Journal Pre-proof

A techno-economic study of the strategy for hydrogen transport by

pipelines in Canada

Winston Cheng , Y. Frank Cheng

PII: S2667-1433(23)00004-5
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpse.2023.100112
Reference: JPSE 100112

To appear in: Journal of Pipeline Science and Engineering

Received date: 14 January 2023

Revised date: 18 January 2023
Accepted date: 18 January 2023

Please cite this article as: Winston Cheng , Y. Frank Cheng , A techno-economic study of the strategy
for hydrogen transport by pipelines in Canada, Journal of Pipeline Science and Engineering (2023),
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpse.2023.100112

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Highlights

 Analyzed the various hydrogen transportation methods

 Suggested the optimal option for hydrogen transport in Canada
 Discussed the technical challenges when repurposing existing pipeline for hydrogen
transport

1
A techno-economic study of the strategy for hydrogen transport by

pipelines in Canada

Winston Cheng1,2, Y. Frank Cheng1,*

1
Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 1N4, Canada
2
Department of Political Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1K2, Canada

ABSTRACT

Hydrogen, as a clean, zero-emission energy fuel, will play a critical role in energy transition and

achievement of the net-zero target in 2050. Hydrogen delivery is integral to the entire value chain

of a full-scale hydrogen economy. This work conducted a systematic review and analysis of

various hydrogen transportation methods, including truck tankers for liquid hydrogen, tube

trailers for gaseous hydrogen, and pipelines, by identifying and ranking the main properties and

affecting factors associated with each method. It is found that pipelines, especially the existing

natural gas pipelines, provide a more efficient and cheaper means to transport hydrogen over long

distances. Analysis was further conducted on Canadian natural gas pipeline network, which has

been operating for safe, effective, and efficient energy transport over six decades. The established

infrastructure, along with the developed operating and management experiences and skillful

manpower, makes the existing pipelines the best option for transport of hydrogen in either

blended or pure form in the country. The technical challenges in repurposing the existing natural

gas pipelines for hydrogen service were discussed, and further work was analyzed.

Keywords: Techno-economic analysis; Hydrogen transport; Pipelines; Canada

*
Corresponding author.
E-mail: fcheng@ucalgary.ca (Frank Cheng)

2
Introduction

It is evident that climate change has become a prevalent issue that affects everything on Earth.

The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2019) reported that the

climate change will cause land degradation (especially in areas that have low-lying coastal

borders, river deltas, drylands, and permafrost), food shortage, global temperature elevation, and

reduced biodiversity. The destructive impact will become worse as the global population

increases and the agricultural, industrial and commercial operations expand, both of which will

result in increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

Energy production and consumption have a major influence on GHG emissions and the

climate change. It is noted (IPCC, 2011) that “most of the observed increase in global average

temperature since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the increase in anthropogenic

greenhouse gas concentrations”. Fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas have dominated

today’s energy supply, contributing to economic and civilization development. However,

combustion of these fuels has caused a rapid growth in CO2 emissions (IPCC, 2011).

Development and usage of clean renewable energies, such as solar, wind and geothermal, for

accelerated energy transition is critical to mitigation of global warming and reduction of the

effects caused by climate change. Moreover, a reduction in GHG emissions can provide

additional benefits, including reduced environmental pollution, improved air quality and

enhanced health of people.

In addition to the various renewable energy sources, hydrogen, as a “green” and zero-

emission energy carrier, has attracted increasing attention in the recent years (Dutta, 2014;

Layzell, 2020; Van De Voorde, 2021). It is believed that hydrogen will play a critical role in

3
energy transition, contributing to achievement of the 2050 net-zero target (Det Norske Veritas,

2022). It is forecasted that hydrogen could provide up to 24% of global energy demand by 2050,

growing to almost 700 million tons per year (Bloomberg NEF, 2020). Hydrogen delivery is

integral to the entire value chain of hydrogen economy. Compared with other transportation

modes such as tube trailers and truck tankers, pipelines provide an economic and efficient means

to transport gaseous hydrogen with increased transportation capacity and a low energy loss

(Bossel et al., 2003; Hawkins, 2006). Aspired by rapidly increasing hydrogen demands, hydrogen

pipelines will progressively be installed (Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association, 2020). A

combination of newly built pipelines with the existing natural gas pipeline network is seen as a

promising means of moving either pure or blended hydrogen from production sites to end users.

Particularly, repurposing existing natural gas pipelines is “a low-cost option for delivering large

volumes of hydrogen”, while saving a high initial capital cost of construction of new hydrogen-

dedicated pipelines and rapidly expanding the hydrogen delivery infrastructure (Naturalhy, 2009;

Melaina et al., 2013; Department of Energy, 2020a).

Canada is ranked amongst the lowest cost producer of hydrogen globally (Asia Pacific

Energy Research Centre, 2018; Layzell et al., 2020). The province of Alberta is one of the largest

global manufacturers of hydrogen, and Canada’s largest producer of hydrogen and hydrogen

carriers such as ammonia and methanol (European Commission, 2020a). In Canada, there is an

extensive pipeline network effectively carrying natural gas across provinces and to the United

States for several decades. Canada is leading the pipeline technology innovation in the world. It

is expected that pipelines will play an essential role in accelerated realization of a full-scale

hydrogen economy according to Canada’s unique conditions.

This work started with an overview of the strategic importance of hydrogen to energy

transition and the development of hydrogen strategy and roadmaps in Canada and Alberta. A

4
techno-economic study was performed to assess various modes of transportation for hydrogen

delivery. Particular attention was paid on pipelines, especially the existing natural gas pipelines,

for hydrogen transport in Canada. The benefits using pipelines for hydrogen service were

analyzed and evaluated according to the unique conditions in Canada. Finally, the opportunities

and challenges of using existing natural gas pipelines to transport hydrogen in blended form were

discussed. It is anticipated that this work will provide constructive insights for development

hydrogen pipeline technology in Canada.

Hydrogen as a green and zero-emission fuel for energy transition

Hydrogen is a very abundant element, existing in 75% of all matters (Baykara, 2018). Hydrogen

is a colorless, odorless and nontoxic gas. The non-polluting nature allows it to be safely released

into the atmosphere (Godula-Jopek, 2015). Hydrogen is highly combustible, producing only

water vapor when combustion occurs. Hydrogen can be effectively stored and transported either

as a gas or as a liquid. Fig. 1 shows the phase diagram of hydrogen (Züettel, 2004), where the

critical point for a pure gas substance means the critical temperature and the corresponding

critical pressure, above which the gas cannot condensate, independent of its size. It is seen that

the hydrogen molecule has critical temperature, pressure and volume of 33.25 K (-239oC), 1.28

MPa and 64.99 cm3/mol, respectively. To store hydrogen gas, its volume must be reduced by

compressing the gas, or lowering the temperature to 33.25 K to liquify the gas (Godula-Jopek et

al., 2012). The density of hydrogen gas at 0oC and 1 atm is 0.0899 g/L. Thus, hydrogen can yield

a higher energy per unit weight than other fuels, e.g., three times more than gasoline. The energy

5
content of hydrogen is 33.3 kW h/kg (Godula-Jopek et al., 2012). However, the energy density

per unit volume of hydrogen is quite low at standard temperature and pressure.

It is noted that hydrogen is an energy carrier, not an energy source. It must be produced by

consuming other energies such as conventional natural gas or renewable solar and wind energies.

Fossil based hydrogen production mainly uses natural gas through the steam-reforming of

methane (SRM) technology to produce hydrogen. It is estimated that 98% of hydrogen is made

from fossil fuels including natural gas and coal with no carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions control

(Ochu et al., 2021). Utilizing biomass by pyrolysis or gasification technique is another method to

produce hydrogen (Baykara, 2018). Hydrogen can also be produced using water through

electrolysis, direct thermal decomposition, or thermolysis, where water is split into hydrogen and

oxygen, without direct GHG emissions.

According to the hydrogen production principle, used power source and resulting CO 2

emissions, there are mainly four types of hydrogen, i.e., green hydrogen, blue hydrogen, grey

hydrogen and brown hydrogen, as shown in Fig. 2 (Di Christopher, 2021; Ajanovic et al., 2022).

Green hydrogen refers to the hydrogen produced by electrolysis of water, which is powered by

zero-carbon electricity such as solar and wind. The technique is too expensive to use at a large

scale by today’s technology. Blue hydrogen is produced typically from natural gas, where the

CO2 emissions are controlled using the so-called carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS)

technology. Thus, the blue hydrogen is a relatively clean fuel. Considering the abundant natural

gas reserve, the blue hydrogen can help scale the hydrogen economy with a wide and effective

implementation of the CCUS. Grey and brown hydrogen are typically produced from natural gas

by steam reforming of methane and the gasification of coal, respectively. Today, the two methods

6
are dominant in hydrogen production due to relatively cheap costs. For example, grey hydrogen

currently costs an average of about $1.50/kg, as compared with roughly $6/kg of green hydrogen

(Collins, 2020). However, substantial amount of CO2 is emitted to the atmosphere during

production of grey and brown hydrogen. It is estimated that there are 13.7 kg of equivalent CO 2

emitted during production of 1 kg hydrogen by the steam reforming (Muradov and Veziroglu,

2005).

Development of hydrogen economy in Canada

With hydrogen being burnt to produce zero emission, it has the potential to become a clean fuel

to replace fossil energies. With scaling up the electrolyzer manufacturing and infrastructure, it is

forecasted that the cost for production of green hydrogen could be at $0.7-$1.6/kg before 2050

(Bloomberg NEF, 2020). Fig. 3 shows some of main applications of hydrogen (Sakthivel, 2021).

Hydrogen can be used as fuel for transportation and power generation. It can also serve as fuel

for industry and household cooking and provide heating for buildings. It is noted that hydrogen

can become a cheap alternative fuel to diesel engines used for hard-carbon-abating long-haul and

heavy-load trucks by 2031 (Bloomberg NEF, 2020). Ships have the possibility of utilizing green

ammonia made from hydrogen to compete financially against fuel oil in 2050. Development of a

full-scale hydrogen economy is one of the important strategies in energy transition (Department

of Energy, 2020b; European Union, 2020b; Agaton et al., 2022).

7
Canada’s hydrogen strategy

Natural Resources Canada analyzed the specific resources, economic factors, and industrial

features in diverse regions in Canada, encouraging development of strategies to produce

hydrogen in many ways (Natural Resources Canada, 2020a). Presently, Canada produces 3

million tons of hydrogen annually through methane reforming of natural gas for fuel-refining and

nitrogen fertilizer production. As of 2019, Canada is estimated to have 1,382 trillion cubic feet of

natural gas resources, primarily located in western provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, and

Saskatchewan. Moreover, the West Canada, especially the province of Alberta, has one of the

most extensive natural gas pipeline networks in the world. It is expected that the current pipeline

system and infrastructure will assist in hydrogen transportation and the hydrogen economy

development (Natural Resources Canada, 2020a).

In addition to natural gas fuel, the wind and solar energy sectors in Canada will allow for

expanded hydrogen production. Current nuclear reactors in Ontario and Quebec provinces can

utilize the output of heat and electrolysis for production of green hydrogen (Muradov and

Veziroglu, 2005). Particularly, with Canada’s vast fossil fuel resources, the utilization of the

CCUS strategy can convert grey hydrogen into blue hydrogen, remarkably reducing the carbon

emission while providing the lowest production costs, meeting large-scale demands of hydrogen.

It is estimated that the CCUS technology can reduce the carbon impact by about 90% (Muradov

and Veziroglu, 2005). To strengthen the implementation of hydrogen production from fossil fuels

while enforcing the CCUS practice, Natural Resources Canada recommends that national policy

and standards must clearly define “clean” hydrogen with regulations and threshold on carbon

emissions (Muradov and Veziroglu, 2005).

8
Alberta’s hydrogen roadmap strategy

Alberta is currently the largest hydrogen producer in Canada, producing 2.4 million tons annually

(Alberta Ministry of Energy, 2021). Alberta can utilize its natural resources such as natural gas,

existing energy infrastructure including natural gas production facilities and transportation

pipelines, and geologic storage to further expand the capacity in development of hydrogen

economy. In Apr. 2021, the first hydrogen hub was established in the Edmonton region, marking

an opportunity to accelerate the hydrogen production and supply and to strengthen the regional

hydrogen economy (International Energy Agency (IEA), 2019). Various industrial clusters are

ready to shift to hydrogen production or are currently producing hydrogen and can expand on

clean hydrogen hubs.

Presently, Alberta has developed three plausible hydrogen production and distribution

models, i.e., centralized, decentralized, and semi-central (Alberta Ministry of Energy, 2021). The

centralized management will store locally produced hydrogen into a central area, which will be

delivered to domestic or international markets. Decentralized management encourages hydrogen

production near high demand areas, allowing for the need for transportation to be reduced and

costs lowered. The semi-central model will combine both management policies. Furthermore,

two scenarios will be developed in Alberta for adopting the hydrogen economy, i.e., incremental

future or transformative future (Alberta Ministry of Energy, 2021). An incremental future will

gradually integrate hydrogen into the economy where the demand is based on policy and

regulation. The transformative future will largely integrate hydrogen into the provincial energy

system with supportive environmental policy dedicated to technological demand.

9
Strategies for hydrogen delivery in Canada

The entire value chain of hydrogen economy includes three sections, i.e., production, handling

(transportation and delivery), and demand (utilization), as seen in Fig. 4 (Daydream and Dynovel,

2021). Carbon-containing fuels, primarily fossil fuels, have been used to produce hydrogen by

various techniques. Today, over 98% of hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels. Carbon-free

energy such as wind, solar, hydro, geothermal and nuclear can also produce hydrogen through

electrolysis of water, producing hydrogen gas without the side product of CO2. Hydrogen

products in either gaseous or liquid phase will then be transported from the production sites and

delivered to various users such as industry, power generation and buildings. The hydrogen

products can also be stored for future use.

Today, there are more than 5,000 km of pipelines dedicated to transport hydrogen in the world,

with a majority existing in the United States and Europe. They are mostly used for industrial

sectors such as petrochemical processing plants (IEA, 2021). To meet increasing demands of

hydrogen, a further expansion of the pipeline infrastructure is required. In US, repurposing the

existing natural gas pipelines is proposed to provide an economic option to transport a large

amount of hydrogen, accelerating the development of a full-scale hydrogen economy

(Department of Energy, 2020c). Trucking over long distances is also a possibility, where liquified

hydrogen is a more economical choice compared to the gaseous hydrogen. However,

infrastructure such as liquefaction plants will be needed. As gaseous compression is cheaper than

liquefaction, trucking gaseous hydrogen over a short distance is a proper choice. In Europe, a

10
program called European Hydrogen Backbone was developed in 2020 (European Commission,

2009; 2021). According to the program, a hydrogen pipeline network of nearly 40,000 km will be

developed by 2040 to connect 21 European countries, giving the Hydrogen Initiative the

substance necessary for sustained growth. There are 69% of the hydrogen network consisting of

repurposed existing natural gas grids, and the remaining 31% will be new pipelines needed to be

built in countries with small gas grids, but with a high expected hydrogen demand in the future.

Alberta’s plans for hydrogen transportation

As the most important hydrogen production site in Canada, Alberta has currently 100 km of

pipelines that are capable of transporting pure hydrogen, which is shipped to industrial and

private users only (Alberta Ministry of Energy, 2021). It is planned to blend hydrogen into the

current natural gas system to begin the integration of hydrogen in Alberta’s transmission and

distribution systems. It is expected that this practice will accelerate the implementation of

hydrogen economy strategy by utilization of the provincial existing pipeline infrastructure and

available expertise, operating experiences, and manpower (Alberta Ministry of Energy, 2021).

For example, in a first-of-its-kind project for Alberta, ATCO Gas began delivering a blend of

natural gas containing 5% hydrogen by volume into a subsection of the Fort Saskatchewan

natural gas distribution system in October 2022, serving 2,100 customers to used hydrogen

blended natural gas to safely and reliably fuel their homes and businesses (ATCO, 2022). In late

2021, the Calgary-based Enbridge Gas began using some of the green hydrogen produced at the

facility in a hydrogen blending project, which involved blending 2% of the gas stream that serves

about 3,600 Enbridge Gas customers in Markham, Ontario, Canada (Enbridge, 2022).

Presently, considerable attentions are being paid to the suitability of existing natural gas

pipelines for conversion into hydrogen service. This includes the compatibility of pipe materials

11
in high-pressure gaseous environments when transporting hydrogen, hydrogen compression and

blending processing, leak control and inspection, and risk and maintenance management to the

end users. In addition to hydrogen which is transported in either pure or blended form, ammonia

and methanol are also considered as safe hydrogen carriers, which are transported by proper

mechanisms such as pipelines in Alberta (Noble, 2022). Research work should be conducted to

define the efficiency, safety and economics of various modes of transport for hydrogen.

It is noted that, no matter what the hydrogen production and distribution models will be

ultimately used in Alberta, the existing extensive pipeline systems in the province will be integral

to the value chain of hydrogen economy. Thus, pipelines, primarily the existing natural gas

pipelines, will play a critical role for effectively and efficiently delivering hydrogen to the

markets and users.

Canada’s current and future plans for hydrogen transportation

Presently, gaseous hydrogen is transported mainly through tube trailer trucks with average

pressures of 180-200 bar in Canada (Natural Resources Canada, 2020a). However, the hydrogen

transport by trucks is limited by weight regulations, which increase the delivery cost typically for

high demands over a long distance of transportation. In the absence of pipelines, the current long-

distance distribution of hydrogen requires liquification of hydrogen for economic benefits

(Natural Resources Canada, 2020a).

In Canada, there is an extensive network of pipelines delivering natural gas from

production sites, which are usually located in remote areas, to markets and end users across

provinces and the border between Canada and the United States. The vast pipeline systems can

store and transport blended hydrogen. When pure hydrogen is demanded primarily for

12
transportation and power-generation sectors, hydrogen pipelines will be planned to construct

although there is a high initial capital cost for the construction.

Key indicators to comparatively rank the methods for hydrogen

transport

Hydrogen transportation includes two processes, i.e., transmission and distribution. Hydrogen

transmission means the transportation of hydrogen from production plants to a single location

usually over a long distance, and the distribution refers to the delivery of hydrogen from a

production plant to a network of refueling stations or storage systems within a city or place (Yang

and Ogden, 2007). There are different methods to transport hydrogen in either liquid or gaseous

phase, as shown in Fig. 5. There are multiple factors affecting election of a proper hydrogen-

transporting method. These include the location’s geographical context, market demand, carrying

capacity, GHG emissions released, initial development costs and operational costs, safety, and

transporting range. All of them should be considered to rank the different methods for hydrogen

transport. Particularly, the carrying capacity of hydrogen should balance the cost of transportation.

To promote and utilize green hydrogen, the GHG emissions of the transportation method is also

considered. In general, minimal emissions of GHG may be associated with a higher operational

cost. However, it is usually beneficial to control the impact to environments (Razi and Dincer,

2022). In addition, the transporting distance is also an important factor to consider when

determining the transportation method.

13
Transporting liquid hydrogen by trucks

Liquid hydrogen can be transported without severe risks. The volumetric density of hydrogen can

be significantly increased through liquefaction, allowing trucks to carry 10 times more of liquid

hydrogen than gaseous hydrogen. A heavy load truck is capable of carrying around 4,000 kg of

liquid hydrogen (Razi and Dincer, 2022). As a result, the number of transporting trips to sustain

hydrogen refueling stations or facilities for high hydrogen demands will be apparently deceased.

However, the energy and capital costs required to maintain liquefaction operation and transport

of the 4,000 kg of hydrogen are significantly higher than compression operation by around

$800,000, of which the main cost for liquefaction and storing the hydrogen in the truck is about

$650,000 (Razi and Dincer, 2022). It is noted that liquid trucks must operate within -252.8°C.

Construction of large liquefiers can help reduce the cost per unit of hydrogen. Transportation of

liquid hydrogen by trucks can realize economic benefits over long distances of transportation. It

was found in a study conducted by the European Commission (2021) that transporting liquefied

hydrogen was cost competitive when the delivering distances were increased. For example, to

deliver hydrogen to 270 refueling stations after transporting a distance of 2,500 km, liquefied

hydrogen was the cheapest option compared to gaseous hydrogen and transport via. pipelines.

There are regulations to manage the weight and carrying capacity of transporting liquid hydrogen

via trucking due to public safety concerns (Veziroglu et al., 2005). Moreover, depending on the

energy used for liquefaction, CO2 gas may emit due to a high electricity consumption. Generally,

a 15 to 17.5 kWh/kg of power is required for liquefaction (Nexant, 2008). Liquid hydrogen

transportation can cause hydrogen lost during transfer processes where a temperature elevation

may occur.

14
Transporting gaseous hydrogen by trucks

When hydrogen is transported in the gaseous form using tracks, it must be compressed and stored

in cylindrical vessels (i.e., tubes) to a pressure of about 200 bar (Veziroglu et al., 2005).

Generally, the trucks can carry 12-20 cylinders, each of which is 6-12 meters in length. The truck

transportation of gaseous hydrogen is also subject to federal regulations for weight limit and road

safety matters (Yang and Ogden, 2007; Nexant, 2008). In US, the gaseous pressure of hydrogen

in each cylinder is set at about 165 bar (Yang and Ogden, 2007), and the amount of hydrogen

carried is correlated to the approved pressure settings. When the cylindrical pressure is 165 bar,

trucks can carry around 300 kg of gaseous hydrogen only (Yang and Ogden, 2007). Thus,

gaseous hydrogen transported by trucks is economically viable and efficient only at short

distances and with a small demand of the hydrogen volumes. A gas delivery truck will cost

around $300,000 when transporting 300 kg of hydrogen (Yang and Ogden, 2007). While

pressurizing hydrogen gas from 21 bar to 69 bar can cause consumption of about 0.66 kWh/kg

power, the major amount of energy and fuel will be consumed during the truck delivery process.

The delivery cost is influenced heavily by the distance, which affects the gaseous hydrogen

transportation more greatly than liquid hydrogen (Razi and Dincer, 2009).

Transporting hydrogen by pipelines

The main capital costs of hydrogen delivery by pipelines include the initial construction and

investments, operating costs such as compression facilities, storage, and maintenance of the

pipelines (Amos, 1999; Yang and Ogden, 2007; European Commission, 2021). The costs for

hydrogen pipeline maintenance are similar to the costs for maintaining a natural gas pipeline

(Nexant, 2008). When repurposing the existing natural gas pipelines to transport hydrogen in

either pure or blended form, the initial costs of constructing new pipelines are avoided. Thus, it is

15
economically competent to convert the existing pipelines for hydrogen delivery (Nexant, 2008;

European Commission, 2021; Khan et al., 2021; Parfomak, 2021).

In 2020, the US Department of Energy suggested that the natural gas pipeline network be

converted to a hydrogen-focused network (Parfomak, 2021). The compressors used for natural

gas pipelines can be utilized for hydrogen delivery without any major upgrades or overhauls

(Veziroglu et al., 2005). If more compressor stations are added, the pipeline transporting capacity

can be increased significantly. The increased expenditure or investment in compressors can be

offset by the benefit of increased transport capacity (Khan et al., 2021). It was thought that

transporting hydrogen with a purity up to 20% (volume/volume) blended with natural gas can use

the existing non-retrofitted pipelines without the need for upgrading (British Columbia Bioenergy

Network, 2019; Parfomak, 2021). However, the compatibility of pipeline steels with the high-

pressure hydrogen gas environment should be further investigated to determine the susceptibility

of the steels to hydrogen embrittlement (HE), a general term describing the degradation of the

steels due to hydrogen-steel interactions (Ohaeri et al., 2018; 2020; Sun and Cheng, 2021). The

HE can result in cracking, blistering or a loss of fracture toughness of the steels (Ohaeri and

Szpunar, 2022; Sun and Cheng, 2022). In addition, the existing pipelines, after a long term of

service in the field, usually contain various defects such as dents, corrosion and scratches, which

can serve as effective traps to accumulate hydrogen atoms, resulting in local embrittlement and

crack initiation (Brongers, 2022; Zhao and Cheng, 2022).

As compared with the utilization of existing pipelines, construction of new, large-scale

pipelines dedicated solely to hydrogen transportation will cost around 1.5 to 1.8 times that of a

regular natural gas project, depending on the diameter and length of the pipelines (Veziroglu et

al., 2005; Nexant, 2008). For example, constructing a 12 in. hydrogen pipeline could cost

$500,000 per mile in the rural areas of Texas and $2,000,000 per mile in an urban area of

16
California (Nexant, 2008). In average, the new pipeline construction can cost about $300,000/km

in rural areas and $600,000/km in urban areas (Yang and Ogden, 2007).

Transportation of hydrogen or other fuels by pipelines usually shows the economic and

capability advantages by moving a large volume of hydrogen (fuels) over a long distance. It was

estimated that a conversion of existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transport could save the

costs by 20% to 60% that of constructing new pipelines in Germany (Parfomak, 2021). It is

assumed that a 10 in. or 12 in. pipeline can carry 100,000 kg of hydrogen per hour with a

pressure of 41.38 bars (Balat, 2008; Nexant, 2008). It is noted that the cost of hydrogen

compressors along the pipelines should be considered as these compressors must be installed at a

certain distance interval to maintain the pressure inside the pipeline to carry hydrogen. Compared

with delivery of gaseous and liquid hydrogen by trucks, pipelines emit the lowest amount of

GHG at 0.7–1.0 kWh/kg (Nexant, 2008). Table 1 summarized the main properties and costs for

each of the hydrogen transportation methods.

Ranking of various methods for hydrogen transport

With multiple factors affecting the transport of hydrogen, a rubric is proposed to rank the

importance and significance of specific properties affecting the transportation methods, as shown

in Table 2. Five properties which are believed the most critical to affect the hydrogen transport

are listed and ranked in terms of their importance. These include volumetric capacity, initial

development costs, transport range (distance), GHG emissions released, and continued

operational costs, which are given 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 marks, respectively, based on their importance.

For each property, three ranking classes are given as fair, good and very good, which are marked

as 1, 2 and 3 marks, respectively. A total mark is calculated for each method by multiple the

property mark with the ranking mark. It is seen that, no matter of new constructions or using the

17
existing infrastructure, pipelines, especially the existing pipelines, are the most optimal method

of transporting hydrogen. It is noted that this option will not apply for countries that hydrogen is

to be transported solely by new pipelines, where the construction costs will be skyrocket high.

Instead, repurposing the existing natural gas pipelines will save many expenses. A mixed

composition of new and existing pipelines will enable transportation of pure and blended

hydrogen, respectively, by a reasonable ratio, meeting the specific demands for various needs.

Transporting liquid and gas hydrogen by trucking has the same ranking mark. They may be

used to meet specific purposes. Consider the high initial cost of liquefaction facilities, liquid

hydrogen transport by trucks can be an option in areas with a high hydrogen demand so that the

costs can be offset by the amount of transported hydrogen. However, in comparison to pipelines,

trucking and the liquefaction process use a considerable amount of energy that may emit GHG. In

terms of the volumetric capacity and transporting distance, pipelines become outstanding over the

trucking. Thus, it is highly recommended to use the existing natural gas pipeline network for

hydrogen service.

Uniqueness in Canada for hydrogen transport by pipelines

There are 840,000 km of transmission, gathering and distribution oil/gas pipelines in Canada,

including 117,000 km of large-diameter transmission lines (Natural Resources Canada, 2020b).

Highly integrated with the pipeline network in US, the North America represents the most

extensive and mature pipeline systems for energy transportation in the world (Canada Energy

Regulator, 2022). Almost all provinces within Canada have strong and significant infrastructure

to properly maintain pipelines. Pipelines that cross between provinces are usually federally

18
regulated by Canada Energy Regulator (CER) (formerly National Energy Board, NEB), and the

pipelines residing solely within a single province are regulated by the provincial authority such as

Alberta Energy Regulator (AER) in Alberta. In 2020, 4.5 trillion cubic feet of natural gas and 1.3

billion barrels of crude oil were delivered through pipelines, contributing to nearly 11% of

Canada’s GDP (Canadian Energy Pipeline Association, 2021; Canada Energy Regulator, 2022).

The Canadian pipeline industry has possessed sufficient expertise and developed advanced

technologies for pipeline design, construction, operation, maintenance, inspection, integrity

management, and decommissioning.

Fig. 6 shows the CER-regulated natural gas pipelines and their operators in Canada

(Canada Energy Regulator, 2022). There is a total of 48,330 km of natural gas transmission

pipelines, which have been operating for effective and efficient transportation of natural gas to

meet industry and civilian needs over six decades. The extensive and well-established natural gas

pipeline network in Canada serves as valuable assets for transporting hydrogen in either pure or

blended form by a proper conversion of the system. Existing pipelines are associated with mature

operating stations and skillful manpower, along with established safety and maintenance

procedures, all of which help enable repurposing the existing pipelines for hydrogen service

(European Commission, 2009; Mahajan et al., 2022).

Hydrogen blending in the existing pipelines can save initial capital costs and reduce

delivery and maintenance costs, as compared with newly dedicated hydrogen pipelines (Melaina

et al., 2013; British Columbia Bioenergy Network, 2019). For conversion, proper adjustments

and modifications based on sufficient investigations, testing and technical assessment are

required. It is suggested that the pipelines be converted to add blended hydrogen, with a gradually

19
increasing blending ratio. Based on increasing experiences, the goal is to use the natural gas

pipelines to become fully dedicated infrastructure for hydrogen transport (Mahajan et al., 2022).

A small percentage of hydrogen blended with natural gas can be used to generate heat and

electricity, while reducing the GHG emissions. When the blended fuel is used in automotive

sector, the SOx, NOx, and particulate emissions can be reduced remarkably. The total GHG

emissions can be further reduced if the hydrogen is produced by low-carbon or renewable

energies such as biomass, solar, wind, nuclear, or CCUS-natural gas hydrogen production

technology (Mahajan et al., 2022). Today, it is recommended that a blending ratio of hydrogen to

natural gas be maintained between 5-15% to ensure safety and system stability of the pipelines,

as well as reduced risk to the public (Giving Data Meaning, 2021; Chae et al., 2022). The

blending ratio can be varied by considering the pipeline performance conditions and the realistic

hydrogen demands.

It is required that natural gas operators with operating pressures between 5 to 14 MPa

controlled by compressor stations installed across the pipeline right-of-way (ROW) maintain

constant pressures (Canada Energy Regulator, 2022). Pressure fluctuations, fluid flow,

temperature, and maintenance can affect the transportation capacity of the pipelines. For transport

of blended natural gas with hydrogen, it was found that the entire pipeline network in Canada

could safely transport 5%-blended hydrogen and up to 20% in regional systems without any

critical failure or degradation to infrastructure (Giving Data Meaning, 2021). Blended 5%

hydrogen in natural gas is capable of reducing GHG emissions by 4-5%, i.e., 16 billion cubic feet

per day. Generally, lower strength pipeline steels are required to transport higher concentrations

of hydrogen to prevent the steel embrittlement (Giving Data Meaning, 2021). It is noted that the

steel strength is not the only factor when assessing the susceptibility of pipelines to HE (Sun and

Cheng, 2022). In addition to the mechanical properties and metallurgical microstructure of the

20
steels, the stressing condition and local hydrogen concentration are also important to cause HE

occurrence. With increased blending ratio of hydrogen in the fluid, it is expected that there is an

increased opportunity for more hydrogen atoms to generate and enter the steels. Thus, hydrogen

blending above 20% will require significant infrastructure overhauls and retrofitting, as well as

technical assessment, to ensure safety and efficient transport (Giving Data Meaning, 2021).

Challenges in repurposing existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen

transport

The challenges of repurposing the existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transport includes

four aspects, as shown in Fig. 7. First, the pipe material compatibility with the high-pressure

hydrogen gas environment. As stated above, pipelines made of carbon steels are susceptible to

HE (Ohaeri et al., 2018). Moreover, the HE susceptibility increases with increased steel strength

(Sun and Cheng, 2022). It is noted that the word “hydrogen” in HE refers to hydrogen atoms,

rather than hydrogen molecules (Cheng, 2013; Wasim and Djukic, 2020). In hydrogen pipelines,

the carried gases include gaseous hydrogen molecules. For HE occurrence, the hydrogen

molecules must dissociate into hydrogen atoms, which occurs through a so-called dissociative

desorption mechanism (Sun and Cheng, 2022), and the hydrogen atoms adsorbed on the steel

surface partially absorb into the steels. The absorbed hydrogen atoms tend to become trapped at

the “hydrogen traps” such as grain boundaries, non-metallic inclusions, secondary particles,

phase interfaces and dislocations, as compared with the crystalline lattice voids, due to lower

hydrogen-absorption energies (Turnbull, 2012; Koyama et al., 2017). When the accumulated

hydrogen atoms exceed a threshold concentration under given stressing conditions, cracks initiate

locally. It is thus seen that the pipeline steels must possess a sufficient ability to resist HE. For

21
existing natural gas pipelines to transport hydrogen, additional challenges exist to adversely

affect the HE susceptibility of the aged pipelines in high-pressure gaseous environments. After a

long time of service, the existing pipelines become aged, inevitably containing various defects

such as corrosion, dents and scratches on the pipe surface (Zhao et al., 2022). These defects may

not affect the pipeline operation if they can pass the defect assessment for determination of the

pipeline fitness-for-service (American Society for Mechanical Engineering, 2018; Zhu, 2021).

However, the defects can serve as effective hydrogen traps to accumulate hydrogen atoms. When

the local hydrogen concentration is sufficiently high to exceed a threshold value, cracks initiate

under a given stress condition. Thus, aged pipelines must experience a technical assessment to

determine the possibility of hydrogen atom accumulation and the trapped quantity at the surface

defects, where the effect of the stress resulted from internal pressure and/or ground movement

should be considered (Andrews et al., 2022; Cheng, 2022; Golisch et al., 2022). To date, a

technical assessment program has not been available for the suitability of the existing natural gas

pipelines for hydrogen transport in terms of the HE susceptibility of the steels under pipeline

operating conditions. In addition to HE, the pipelines transporting high-pressure hydrogen gas

can also suffer from corrosion and stress corrosion cracking which usually occurs externally on

the pipelines. As a comparison, natural gas pipelines rarely experience failure solely caused by

HE unless sufficient amount of hydrogen atoms are produced from sources such as cathodic over-

protection. The external corrosion of the pipelines normally does not generate substantial

hydrogen atoms. Instead, the hydrogen atoms, once entering pipeline steels, would affect the

stress corrosion cracking process.

22
 Second, the processing of hydrogen/natural gas blending and pipeline operation. Blending

hydrogen with different gases usually causes new properties that may affect the function of

natural gas pipelines. For example, methane blended with hydrogen has a density that is lower

than pure methane, which can cause reduced mass flow and energy transport rate in the pipelines

(Mahajan et al., 2022). Additional compressors will be required to maintain the necessary

pressure and improve the gas transport, and thus more energy is consumed. In addition, when

hydrogen is blended, even with a small percentage amount, a high chance of overpressure,

explosion and leaking can be introduced (European Commission, 2009; Chae et al., 2022). An

increased risk of explosion will compromise the pipeline integrity and public safety.

Third, hydrogen leaking and pipeline integrity management. The small size of hydrogen

molecules makes them more mobile than methane in many polymer materials, including the

plastic pipes and elastomeric seals used in natural gas distribution systems (Melaina et al., 2013).

The permeation coefficient of hydrogen is higher through most elastomeric sealing materials,

which are much smaller in total area compared with the pipe body, than through plastic pipe

materials. Permeation rates for hydrogen are about 4 to 5 times greater than for methane in

typical polymer pipes. Moreover, hydrogen leakage in pipeline steel systems mainly occurs

through threads or mechanical joints. The volume leakage rate for hydrogen is about a factor of

three higher than that for natural gas (Melaina et al., 2013). Development of highly sensitive

inspection techniques for hydrogen leakage is required for effective integrity management. In

addition, hydrogen blends can influence the accuracy of existing gas meters, although

experiences showed that meters would not need to be tuned under low hydrogen blend levels

(less than 50%) in natural gas (Melaina et al., 2012).

Finally, safety and impact on end users. Since hydrogen is much more prone to ignite than

natural gas, a main concern is the increased probability of ignition and resulting damage to end

23
users. Assessment should be performed to rank the risks for hydrogen ignition under various

conditions and the probability that these conditions are met during hydrogen transportation and

application. In addition to safety, the end users also have the problem that modifications may be

needed for applications, such as appliances (household boilers or stoves) and industrial or power

generation, depending on the blending ratio. There has been so far no clear standard on a specific

blending ratio under which the modification is not required by the end users. It was suggested

that the blending ranges that are acceptable to end-use systems are within 5%–20% hydrogen

blended (Florisson, 2010). The natural gas composition in terms of other gas components such as

CO, CO2 and SO2 in each pipeline is also an important consideration (Zachariah-Wolff et al.,

2007).

Conclusions

To combat climate change and immensely reduce GHG emissions, consumption and usage of

energy must be changed, where hydrogen will play a critical role in the energy transition process.

To fully utilize hydrogen, nations will have to scale up hydrogen infrastructure and expand its

accessibility. Pipelines, especially the existing natural gas pipelines, are a vital method in

transporting hydrogen efficiently and economically while being capable of matching high

demands. Compared with trucking either liquid or gaseous hydrogen, pipelines are capable of

transporting a large volume of hydrogen over long distances without being limited by speed or

capacity and are not subject to public road or transportation regulations. The economic benefit is

further amplified as the transportation range increases and the existing natural gas pipeline

systems are used for the purpose. Moreover, pipelines emit less GHG than trucking.

In Canada, there is an extensive natural gas pipeline network, which has been operating for

effective energy transportation over six decades. The existing infrastructure, along with

24
established pipeline operating and management experiences and skillful manpower, makes it the

best option to use the existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transport. Transportation of

blended hydrogen in the natural gas pipeline system is the first step, which will serve as a firm

foundation towards transporting pure hydrogen. There exist four types of technical challenges in

repurposing the existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transport. These include pipe

materials compatibility with the high-pressure hydrogen gas environments, hydrogen/natural gas

blending processing and pipeline operation, leakage and integrity management, and safety and

impact to end users. Further research and technical activities should be conducted to address the

issues for optimal solutions.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal

relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by Natural Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of

Canada through its Undergraduate Student Research Award (USRA) program.

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Fig. 3. Applications of hydrogen in various sectors (Sakthivel, 2021).

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Fig. 7. Technical challenges in repurposing existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transport.

36
Table 1

Properties and costs for each of the hydrogen transportation methods.

Transportation Truck (Liquid Truck (Gaseous Pipelines

method hydrogen) hydrogen)

Volumetric capacity 4,000 kg per truck 300 kg per truck 100,000 kg/h

Transport range Short to medium Short range Short to long range

range

GHG emissions 15 to 17.5 kWh/kg for 0.66 kWh/kg for 0.7–1.0 kWh/kg for

during transportation liquefaction + compression + compression

trucking trucking

Initial development $800,000 ($650,000 $300,000 $300,000/km to

costs from liquefaction and $600,000/km

storage in the truck) (construct new

pipelines)

Operation costs Workers’ labor Workers’ labor Compression and

depending on depending on operation costs

countries countries

37
Table 2

Ranking rubric for the importance and significance of each property that affects the methods for

hydrogen transport.

Ranking Properties Trucks (liquid) Truck (gas) Pipelines

#1 Volumetric capacity 2 1 3

#2 Initial development 2 3 1 (for new construction) and 2

costs (for existing infrastructure)

#3 Transport range 2 1 3

#4 GHG emissions 1 3 3

during transportation

#5 Continued / / /

operational costs

Total marks 26 26 34 (for new construction) and

38 (for existing infrastructure)

38