GED 105 - Readings in Dummy- create a mock-up of

Philippine History Skepticism- doubt

History is revisionist in scope; it is

an ongoing conversation and a
constant process of reexamining the
History - What is history and what is
past and deconstructing myths
not?
based upon new discoveries,
evidence, and perspectives. History
Unit I: Understanding the complexities of
is not about an agreed upon set of
the historical discipline.
facts, one indisputably true history,
Discipline- the practice of training people to or a forever-fixed story that is never
obey rules or a code of behavior, using subjected to changes and updates.
punishment to correct disobedience.
● History is a constant process of
With our 21st Century minds, it is tempting questioning; it requires questioning
to think that the Founders were hypocrits the texts, examining them with a
when they wrote in the Declaration of critical eye, and asking new
Independence that "all men were created questions. History is not a simple
equal." acceptance of what is written about
a historical topic, event, or person.
thinking with our 18th Century minds - the
founders were men way ahead of their time
and that they created a unique declaration
● History is integrative of many
for a new nation that was more equal than
disciplines; it especially
in most places throughout the world.
incorporates geography, literature,
● History is chronological art, sociology, economics, and
storytelling in its finest form; it political science. History is not a
sequentially weaves together many simple historical chronology of
related historical and contemporary famous dates, incidents, and people.
events and ideas that are linked to a
Inclusive- not excluding any of the
larger story. History is not a
parties or groups involved in
recitation of unrelated facts that do
something.
not contribute to a larger story.
● History is interpretive; it invites
● History is inclusive; it ensures that
students to debate multiple
the experiences of all classes,
perspectives, offer their opinions and
regions, and ethno-racial groups, as
educated interpretations, and
well as both genders, are included.
challenge existing beliefs. History
History is not restricted to stories
does not dummy down to students
written by and about the most well
by teaching standardized facts that
known leaders in American history.
do not encourage open inquiry and
healthy skepticism.
 ● History is relevant; it uses past
experiences to explain what is
important in our lives today..
History is not a strict reliance solely
on the past with no examination of
how the past has influenced the
present or how it may influence the
future.
Parang mga pangayayri lang sa past
tapos habang pinagaaralan ang past
na ito ay saka palang malalaman o
marerealize ang mga solutions na
makaktulong sa present and future.
Controversial- public disagreement.
● History is controversial; it presents
all the facts, warts and all, and
examines both the negative and
positive actions of Americans,
encourages students to think about
social justice and social change, and
promotes real understanding of
historical issues and events and
critical analysis of our nation’s
domestic and foreign policies.
History is not about one absolute
truth, one particular perspective, or
one set of facts and figures - nor
does it shy away from offending
anyone.
Chapter 1: Theories of History
A. Cyclical View of History
- It is considered as the histories of
the Greeks.
- The Greeks thought that events
recurred on regular basis.
Herodutus (484-424 BCE)
- Herodutus work Histories, is the
story of men and states as
recurring cycles.
Thucydides (460-404 BC)
- He envisioned time as recurring in a
cyclical fashion, a process which
men were unable to perform.
Petrach (1304-1374)
- He revived the cyclical concept of
history in the fourteenth century.
- He differed slightly from the Greeks
in suggesting the basis of history
was the actions of people rather
than the whims of Gods.
Machiavelli (1469-1527)
- He saw the history as being cyclical
and suggested that history could
be seen as a casebook of political
strategy.
Arnold Toynbee(1884-1975) and Oswald
Spengler (1880-1936)
- Based on their work on the premise
that history is cyclical: civilizations
rise and fall, each one rising to a
greater level.
B. Linear View of History
- It implies the acceptance or
subscription to a linear time.
- It views that history is progressive,
moving forward and not having a
cyclical turn.
Augustine ( 350-430 BCE)
- He saw history as being unfolding
of the plan of God, a process that
would end in Final Judgement.
Voltaire (1694-1788)
- He saw history as being linear, but
more secular way.
- He envisioned four great stages of
man culminating in the scientific
enlightenment of Newton.
C. The Great God View of History
- The most primitive attempts to
explain the origin and
development of the man and world
are the creation of myths to be
found among pre-literate people.
- We are best acquainted with the one
in Genesis which ascribes the
making of heaven and earth with
all its features and creatures to a
Lord God who worked on a six-day
schedule.
- These fanciful stories do not have
any scientific validity.
Myths
- stories that are based on tradition
- Some may have factual origins,
while others are completely
fictional.
- more than mere stories and they
serve a more profound purpose in
ancient and modern cultures.
- Myths are sacred tales that explain
the world and man's experience.
