A and B
2. Refractive indices of A and B.
3. Densities of A and B.
4. Vapour liquid equilibrium data for A and B at atmospheric pressure.
Observation Table:
S.No. t, sec T1 , C T2 , C T3 , C T4 , C T5 , C T6 , C X Y
Calculations
Calculate D (amount of distillate) (from weighed sample) and xD (distillate composition)
(from refractive index of sample) for each sample.
Calculate W (amount of residue still left in the fiask) and xW(composition of residue) using
equation for each fraction.
F= D+ W
xFF= D xD + W xW
Calculate y (vapor phase composition) for each sample from Refractive index of condensate
sample collected.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 8
EXPERIMENT ON FLOODING AND LOADING PHENOMENA IN A
PACKED ABSORPTION TOWER

Objective:
1. To study the operation of hydrodynamics in packed bed
2. To determine the loading and flooding velocities for air-water –system in a packed
tower
Introduction:
Packed towers are used for continuous contact of liquid and gas in vertical columns. The
liquid while tricking down through packed bed, exposes a large surface area of contact with
the gas. In a randomly packed column. The pressure drop encountered by the gas depends on
gas and liquid flow rates. Depending on the gas and liquid hold-up there can be shift from
gas-continuous-liquid-dispersed to liquid-continuous-gas-dispersed state
Theory:
Packed towers are used for continuous and concurrent contact of liquid and gas. The towers
are vertical columns filled with packing which provide large interfacial area. The towers can
be operated at a particular liquid flow rate (can be maintained constant) while the gas flow
rate can be progressively increased. After sometimes, it can be seen that a liquid hold up is
built up inside the column packing. Then if the gas flow rate increased further, no liquid
would come out from the bottom of the tower, and the tower would be flooded with liquid. At
flooding, the velocity of the gas with reference to the liquid rate maintain is the flooding
velocity. The gas velocity in an operating packed column must obviously lower than the
flooding velocity. However, as flooding is approached most of the packing surface is wetted,
maximizing the contact area between gas and liquid. The flooding velocity depends strongly
on the type and size of packing, and the liquid mass velocity
Since it is difficult to identify the flooding and loading velocity visually, a conventional
approach is to obtain the same from a long –log plot (P/L) vs G. Flooding is detected by an
abrupt change in the nature of the curve. The curve is initially linear with a particular slope
which is a function of liquid velocity, nature of packing, etc. With onset of flooding curves
become almost vertical S showing the increased pressure drop with a slight increase in gas
velocity. According it is determined is the onset of vertical lines in the log ( P/L Vs log G
plot, while the termination of the linear portion of the curves gives the loading point..
Description:
The apparatus consists of a glass column packed with rasching glass packing and the water
and air flow through the rotameter, fitted in pipeline. Pressure drop can be measured by
manometer. Pump taken the water and passes to the column and discharge is controlled by
using the valve
Experimental Procedure:
1. Switch ON the power supply.
2. Initially the column is operated under dry conditions with only gas flow and through
rotameter measure air flow rate.
3. The water flow rate in packed tower is then started and maintain constant at a particular
value, with the air velocity being slowly increased till flooding occurs.
4. The same is repeated for different water flow rates, and flooding velocity as a function of
fluid rate is estimated.
5. The student should visually observe flooding in the tower.
Observations:
Temperature………………………. Packed bed height=0.75m
Packing Type=Resching glass ring Packing Size=0.055m
1 Data for dry bed (no water flow, only air flow)
Pressure Drop Measurement
Pressure drop across orifice meter Pressure drop across packed bed
Left Right Difference Left Right Difference

Data for packed bed with water flow

Rotameter Pressure drop across orifice Pressure drop across packed bed
left right Difference left right Difference
Calculations
CASE 1: Air flow through dry bed (No water flow)

Table 1: Determination of mass flux of air (dry bed)

Difference in Pressure drop across Superficial gas Gas mass velocity

Pressure (cm H2O) orifice meter velocity (m/S) (G) (Kg/m2s)
Of orifice meter (Pascal)
ends

Plot

On a log-log paper Δ

X-axis = Gas mass velocity (G) (Kg/m2s)

Y-axis=Pressure drop in packed bed per unit packing height ( P/L)(cm of H2o)

Case 2: Air and water flow counter currently through packed bed

Table 2: Determination of mass flux of air

Difference in Pressure drop across Superficial gas Gas mass velocity

Pressure (cm H2O) orifice meter velocity (m/S) (G) (Kg/m2s)
Of orifice meter (Pascal)
ends

Plot On a log-log paper Δ

X-axis = Gas mass velocity (G) (Kg/m2s)

Y-axis=Pressure drop in packed bed per unit packing height ( P/L)(cm of H2o)

CONCLUSION: