Understanding Psychology 11th Edition Feldman Solutions Manual 1

Chapter 5 States of Consciousness
Understanding Psychology 11th

Edition Feldman Solutions
Manual
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Chapter 5
States of Consciousness
LECTURE OPENER SUGGESTIONS:
OPENING QUOTES:
“To sleep, perchance to dream.” Shakespeare (Hamlet)
“The greatest discovery of my generation is that human beings can alter their lives by altering their
attitudes of mind.” William James (1842–1910)
OPENING ARTWORKS:
Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 11e IM-5 | 1
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Marc Chagall (1887–1985), The Flying Carriage, 1913
Jean Marie Charcot (1825–1893), Lecture at the Salpetriere
OPENING THEMES
In this unit, you will be covering topics of natural interest to students. You will have the opportunity to
integrate the physiological material covered up to this point with areas of application that are closely
related to their daily lives. Sleep, dreaming, and hypnosis are topics that provide fascinating insights into
understanding human consciousness. Drug use is the other significant topic in this unit relevant to their
daily lives. You have the opportunity to present facts on topics relevant to their experiences in college
such as drug use and abuse and binge drinking.
OUTLINE
PROLOGUE: THE POWER OF MEDITATION
THE STAGES OF SLEEP
MODULE 14: SLEEP AND DREAMS
REM SLEEP: THE PARADOX OF SLEEP
WHY DO WE SLEEP, AND HOW MUCH SLEEP IS NECESSARY?
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: WHY ARE YOU CRANKY? YOUR BRAIN IS TOO AWAKE
THE FUNCTION AND MEANING OF DREAMING
PSYCHOANALYTIC EXPLANATIONS OF DREAMS: DO DREAMS REPRESENT UNCONCIOUS

WISH FULFILLMENT?
EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS OF DREAMS: DREAMS -FOR-SURVIVAL THEORY
NEUROSCIENCE EXPLANATIONS OF DREAMS: ACTIVATION SYNTHESIS THEORY
SLEEP DISTURBANCES: SLUMBERING PROBLEMS
PSYCHWORK: SLEEP TECHNOLOGIST
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY : DREAMS OF FAILURE
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: LIFE CYCLES
DAYDREAMS: DREAMS WITHOUT SLEEP
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: SLEEPING BETTER
Although sleeping is a state that we all experience, there are still many unanswered questions about
sleep that remain, along with a considerable number of myths. Most of us consider sleep a time of
tranquility when we set aside the tensions of the day and spend the night in uneventful slumber.
However, a closer look at sleep shows that a good deal of activity occurs throughout the night.
Measures of electrical activity in the brain show that the brain is quite active during the night. It
produces electrical discharges with systematic, wavelike patterns that change in height (or amplitude)
and speed (or frequency) in regular sequences. There is also significant physical activity in muscle and
eye movements.
THE STAGES OF SLEEP
People progress through a series of distinct stages of sleep during a night’s rest—known as stage 1
through stage 4 and REM sleep—moving through the stages in cycles lasting about 90 minutes. Each of
these sleep stages is associated with a unique pattern of brain waves. When people first go to sleep,
they move from a waking state in which they are relaxed with their eyes closed into stage 1 sleep, which
is characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves. As sleep becomes deeper, people enter
stage 2 sleep, which makes up about half of the total sleep of those in their early 20s and is
characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern. As people drift into stage 3 sleep, the brain waves
become slower, with higher peaks and lower valleys in the wave pattern. By the time sleepers arrive at
stage 4 sleep, the pattern is even slower and more regular, and people are least responsive to outside
stimulation.
REM SLEEP: THE PARADOX OF SLEEP
Several times a night, when sleepers have cycled back to a shallower state of sleep, their heart rate
increases and becomes irregular, their blood pressure rises, and their breathing rate increases. Most
characteristic of this period is the back-and-forth movement of their eyes, as if they were watching an
action-filled movie. This period of sleep is called rapid eye movement, or REM sleep, and it contrasts
with stages 1 through 4, which are collectively labeled non-REM (or NREM ) sleep. Paradoxically, while
all this activity is occurring, the major muscles of the body appear to be paralyzed. In addition, and most
important, REM sleep is usually accompanied by dreams, which—whether or not people remember
them—are experienced by everyone during some part of their night’s sleep.
WHY DO WE SLEEP, AND HOW MUCH SLEEP IS NECESSARY?
There are three explanations to why we sleep. One explanation, based on an evolutionary perspective,
suggests that sleep permitted our ancestors to conserve energy at night, a time when food was
relatively hard to come by. Consequently, they were better able to forage for food when the sun is up. A
second explanation for why we sleep is that sleep restores and replenishes our brains and bodies. For
instance, the reduced activity of the brain during non-REM sleep may give neurons in the brain a chance
to repair themselves. Finally, sleep may be essential, because it assists physical growth and brain
development in children. For example, the release of growth hormones is associated with deep sleep
(Peterfi et al., 2010).
THE FUNCTION AND MEANING OF DREAMING
Although dreams tend to be subjective to the person having them, common elements frequently occur
in everyone’s dreams. They typically encompass everyday events such as going to the supermarket,
working at the office, and preparing a meal. Students dream about going to class; professors dream
about lecturing. Dental patients dream of getting their teeth drilled; dentists dream of drilling the wrong
tooth.
Psychoanalytic Explanations of Dreams: Do Dreams Represent Unconscious Wish Fulfillment?
Using psychoanalytic theory, Sigmund Freud viewed dreams as a guide to the unconscious (Freud, 1900).
In his unconscious wish fulfillment theory, he proposed that dreams represent unconscious wishes that
dreamers desire to see fulfilled. However, because these wishes are threatening to the dreamer’s
conscious awareness, the actual wishes—called the latent content of dreams—are disguised. The true
subject and meaning of a dream, then, may have little to do with its apparent story line, which Freud
called the manifest content of dreams. Many psychologists reject Freud’s view that dreams typically
represent unconscious wishes and that particular objects and events in a dream are symbolic. Rather,
they believe that the direct, overt action of a dream is the focal point of its meaning.
Evolutionary Explanations of Dreams: Dreams-For-Survival Theory
According to the dreams-for-survival theory, which is based in the evolutionary perspective, dreams
permit us to reconsider and reprocess during sleep information that is critical for our daily survival. In
the dreams-for-survival theory, dreams represent concerns about our daily lives, illustrating our
uncertainties, indecisions, ideas, and desires. Dreams are seen, then, as consistent with everyday living.
Rather than being disguised wishes, as Freud suggested, they represent key concerns growing out of our
daily experiences (Winson, 1990; Ross, 2006; Horton, 2011).
Neuroscience Explanations of Dreams: Activation Synthesis Theory
The activation-synthesis theory focuses on the random electrical energy that the brain produces during
REM sleep, possibly as a result of changes in the production of particular neurotransmitters. This
electrical energy randomly stimulates memories stored in the brain. Activation-synthesis theory has
been refined by the activation in formation modulation (AIM) theory. According to AIM, dreams are
initiated in the brain’s pons, which sends random signals to the cortex. Areas of the cortex that are
involved in particular waking behaviors are related to the content of dreams.
SLEEP DISTURBANCES: SLUMBERING PROBLEMS
Insomnia is a condition in which people experience difficulty in sleeping. Insomnia is a problem that
afflicts as many as one-third of all people. Women and older adults are more likely to suffer from
insomnia, as well as people who are unusually thin or are depressed. Sleep apnea is a condition in which
a person has difficulty breathing while sleeping. The result is disturbed, fitful sleep, and a significant loss
of REM sleep, as the person is constantly reawakened when the lack of oxygen becomes great enough to
trigger a waking response. Night terrors are sudden awakenings from non-REM sleep that are
accompanied by extreme fear, panic, and strong physiological arousal. Usually occurring in stage 4 sleep,
night terrors may be so frightening that a sleeper awakens with a shriek. Narcolepsy is uncontrollable
sleeping that occurs for short periods while a person is awake. No matter what the activity—holding a
heated conversation, exercising, or driving—a narcoleptic will suddenly fall asleep. People with
narcolepsy go directly from wakefulness to REM sleep, skipping the other stages.
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: LIFE CYCLES
Circadian rhythms (from the Latin circa diem, or “about a day”) are biological processes that occur
regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle. Sleeping and waking, for instance, occur naturally to the
beat of an internal pacemaker that works on a cycle of about 24 hours. The brain’s suprachiasmatic
nucleus (SCN) controls circadian rhythms. However, the relative amount of light and darkness, which
varies with the seasons of the year, also plays a role in regulating circadian rhythms. In fact, some
people experience seasonal affective disorder, a form of severe depression in which feelings of despair
and hopelessness increase during the winter and lift during the rest of the year.
DAYDREAMS: DREAMS WITHOUT SLEEP
Daydreams are fantasies that people construct while awake. Unlike dreaming that occurs during sleep,
daydreams are more under people’s control. Therefore, their content is often more closely related to
immediate events in the environment than is the content of the dreams that occur during sleep. Some
scientists see a link between daydreaming and dreams during sleep. The content of daydreams and
dreams show many parallels, and the brain areas and processes involved in daydreaming and dreams
during sleep are related (Domhoff, 2011).
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: SLEEPING BETTER
• Exercise during the day (at least six hours before bedtime) and avoid naps.
• Choose a regular bedtime and stick to it.
• Avoid drinks with caffeine after lunch.
• Drink a glass of warm milk at bedtime.
• Avoid sleeping pills.
• Try not to sleep.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
14–1 What are the different states of consciousness?
14–2 What happens when we sleep, and what are the meaning and function of dreams?
14–3 What are the major sleep disorders, and how can they be treated?
14–4 How much do we daydream?
STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS:
CONTENT OF DREAMS
Have students complete Handout 5–1, which asks them to indicate the nature of their dreams. You can
tally up the results and summarize them to the class on a later occasion.
THEORIES OF DREAMING
Have students complete Handout 5–2, which asks them to compare the theories of dreaming.
SLEEP DEBT QUESTIONNAIRE
Have students complete Handout 5–3, which contains the Sleep Debt questionnaire.
SLEEP IQ QUIZ
Have students complete Handout 5–4, which contains the Sleep IQ quiz.
THEORIES OF DREAMS
Ask students these questions:
Why do you think that most people forget their dreams?
Which theory of dreaming do you find most convincing? Why?
PSYCHINTERACTIVE: CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/sites/0073382736/student_view0/consciousness/circadian_rhythms.html
This is an online version of the Morningness-Eveningness circadian rhythms, in which physiological and
psychological changes occur over the 24-hour day. Students can complete their questionnaire and have
the questionnaires scored.
PSYCHINTERACTIVE: STAGES OF SLEEP
http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/sites/0073382736/student_view0/consciousness/the_stages_of_sleep.html