Just as the royal despots dominated the city
states and their empires, so the will,
passions, plans and needs of the gods were
the ultimate causes of events. The king is
the agent who maintains the world in being
by means of an annual contest with the
powers of chaos.
This theological theory was elaborated
by the Sumerians, Babylonians and
Egyptians before it came down to the
Greeks and Romans. It was expounded in
the Israelite scriptures whence it was taken
over and reshaped by the Christian and
Mohammedan religions
and their states.
D. Great man View of History
- The “Great Man” theory suggest that
dominant personalities determine
the course of history.
- There are also numerous
incarnations according to the values
attached at different times by
different people to the various
domains of social activity.
Thomas Carlyle’s (1795-1881)
- states that “everyman” view of
history is one which sees history
asbeing a record of collective
experiences of the ordinary
person.
- Universal history, the history of what
man has accomplished in this world,
is at bottom the history of the great
men who have worked here”
Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832)
- -novels showed how people lived
through significant events and he
advanced the idea that history was
the story of ordinary people’s
lives.
E. The Best People View of
History
-This view believes that some elite, the best
race, the favored nation, the ruling class
alone make history
The Old Testaments
- assumed that the Israelites were
God’s chosen people.
The Greeks
- regarded themselves as the acme of
culture, better in all respects than
the barbarians.
- Plato and Aristotle looked upon the
slave-holding aristocracy as
naturally superior to the lower
orders.
Hitler
- though that the Arian race was the
best among the races.
F. Ideas of the Great Mind View of History
- This view of history is one in which
the driving force in history is
people’s ideas. The conditions that
create history are created or
changed by ideas.
- A Great Mind Theory: A more
sophisticated and philosophical
variant of the Great God-Man line of
thought is the notion that history is
drawn forward or driven ahead by
some ideal force in order to realize
its preconceive ends.
Anaxagoras (A Pre-Socratic Greek
Philosopher)
- “Reason (Nous) governs the world.”
Aristotle (A Greek Philosopher)
- God is the prime mover of the
universe and the ultimate animator
of everything within it.
G.W.F. Hegel (1770 - 1831)
- View history as the continual
refinement of intellectual
understanding.
- He wrote: “Spirit, or Mind, is the
only motive principle of history.”
- Goal of the World Spirit laborious
development Idea of freedom.
Some 18th century rationalists
believed that “opinion governs
mankind.”
G. The Human Nature View of History
- This view believes that history, in the
last analysis, has been determined
by the qualities of human nature,
good or bad.
Human Nature
- the general psychological
characteristics, feelings and
behavioral traits of human kind.
- like human itself, was regarded as
rigid and unchanging from one
generation to another.
Thucydides
- Human nature and human behavior
were – essentially fixed qualities,
the same in one century as another.
David Hume
- Mankind are so much the same, in
all times and places, the history
informs us of nothing new or strange
in this particular.
 - Its chief use is only to discover the
constant and universal principles
of human nature.
E.B. Tylor
- Human institutions, like stratified
rocks, succeed each other in series
substantially uniform over the
globe, independent of what seems
the comparatively superficial
differences of race and language,
but shaped by similar human
nature.
H. Economic View of History
- The economic views sees economic
factors as the most important
determinant of history.
- The production and exchange of
goods and services is the bases of
all social structures and
processes.
Economic factor
- the foundation for the
superstructure of culture and
government.
Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)
- A German philosopher, economist,
historian, sociologist, political
theorist,
- The foremost proponent of
economic view of history.
- He disagreed with Hegel “It was not
ideas that created material
conditions, but rather the reverse.”
I. Gender History
- Gender history looks at the past
from the perspective of gender. It
considers in what ways historical
events are periodization impact
women differently from men.
Gender
- the range of characteristics
pertaining to, and differentiation
between, masculinity and femininity.
Joan Kelly
- A prominent American historian who
wrote on the Italian Renaissance.
- She annually receives a Memorial
Prize Award for the book in
women’s history and/or feminist
theory.
- Questioned the notion of a
Renaissance in a seminal article in
1977, “Did Women have a
Renaissance?”
In the 80’s, with the rise of feminist
movement, the focus shifted to
uncovering women’ oppression and
discrimination. Nowadays, gender
history is more about charting
female agency and recognizing
female achievements in several
fields that were usually dominated by
men.
J. Post-modern View of History
- The Postmodern view of history
differs dramatically from that of
all other world views.
- They view history as “what we
make of it.”
- The radical Postmodernists sees no
ultimate purpose in history.
- Historical facts are inaccessible.
- Use the term historicism.
Jacques Lacan (1910–1981) and Michael
Foucault (1926-1984)

- Each Historical period has its own
knowledge system and individuals
are unavoidably entangled within
these system.
K. Other Views of History
- There are number of other theories
that attempt to explain history.
Historians suggest that history was
determined in many ways.
- were not necessarily intended for
publication (including letters, diaries,
journals, memoirs, and
reminiscences)
- to formal book-length autobiography.
Memoirs
- a history or record composed
from personal observation and
experience.
- memoir usually differs chiefly in the
degree of emphasis placed on
external events.

1. Geographic Factors Comparison

2. Wars
3. Religion
Autobiography Memoir
4. Race
5. Climate Writers of Writers of memoir
autobiography are are usually
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) concerned persons who have
- History has no beginning or end, primarily with played roles in,
themselves as or have been
just chaos that could only be
subject matter. close observers
understood by the powers of the of,
mind. historical events
and whose main
Michel Foucault (1926-1984) purpose is to
- The victors of social struggle use describe or
interpret
their political dominance to suppress
the events.
a defeated adversary’s version of
historical events….

B. Diaries, Personal Letter, and

Chapter 2: Sources of History
Correspondence

Types of Primary Sources

Diary
- a form of autobiographical writing, is
A. Autobiographies and Memoirs
a regularly kept record of the
diarist’s activities and reflections.
Autobiography
- Written primarily for the writer’s use
- account of a person’s life written
alone,
by that person.
- has a frankness that is unlike
- can take many forms,
writing done for publication.
- from the intimate writing made
during life that
Personal Letter
- a type of letter (or informal
composition) that usually concerns
personal matters (rather than
professional concerns)
- sent from one individual to
another.
Correspondence
- a body of letters or communications.
- pen pal or an email buddy,
C. Interviews, Surveys, and Fieldwork
Interview
- conversation where questions are
asked and answers are given.
- the word “interview” refers to a
one-on-one conversation with one
person acting in the role of the
interviewer and the other in the role
of interviewee.
- usually involve a transfer of
information from interviewee to
interviewer,
- information transfers can happen in
both directions simultaneously.
Survey
- list of questions aimed at extracting
specific data from a particular group
of people.
- may be conducted by phone, mail,
via the Internet, and sometimes
face-to-face on busy street corners
or in mails.
- often used to assess thought,
opinions, and feelings.
- specific and limited, or they can
have more global, widespread goals.
Field Research/ Fieldwork
- collection of information outside a
laboratory, library or workplace
setting.
- range of well-defined, although
variable, methods:
1. informal interviews,
2. direct observation,
3. participation in the life of the
group,
4. collective discussions,
5. analysis of personal
documents produced within
the group,
6. Self-analysis,
7. results from activities
undertaken off- or on line,
8. life-histories.
D. Photographs and Posters
Photographs and Posters
- photographs and posters can
illustrate past events as they
happened and people as they
were at a particular time.
E. Works of Art and Literature
Art
- an artwork, or a work is a
creation, such as song, book, print,
sculpture, and painting
- made in order to be a thing of beauty
in itself or a symbolic statement of
meaning,
- rather than having a practical
function.
Paintings
- a form of visual art where paint or
ink is used in canvas or, more
 - often in the past, wooden panels or
plaster walls,
- depict an artist’s rendering of a
scene or even of an abstract,
non-representing image.
Drawing
- a person uses various drawing
instruments to mark paper or
another two-dimensional medium.
- graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked
brushes, wax colored pencils,
crayons, charcoal, pastels, various
kinds of erasers, markers, styluses,
various metals (such as
silverpoint) and electronic drawing.
Literature
- body of written works.
- applied to those imaginative works
of poetry and prose distinguished by
the intentions of their authors and
the perceived aesthetic excellence
of their execution.
- may be classified according to a
variety of systems, including
language, rational origin, historical
period, genre and subject matter.
Speeches and Oral Histories
Speech
- form of communication in spoken
language,
- made by a speaker before an
audience for a given purpose.
Other types of primary sources include
books, magazine and newspaper articles
and ads published at the time of the event
and artifacts of all kinds, such as tools,
coins clothing, furniture etc.
Types of secondary sources
Secondary Sources
- created by someone who did not
experience first hand or participate
in the events or conditions you’re
1. Bibliographies
2. Biographical works
3. Periodicals
4. newspaper
5. magazine and journals
6. Literature reviews and review
7. articles
8. Film review
9. Book review
10. Other types of secondary
11. sources
Bibliographies
- Organized list of sources followed
by a brief note or the “annotation”
- These annotation do one or more of
the following:
- Describe the content and focus of
the book or article
- Suggest the source’s usefulness to
your research
- Evaluate its method, conclusions,or
reliability
- Record your reaction to your source
Periodicals
- newspaper ,magazines, and
scholarly journals which are
published “periodically”.
- it can be printed, some are in
electronic and some use both
Biographical Works
- description of a real person’s life,
including factual details as well as
stories from the person’s life.
 - biography comes from the greek
word “bios” meaning life and
“graphia” meaning writing.
- include information about the
subject’s personality and
motivations, and other kind of
intimate details excluded in a
general overview or profile of a
person’s life
Newspaper
- Periodical publication containing
written information about current
events
- covers wide variety
Literature Reviews and Review Articles
- literature review is an evaluative
report of information found in the
literature related to your selected
area of study
- it should give a theoretical base for
the research and help you determine
the nature of your research
- review article summarizes the
current state of understanding on a
topic
- surveys and summarizes previously
published studies, rather than
reporting new facts or analysis
- also called survey articles or
overview articles
- review journals are academic
Magazine and Journals
- it can be published weekly, monthly,
quarterly, annually or at some
interval
- the difference between magazines
and journals is their audience.
- journals are written by scholars .
- magazines produced by professional
writers and editors for a general
Film Review
- popular way for critics to assess a
film’s overall quality and determine
whether or not they think the film is
worth recommending.
- differs with scholarly film articles.
Book Review
- form of literary criticism in which a
book is analyzed based on content,
style, and merit
- books can be reviewed for printed
periodiicals, magazines, and
newspapers, as schoolwork, or for
book web sites on the internet.
- such a review may evaluate the
book on the basis of personal taste
Other Sources
1. History Books
2. Scholarly Books
3. Works of Criticism and
4. Interpretation
5. Commentaries and
6. Treatises
 7. Textbooks
8. Video Documentaries
9. Multimedia Reports
External and Internal Criticism
Historical Data
- Has to be examined for its
authenticity and truthfulness.
Criticism
- Done by asking and researching to
help determine truthfulness, bias,
omission, and consistency in data.
2 KINDS of CRITICISM
EXTERNAL CRITICISM
- Authenticity of a document.
INTERNAL CRITICISM
- What the document says.
EXTERNAL CRITICISM
- Refers to the genuineness of the
documents a research uses in a
historical study. (Fraenkel & Wallen,
n.d.)
Series of Questions to establish the
genuineness of a document or Relic
(Key,1997))
1. Does the language and writing style
conform to the period in question
and is it typical of other work done by the
author?
2. Is there evidence that the author exhibits
ignorance of things or events
that man oh his training and time should
have known?
3. Did he report about things, events, or
places that could not have known
during that period?
4. Has the original manuscript been altered
either intentionally or unintentionally by
copying?
5. Is the document an original draft or copy?
If it is a copy,
was it reproduced in the exact words of the
original?
6. If manuscript is undated of the author
unknown, are there any clues internally as
to its origin?
Provided questions by Gilbert J
Garraghan (1946)
1. When was the source, written
2. Where was it produced or unwritten,
produced (date)?(localization)?
3. By whom was it produced (authorship)?
4. From what pre-existing
material was it produced
5. In what original form was (analysis)?
it produced (integrity)?
INTERNAL CRITICISM
- Refers to the accuracy of the
contents of a document. (Fraenkel
& Wallen, n.d.)
Questions to check the Content of a
Source of Information (Key, 1997)
1. What was meant by the author by
each word and statement?
2. How much credibility can author’s
statement by given?
QUESTIONS for INTERNAL CRITICISM
What is the evidential value of its
contents (credibility)?
“For each particular of a document the
process of establishing credibility should
be separately undertaken regardless of
the general credibility of the author”
-Louis Gottschalk (1950)
GENERAL PRINCIPLES in DETERMINING
RELIABILITY (Olden-Jorgensen, 1998 &
Thuren, 1997)
1. Human sources may be relics such as a
fingerprint; of narratives such as a
statement or a letter. Relics are more
credible sources than
Narratives.
2. Any given source may be forged of
corrupted. Strong indications of the
originality of the sources increase its
reliability.
3. The closer a source is to the event which
it purports to describe, the more one can
trust it to give an accurate historical
description of what actually happened.
4. An eyewitness is more reliable than
testimony at second hand, which is more
reliable than hearsay at further remove, and
so on.
5.If a number of independent sources
contain the same message, the credibility of
the message is strongly increased.
6. The tendency of a source is its motivation
for providing some kind of bias. Tendencies
should be minimized or supplemented with
opposite motivations.
7. If it can be demonstrated that the witness
or source has no direct interest in creating
bias then the credibility of the message is
increased.
CRITICISM in HISTORY by Bernheim
(1889) and Langlois & Seignobos (1898)
1. If the sources all agree about the
event, historians can consider the event
proved.
2. However, majority does not, rule;
even if most sources relate events in one
way, that version will not prevail unless
it passes the test of critical textual
analysis.
3. The source whose account can be
confirmed by reference to outside
authorities in some of its parts can be
trusted in its eternity if it is impossible
similarly to confirm
the entire text.
4. When two sources disagree on a
particular point, the historian will prefer the
source with most “authority” -that is the
source created by the expert or by the
eyewitness.
5. Eyewitness are, in general, to be
preferred especially in circumstances where
the ordinary observer could have accurately
reported what transpired and, more
specifically, when they deal with facts
known by most contemporaries.
6. If two independently created sources
agree on a matter, the reliability of each is
measured enhance.
7.When two sources disagree and
there is no other means of evaluation, then
historians take the source which seems to
accord best with common sense.
EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY:
1. Is the real meaning of the statement
different from its literal meaning? Are words
used in senses not employed today? Is the
statement meant to be ironic (I.e. , other
than it says)?
2. How well could the author observe the
thing he reports? Were his senses equal to
the observation? Was his physical location
suitable to sight, hearing, touch?
Did he have the proper social ability to
observe: did he understand the language,
have other expertise required (e.g, law,
military); was he not being intimated by
his wife or the secret police?
3. How did the author report?, and was
his ability to do so?
a. Regarding his ability to report,
was he
biased? Din he have proper time for
reporting? Proper place for
reporting?
Adequate recording instruments?
b. When did he report in relation to
his
observation? Soon? Much later?
Fifty
years is much later as most
eyewitnesses
are dead and those who remain may
have
forgotten relevant material.
c.What was the author’s intention in
reporting? For whom did he report?
Would the audience be likely to
require
or suggest distortion to the author?
d. Are there additional clues to intended
veracity? Was he indifferent on the
subject reported, thus probability not
seeking to distort? Did he give incidental
or casual information, almost certainly
not intended to mislead?
5. Do his statements seem
inherently improbable: e.g.,
contrary to human nature, or in
conflict with what we know?
6. Remember that some types of
information are easier to observe
and report on than others.
7. Are there inner contradictions in
the document?
HISTORIC AL RESEARCH
SOURCES OF HISTORY
2. External and Internal Criticism
F. INDIRECT WITNESSES
- Gilbert J. Garraghan says that most
information comes from "indirect
witnesses," people who were not
present on the scene but heard of
the events from someone else.
- Louis Reichenthal Gottschalk was
an American historian, an expert on
Lafayette and the French
Revolution. Gottschalk, says that a
historian may sometimes use
hearsay evidence when no primary
texts are available.
G . ORAL TRADITION
GILBERT GARRAGHAN(1946)
- maintains that oral tradition may be
accepted if it satisfies either two
“broad conditions” or six “particular
conditions”
1. BROAD CONDITIONS STATED