Illustrates the stages of sleep, with animations and graphics.
LECTURE IDEAS:
FREUDIAN SYMBOLS IN DREAMS
Show students the following list of Freudian symbols. Do they agree that these symbols have hidden,
unconscious meanings?
Male Symbols: Female Symbols: Symbols of Intercourse:
Bullets Ovens Climbing stairs
Snakes Boxes Crossing a bridge
Sticks Tunnels Riding an elevator
Fire Caves Flying in an airplane
Umbrellas Bottles Walking down a hallway
Hoses Ships Entering a room
Knives Apples Traveling through a tunnel
Guns Peaches
Trains and planes Grapefruits
DREAM THEORY EXAMPLE
Describe one of your recent dreams (one that does not have any obvious sexual or embarrassing
content!). Use it to contrast the dream theories.
COMMON DREAM THEMES
Take a poll of the class to find out what the most common dreams are. Assuming that most would have
had dreams about common, everyday experiences, ask them what the implications are for the theories
of dreaming (i.e., these probably will support the Activation-Synthesis theory).
JUNGIAN DREAM INTERPRETATION AND SYNCHRONICITY
Present additional information not in the text on Jungian dream interpretation and the concept of
“synchronicity” (that dreams can warn us of future dangers). Jung has some interesting examples in his
book Man and His Symbols (see p. 61). In one dream, a woman who is very prim and proper in her
waking life reported shocking dreams reminding her of “unsavory things.” She refused to accept Jung’s
interpretations. Increasingly, her dreams took on references to walks in the woods she took by herself in
which she engaged in “soulful fantasies.” He became concerned about her, but she refused to
acknowledge any danger. Shortly afterward, she was sexually assaulted in one of these walks in the
woods. Her screams were answered and she was rescued. According to Jung, her dreams told her that
she had a secret longing for adventure. This may sound like a good ghost story, but even if you are not a
Jungian, it actually fits with activation-synthesis theory in that the woman was dreaming about concerns
in her daily life.
SLEEP DEPRIVATION AND SLEEP DEBT
Talk about sleep deprivation and sleep debt. Present the results of the National Sleep Foundation study
of Sleep in America (see http://www.sleepfoundation.org).
GUIDELINES FOR A BETTER NIGHT’S SLEEP
In addition to (or instead of) the guidelines provided in the book on getting a better night’s sleep,
consider this list, from the National Sleep Foundation (see http://www.sleepfoundation.org).
• Consume less or no caffeine and avoid alcohol
• Drink less fluids before going to sleep
• Avoid heavy meals close to bedtime
• Avoid nicotine
• Exercise regularly, but do so in the daytime, preferably after noon
• Try a relaxing routine, like soaking in hot water (a hot tub or bath) before bedtime
• Establish a regular bedtime and wake time schedule
RESULTS OF MORNINGNESS-EVENINGNESS QUESTIONNAIRE
Have students share the results of the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire. See how many have
circadian rhythms that match the time of day of your class.
NEW YORK TIMES ARTICLE: BACKGROUND ON SLEEP AND DREAMS
See the New York Times Science Times, Oct. 23, 2007 (www.nytimes.com) for an extensive discussion of
the functions of sleep and dreams
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/23/science/23angi.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all
ONLINE LEARNING CENTER: AROUND THE GLOBE
Sleep in the Antarctic Summer
Imagine never being able to turn off the light in your bedroom. Imagine that day and night, whenever
you try to sleep, the light stays on. Now you have an idea what it feels like to be a researcher living in
Antarctica for the summer, when the sun does not set for months at a time.
Gander et al. (1991) tracked the sleep of three scientists who flew to Antarctica to do fieldwork in the
middle of the summer. They collected information on body temperature, heart rate, time slept, and self-
rated quality of sleep. Though the subjects slept in darkened rooms and went to bed at the same time as
they always had, their bodies responded to the continuous daylight. On average, the time the subjects
had the lowest body temperature and heart rate for the day shifted to 2 hours later in their sleep-time.
Not surprisingly, the subjects also reported having much more difficulty getting up at their usual time—
they felt like they were getting up 2 hours earlier!
MEDIA PRESENTATION IDEAS:
MEDIA RESOURCES DVD: REM SLEEP
Emphasizing Freudian theory, the segment also relates new evidence on dreaming to psychoanalytic
theory.
http://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/mhhe-prod/psychology/passer/5_2.html
MEDIA RESOURCES DVD: FREUDIAN INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS
This segment presents an excellent brief summary of the Freudian theory of dreaming and how free
association is used to analyze dream content in the Freudian tradition.
MEDIA RESOURCES DVD: STAGES OF SLEEP
Show this to the class to provide a brief demonstration with animation of the stages of sleep as
measured by EEG.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qEWbu37fH9k
PBS DOCUMENTARY: SLEEP
Nova Science Now produced an excellent summary of recent research on sleep with a focus on the
influence of sleep on memory and learning. It makes an excellent point that you can use throughout the
semester about the importance of sleep for student performance. The segment can be viewed via the
PBS Web site.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3410/01.html
POPULAR MOVIES
Show a scene from a movie in which altered states of consciousness in sleep and dreams are shown,
such as Vanilla Sky (lucid dreams) and Minority Report (precognitions). Your students will most likely be
able to give you other suggestions as well if this is not your favorite movie genre. A scene from the
movie Insomnia can be shown, in which the main character suffers from this disturbance. In addition to
showing this sleep disturbance, the movie also shows the effects of sleep deprivation on behavior.
OVERHEAD: STAGES OF SLEEP
Download this image:
Chapter05_1403.jpg (32.0K)
MODULE 15: HYPNOSIS AND MEDITATI ON
HYPNOSIS: A TRANCE-FORMING EXPERIENCE?
MEDITATION: REGULATING OUR OWN STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: CROSS-CULTURAL ROUTES TO ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Hypnosis is a trancelike state in which people are exposed to a heightened susceptibility to the
suggestions of others while meditation is a learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about
an altered state of consciousness.
HYPNOSIS: A TRANCE-FORMING EXPERIENCE?
Hypnosis is a trancelike state in which people are exposed to a heightened susceptibility to the
suggestions of others. In some respects, it appears that they are asleep. Yet other aspects of their
behavior contradict this notion, for people are attentive to the hypnotist’s suggestions and may carry
out bizarre or silly suggestions. Despite their compliance when hypnotized, people do not lose all will of
their own. They will not perform antisocial behaviors, and they will not carry out self-destructive acts.
People will not reveal hidden truths about themselves, and they are capable of lying. Moreover, people
cannot be hypnotized against their will—despite popular misconceptions (Gwynn & Spanos, 1996; Raz,
2007).
A different state of consciousness?
Some psychologists believe that hypnosis represents a state of consciousness that differs significantly
from other states. Changes in electrical activity in the brain are associated with hypnosis, supporting the
position that hypnosis is a state of consciousness different from normal waking (Hilgard, 1992; Kallio &
Revonsuo, 2003; Fingelkurts, Fingelkurts, & Kallio, 2007; Hinterberger, Schöner, & Halsband, 2011). In
this view, hypnosis represents a state of divided consciousness. According to famed hypnosis researcher,
Ernest Hilgard, hypnosis brings about a dissociation, or division, of consciousness into two simultaneous
components. In one stream of consciousness, hypnotized people are following the commands of the
hypnotist. Yet on another level of consciousness, they are acting as “hidden observers,” aware of what is
happening to them. On the other side of the controversy are psychologists who reject the notion that
hypnosis is a state significantly different from normal waking consciousness. They argue that altered
brain-wave patterns are not sufficient to demonstrate a qualitative difference, because no other specific
physiological changes occur when people are in trances.
MEDITATION: REGULATING OUR OWN STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Meditation typically consists of the repetition of a mantra—a sound, word, or syllable—over and over.
In some forms of meditation, the focus is on a picture, flame, or specific part of the body. Regardless of
the nature of the particular initial stimulus, the key to the procedure is concentrating on it so thoroughly
that the meditator becomes unaware of any outside stimulation and reaches a different state of
consciousness. Meditation is a means of altering consciousness that is practiced in many different
cultures, though it can take different forms and serve different purposes across cultures.
Exploring Diversity: Cross-Cultural Routes to Altered States of Consciousness
People from different cultures perform various rituals to attain an altered state of consciousness. These
rituals have a common goal: suspension from the bonds of everyday awareness and access to an altered
state of consciousness. Although they may seem exotic from the vantage point of many Western
cultures, these rituals represent an apparently universal effort to alter consciousness (Bartocci, 2004;
Irwin, 2006). Some scholars suggest that the quest to alter consciousness represents a basic human
desire (Siegel, 1989).
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
15–1 What is hypnosis, and are hypnotized people in a different state of consciousness?
15–2 What are the effects of meditation?
EVERYDAY TRANCE STATES
Give students Handout 5–6, which asks them to indicate which everyday trance states they have
experienced.
THE EXPERIENCE OF HYPNOSIS
Ask students the following questions:
Do you think that hypnosis is real or is it fake?
Have you ever been hypnotized? If so, what did that feel like? If not, what do you think it would feel
like?
HYPNOSIS MYTHS
Have students complete Handout 5–7, on the myths versus the reality of hypnosis.
LECTURE IDEAS:
DEFINITION OF HYPNOSIS
Hypnosis is a procedure in which a person designated as hypnotist suggests changes in sensations,

perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or actions to a person designated as the subject.
CONTINUUM OF DISSOCIATION
As mentioned in the text, there is a continuum of dissociation that includes dissociative disorders (e.g.,
dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, dissociative identity disorder, and depersonalization) and also
may include mundane phenomena such as dreams, daydreams, and what is called “highway hypnosis.”
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON HYPNOSIS
Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815): Mesmer is considered the father of hypnosis. The term mesmerism is
named after him. It refers to a process of inducing trance through a series of passes he made with his
hands or magnets over people. He worked with what he called a person’s “animal magnetism” (psychic
and electromagnetic energies). He was discredited by the medical community even though he appeared
to have success in treating a variety of ailments.
James Braid (1795–1860): An English physician originally opposed to mesmerism who suggested that
Mesmer’s “cures” were due to suggestion rather than animal magnetism. He developed the eye fixation
technique (also known as Braidism) of inducing relaxation and called it hypnosis (after Hypnos, the
Greek god of sleep) as he thought the phenomenon was a form of sleep.
Jean Marie Charcot (1825–1893): A French neurologist who contended that hypnosis was simply a
manifestation of hysteria. He identified the three stages of trance as lethargy, catalepsy, and
somnambulism.
Pierre Janet (1859–1947): A French neurologist and psychologist initially opposed to hypnosis until he
discovered its beneficial effects. Having proposed the concept of dissociation, Janet believed that split-
off parts of the personality exist and are capable of independent functioning. He treated a woman’s
hysterical blindness by using hypnotic suggestions to alter the woman’s memory of how she became
blind in her left eye.
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): Freud studied hypnosis with Charcot and others but was not a successful
hypnotist. Instead, he developed the method of free association as a way to reach the unconscious
minds of his patients.
See also:
http://hypnoticworld.com/facts/history_of_hypnosis.asp
CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES ON HYPNOSIS
Nicholas Spanos (1942–1994): A social psychologist who viewed hypnosis as an enactment of roles by
the hypnotist and the subject. He believed that they each learn what is expected of their roles and are
then reinforced by each other in their performances. The hypnotist provides the suggestions and the
subject responds to the suggestions. The rest of the behavior—the hypnotist’s repetition of sounds or
gestures, his soft, relaxing voice, and so on, and the trancelike pose or sleeplike repose of the subject,
and so on—are just window dressing, part of the drama that makes hypnosis seem mysterious. When
one strips away these dramatic dressings, what is left is something quite ordinary, even if extraordinarily
useful: a self-induced, “psyched-up” state of suggestibility (see http://skepdic.com/hypnosis.html).
Milton Erickson (1932–1974): A psychiatrist who pioneered the art of indirect suggestion in hypnosis. His
methods bypassed the conscious mind through the use of both verbal and nonverbal pacing techniques
including metaphor, confusion, and paradox. Rather than instruct the subject to become hypnotized,
Erickson would offer a choice. Sometimes the choice is an illusion, such as “You can begin relaxing from
the top of your head to the soles of your head or you may wish to jump into relaxation feet first.” In
using metaphors, he would tell the client a story about himself or “someone just like you who had a
similar concern” and then tell them the story of how it was resolved. The story was not always
“logically” related to the client’s problems; Erikson relied on what he felt was the unconscious mind’s
ability to make the needed connections and extract the necessary meanings.
Ernest Hilgard (1904–2001): Stanford psychologist who developed the neodissociation theory. According
to this theory, hypnotic suggestions cause dissociation between the executive and monitoring functions
of consciousness that were otherwise integrated. Hypnosis represents a division of the monitoring
function of consciousness into two or more parts, separated by an amnesic-like barrier. The hypnotist’s
suggestion allows the hypnotist to be in the driver’s seat, as it were, of the subject’s actions. If the
hypnotized person can be placed in such a relaxed and sleeplike state that his self-talk is reduced, or
perhaps confused so that he does not clearly integrate the verbal messages that he hears, he is ready for
clear statements from the hypnotist, such as “Your outstretched hands are slowly moving together,
moving, moving . . .” (Hilgard, 1986, p. 122). Hilgard introduced the metaphor of the hidden observer to
describe a hypnotic phenomenon analogous to a situation in which an observer stands in the wings
watching a center stage performance (from Kirsch, I., & Lynn, S. J. [1998]. Dissociation theories of
hypnosis. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 100–115).
For more information and a useful diagram, see: www.hypnosisandsuggestion.org/theories.html
HYPNOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
There are individual differences in hypnotic susceptibility. The most common hypnotic susceptibility
tests are the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (SHSS), the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic
Susceptibility, and the Stanford Profile Scales of Hypnotic Susceptibility. The scales on these tests
measure susceptibility by determining whether a trance induction successfully causes the subject to
exhibit the desired behavior. The SHSS contains the following trance inductions:
• Moving hands together
• Lowering hands
• Eye closure
• Postural sway
• Finger lock
• Eye catalepsy
• Arm immobilization
• Verbal inhibition
• Arm rigidity
• Posthypnotic suggestion
• Posthypnotic amnesia
• Fly hallucination
Although it is not possible to replicate the trance-inducing instructions in class due to time limitations,
samples of these scales can be read to show students how the test works. Paradoxically, even though
you may tell the students that they will definitely NOT be hypnotized in this situation, some of them will
show the effects of the trance induction, thus proving the point!
An informative discussion of these scales can be found on this Web site: http://www.institute-
shot.com/hypnosis_and_health.htm
Another source can be found in Nash, M. R. (2001). “The truth and hype of hypnosis.” Scientific
American, June, pp. 47–55.
STAGE HYPNOSIS
Ask students if they have seen a stage hypnotist and if so, whether they thought the behavior of
participants was real or faked. Even better, if you have a chance to attend such a presentation, take
advantage of the opportunity (Philip Zimbardo has been known to perform at APA conventions, and this
would be an excellent example!).
Read about one widely acclaimed stage hypnotist, Ormond McGill:
http://ormondmcgill.com/
HYPNOSIS AND PAIN PERCEPTION
An excellent example of the effects of hypnosis on pain perception is provided in the original episode on
“The Mind: Hidden and Divided” in Philip Zimbardo’s Discovering Psychology video series.
(http://www.learner.org/resources/series138.html).
POPULAR MOVIES
Show a segment from a movie in which hypnosis is featured, such as The Manchurian Candidate, Dead
Again, The Sixth Sense, or Mesmer. Ask the class if they feel that hypnosis was accurately depicted in the
movie and if not, why not.
MODULE 16: DRUG USE: THE HIGHS AND LOWS OF CONSCIOUSNESS
STIMULANTS: DRUG HIGHS
AMPHETAMINES
COCAINE
DEPRESSANTS: DRUG LOWS
ALCOHOL
BARBITURATES
ROHYPNOL
NARCOTICS: RELIEVING PAIN AND ANXIETY
HALLUCINOGENS: PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS
MDMA (ECSTASY) AND LSD
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: IDENTIFYING DRUG AND ALCOHOL

PROBLEMS
Drugs of one sort or another are a part of almost everyone’s life. Many people purchase over-the –
counter pain relievers, vitamins, and cold-relief medicine, however, these drugs rarely produce an
altered state of consciousness (Dortch, 1996). In contrast, some substances, known as psychoactive
drugs, lead to an altered state of consciousness. Psychoactive drugs influence a person’s emotions,
perceptions, and behavior. Yet, even this category of drugs is common in most of our lives. A cup of
coffee or a bottle of beer are examples of psychoactive drugs. Addictive drugs produce a physiological
or psychological dependence (or both) in the user, and withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the
drug that, in some cases, may be nearly irresistible. In physiological dependence, the body becomes so
accustomed to functioning in the presence of a drug that it cannot function without it. In psychological
dependence, people believe that they need the drug to respond to the stresses of daily living.
STIMULANTS: DRUG HIGHS
Stimulants are drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system, causing a rise in heart
rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension. Caffeine and nicotine are two of the many stimulants
known.
Amphetamines
Amphetamines such as dexedrine and benzedrine, popularly known as speed, are strong stimulants. In
small quantities, amphetamines—which stimulate the central nervous system—bring about a sense of
energy and alertness, talkativeness, heightened confidence, and a mood “high.” They increase
concentration and reduce fatigue. Amphetamines also cause a loss of appetite, increased anxiety, and
irritability. Methamphetamine is a white, crystalline drug that U.S. police now say is the most dangerous
street drug. “Meth” is highly addictive and relatively cheap, and it produces a strong, lingering high.
Cocaine
Cocaine is inhaled or “snorted” through the nose, smoked, or injected directly into the bloodstream. It is
rapidly absorbed into the body and takes effect almost immediately. When used in relatively small
quantities, cocaine produces feelings of profound psychological well-being, increased confidence, and
alertness. However, there is a steep price to be paid for the pleasurable effects of cocaine. The brain
may become permanently rewired, triggering a psychological and physical addiction in which users grow
obsessed with obtaining the drug. Over time, users deteriorate mentally and physically.
DEPRESSANTS: DRUG LOWS
Depressants impede the nervous system by causing neurons to fire more slowly. Small doses result in at
least temporary feelings of intoxication—drunkenness—along with a sense of euphoria and joy. When
large amounts are taken, however, speech becomes slurred and muscle control becomes disjointed,
making motion difficult.
Alcohol
Alcohol is the most common depressant. It is used by more people than is any other drug. Although
alcohol is a depressant, most people claim that it increases their sense of sociability and well-being. The
discrepancy between the actual and the perceived effects of alcohol lies in the initial effects it produces
in the majority of individuals who use it: release of tension and stress, feelings of happiness, and loss of
inhibitions.
Barbiturates
Barbiturates, which include drugs such as Nembutal, Seconal, and phenobarbital, are another form of
depressant. Frequently prescribed by physicians to induce sleep or reduce stress, barbiturates produce a
sense of relaxation.
Rohypnol
Rohypnol is sometimes called the “date rape drug,” because, when it is mixed with alcohol, it can
prevent victims from resisting sexual assault. Sometimes people who are unknowingly given the drug
are so incapacitated that they have no memory of the assault.
NARCOTICS: RELIEVING PAIN AND ANXIETY
Narcotics are drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety. Two of the most powerful
narcotics, morphine and heroin, are derived from the poppy seed pod. Although morphine is used
medically to control severe pain, heroin is illegal in the United States. This status has not prevented its
widespread use.
HALLUCINOGENS: PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS
A drug that is capable of producing hallucinations, or changes in the perceptual process. The most
common hallucinogen in widespread use today is marijuana, whose active ingredient—
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)—is found in a common weed, cannabis.
Marijuana
Marijuana is typically smoked in cigarettes or pipes, although it can be cooked and eaten. The effects of
marijuana vary from person to person, but they typically consist of feelings of euphoria and general
well-being. Sensory experiences seem more vivid and intense, and a person’s sense of self-importance
seems to grow. Memory may be impaired, causing users to feel pleasantly “spaced out.”
MDMA (Ecstasy) and LSD
MDMA (“Ecstasy”) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD, or “acid”) fall into the category of hallucinogens.
Both drugs affect the operation of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain, causing an alteration in
brain-cell activity and perception (Cloud, 2000; Buchert et al., 2004). Ecstasy users report a sense of
peacefulness and calm. People on the drug report experiencing increased empathy and connection with
others, as well as feeling more relaxed, yet energetic.
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: IDENTIFYING DRUG AND ALCOHOL

PROBLEMS
Identifying Drug and Alcohol Problems
Many people with drug and alcohol problems deny that they have them, and even close friends and
family members may fail to realize when occasional social use of drugs or alcohol has turned into abuse.
Certain signs, however, indicate when use becomes abuse (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2000).
Among them are the following:
• Always getting high to have a good time.
• Being high more often than not.
• Getting high to get oneself going.
• Going to work or class while high.
• Missing or being unprepared for class or work because you were high.
• Feeling badly later about something you said or did while high.
• Driving a car while high.
• Coming in conflict with the law because of drugs.
• Doing something while high that you would not do otherwise.
• Being high in nonsocial, solitary situations.
• Being unable to stop getting high.
• Feeling a need for a drink or a drug to get through the day.
• Becoming physically unhealthy.
• Failing at school or on the job.
• Thinking about liquor or drugs all the time.
• Avoiding family or friends while using liquor or drugs.
Any combination of these symptoms should be sufficient to alert you to the potential of a serious drug
problem.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
16–1 : What are the major classifications of drugs, and what are their effects?
WEB SITE ASSIGNMENT
Have students go to the U.S. government’s Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
Web site (http://www.samhsa.gov). Have them provide answers to the following questions:
1. Approximately what percentage of the U.S. population 12 years and older uses illicit drugs?
2. Who is more likely to abuse illicit drugs—people over 35 or people under 35?
3. What is the most commonly used illicit drug?
BINGE DRINKING
Give students Handout 5–8, which has an assignment on binge drinking.
ALCOHOL ADVERTISEMENTS
Have students complete Handout 5–9 on alcohol advertisements.
ATTITUDES TOWARD DRUGS
Have students complete Handout 5–10 on their attitudes toward drugs.
ONLINE LEARNING CENTER: CROSSWORD PUZZLE REVIEW
Have students complete this crossword puzzle: http://highered.mcgraw-

hill.com/sites/0072422971/student_view0/chapter5/crossword_puzzle.html
LECTURE IDEAS:
CURRENT DRUG USE PATTERNS IN THE UNITED STATES
Show students figures from the SAMHSA Web site mentioned above (http://www.samhsa.gov). These
are easily downloadable and will provide updates to the information in the text. An interesting question
to ask students is “What is the most frequently used psychoactive drug?” The answer will surprise
them—caffeine.
ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS
Invite a guest speaker from the local Alcoholics Anonymous (or similar) chapter to talk about the nature
of self-help recovery programs.
BINGE DRINKING ON COLLEGE CAMPUSES
Focus on binge drinking as a problem in college campuses. Handout 5–8 contains an assignment that can
be used as the basis for discussion.
ALCOHOL IN THE MEDIA
Show television or print advertisements that portray alcohol in a positive light and downplay its negative
effects. Ask students to complete Handout 5–9 and bring the information into class for a discussion.
CURRENT INFORMATION ON ALCOHOL ABUSE
More up-to-date information on alcohol abuse can be found on the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse
and Alcoholism Web site (http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/). There also are a number of useful handouts and
graphics for lecture that can be downloaded from this site.
MEDIA RESOURCES DVD: NEUROCHEMICAL BASIS OF ADDICTION
Discussion of the drug nalextrone, which is used to help individuals overcome the cravings associated
with alcohol or drug addiction.
MEDIA RESOURCES DVD: ALCOHOL ADDICTION
A woman with a history of alcohol addiction is featured. She discusses the nature of her addiction and
the detoxification treatment she went through.
POPULAR MOVIES: DRUG ABUSE
Show a scene from a movie in which substance abuse played a major role, preferably with a young adult
as the main character.
ADVERTISEMENTS FOR ALCOHOL
Show several television or print commercials for alcohol. Ask students how they think these ads affect
them and others of college age.