- traditions should be supported by an
unbroken series of witnesses
2. PARTICULAR CONDITIONS
FORMULATED
- tradition must report a public event
of importance, such as would
necessarily be known directly to a
great number of persons
- tradition must have been generally
believed, at least for a definite period
of time
- must have gone before protest, even
from persons interested in denying it
- tradition must be one of relatively
limited duration
- critical spirit must have been
sufficiently developed while the
tradition lasted and critical
investigations must have been at
hand
- critical minded persons who would
surely have challenged the tradition
- explanatory power than any other
H. SYNTHESIS:HISTORICAL
REASONING
C. BEHAN MCCULLAGH
1. The statement, together with other
statements already held to be true,
must imply yet other statements
describing present observable data. (We
will henceforth call the first statement,
‘the hypothesis,’ and the second
statements describing observable data
observable statements.’
a. Given statement (hypothesis)-
These are the statements given by
the people arguing and justifying
their beliefs, having proper
knowledge of facts about the topic
and already perceived as true.
b.Observable statements - These
are the statements that describes all
the observable data or it can also be
the supporting infos, for the
observable data to be understood
easier.
c. Given event (Observable data) -
The Given topic or it is the arguable
variable that one needs to relate or
defend to with his/her facts,
knowledge and beliefs
regarding such given event.
2. The hypothesis must be of greater
explanatory scope than any other
incompatible hypothesis about the same
subject that is, it must imply greater variety
of observation statements.
3. The hypothesis must be of greater
incomapatible hypothesis about the same
Subject.
4. The hypothesis must be more
plausible than any other incompatible
hypothesis about the same subject.
5. The hypothesis must be less ad hoc
than any other incompatible
hypothesis about the same subject.
6. It must be disconfirmed by fewer
accepted beliefs than any other
incompatible hypothesis about the same
Subject
7. It must exceed other than incompatible
hypotheses about the same subject by so
much, in characteristics 2 to 6, that there is
little chance of an incompatible hypothesis K. OTHERS VIEW OF HISTORY

I. GENERALIZATION IN HISTORICAL 1. DISTINCTION OF PRIMARY,

RESEARCH SECONDARY AND TERTIARY
- as in all research, researchers who SOURCES
conduct historical studies should
exercise caution in generalizing from 2. EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL
small or non- representative CRITICISM
samples. defining historical research

A. THE PURPOSES OF HISTORICAL

RESEARCH

B. CHARACTERISTICS OF HISTORICAL
RESEARCH

C. ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF HISTORICAL
RESEARCH

D. STEPS IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH

A. CYLICAL VIEW OF HISTORY

B. LINEAR VIEW OF HISTORY

C. THE GREAT GOD VIEW OF HISTORY

D. GREAT MAN VIEW OF HISTORY

E. THE BEST PEOPLE VIEW OF THE

HISTORY

F. IDEAS OR THE GREAT MIND VIEW OF

THE HISTORY

G. THE HUMAN NATURE VIEW OF

HISTORY

H. ECONOMIC VIEW OF HISTORY

I. GENDER HISTORY

J. POST-MODERN VIEW OF HISTORY