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Chapter 5 States of Consciousness

Understanding Psychology 11th

Full download at link:

Solution Manual: https://testbankpack.com/

Test Bank: https://testbankpack.com/

LECTURE OPENER SUGGESTIONS:

“To sleep, perchance to dream.” Shakespeare (Hamlet)

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 11e IM-5 | 1

Marc Chagall (1887–1985), The Flying Carriage, 1913

Jean Marie Charcot (1825–1893), Lecture at the Salpetriere

PROLOGUE: THE POWER OF MEDITATION

THE STAGES OF SLEEP

MODULE 14: SLEEP AND DREAMS

REM SLEEP: THE PARADOX OF SLEEP

WHY DO WE SLEEP, AND HOW MUCH SLEEP IS NECESSARY?

THE FUNCTION AND MEANING OF DREAMING

PSYCHOANALYTIC EXPLANATIONS OF DREAMS: DO DREAMS REPRESENT UNCONCIOUS

EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS OF DREAMS: DREAMS -FOR-SURVIVAL THEORY

NEUROSCIENCE EXPLANATIONS OF DREAMS: ACTIVATION SYNTHESIS THEORY

SLEEP DISTURBANCES: SLUMBERING PROBLEMS

PSYCHWORK: SLEEP TECHNOLOGIST

APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY : DREAMS OF FAILURE

CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: LIFE CYCLES

DAYDREAMS: DREAMS WITHOUT SLEEP

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BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: SLEEPING BETTER

THE STAGES OF SLEEP

REM SLEEP: THE PARADOX OF SLEEP

WHY DO WE SLEEP, AND HOW MUCH SLEEP IS NECESSARY?

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 11e IM-5 | 3

THE FUNCTION AND MEANING OF DREAMING

Psychoanalytic Explanations of Dreams: Do Dreams Represent Unconscious Wish Fulfillment?

Evolutionary Explanations of Dreams: Dreams-For-Survival Theory

Neuroscience Explanations of Dreams: Activation Synthesis Theory

SLEEP DISTURBANCES: SLUMBERING PROBLEMS

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 11e IM-5 | 4

CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: LIFE CYCLES

DAYDREAMS: DREAMS WITHOUT SLEEP

BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: SLEEPING BETTER

• Choose a regular bedtime and stick to it.

• Avoid drinks with caffeine after lunch.

• Drink a glass of warm milk at bedtime.

• Avoid sleeping pills.

• Try not to sleep.

14–1 What are the different states of consciousness?

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 11e IM-5 | 5

14–4 How much do we daydream?

SLEEP DEBT QUESTIONNAIRE

Ask students these questions:

Why do you think that most people forget their dreams?

Which theory of dreaming do you find most convincing? Why?

PSYCHINTERACTIVE: CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS

PSYCHINTERACTIVE: STAGES OF SLEEP

Feldman: Understanding Psychology, 11e IM-5 | 6

Illustrates the stages of sleep, with animations and graphics.

FREUDIAN SYMBOLS IN DREAMS

Male Symbols: Female Symbols: Symbols of Intercourse:

Bullets Ovens Climbing stairs

Snakes Boxes Crossing a bridge

Sticks Tunnels Riding an elevator

Fire Caves Flying in an airplane

Umbrellas Bottles Walking down a hallway

Hoses Ships Entering a room

Knives Apples Traveling through a tunnel