MAJOR 4A PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING

Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language

Ara Marie Correa

Katherine Dedace
Josua Lor
Clowilyn Nunez
BSED 2

SAINT MICHAEL COLLEGE HINDANG, LEYTE INC.

Bonifacio St. Pob. II, Hindang, Leyte
Part I.

Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language

Part II.

A person or a child cab either acquire or learn a language. Acquiring language is more
different than learning it. Language acquisition is the way of picking up a language naturally
based on various contexts and variables. A few theories like the Behaviorist Theory, Innatism,
Operant Conditioning, Cognitive Theory, Monitor Theory, and so on, can justify that matter. On
the other hand, language learning only happens at a classroom setting wherein there is a teacher
who will introduce another language to them to acquire.
In learning a second language, the learning range or duration will take longer than
acquiring first language to attain its fluency depending on the learner's age, motivation,
intelligence, behavior, learning environment and interaction with the others.
If we compare the factors of the first language (L1) acquisition and second language (L2)
learning, we realize the complexity of the process of learning L2. It is easy to learn a language in
a similar environment, community or family. If the child is an outcast or different from the rest,
then there is a greater possibility of an existence of high language learning barrier. By going
deeper to the details, we will explain the different theories of second language acquisition.

Second Language Acquisition Theories:

 Are intrinsically related to a wide variety of disciplines such as applied linguistics,
sociolinguistics, psychology, neurology, and education.
 Various theories and models have been emerged over the years to study the process of
language acquisition.

Three Main Schools of Thought Provide Theoretical Paradigms in

Language Acquisition:
 Behaviorism (Skinner's Behaviorist Theory)
 Innatism (Chomsky's Innatist Theory)
 Krashen's Monitor Model

1. Behaviorist Theory (1940s-1950s)

  Burrhus Frederic Skinner coined the Behaviorist Theory based on Ivan Pavlov's research
on conditioning (using dogs).
 Tabula Rasa (a blank slate)—means there is nothing when a baby is born. Skinner said,
“give me child, and I will shape him into anything.” (T.V. interview, 1960)
 Behaviorism is a precursor to cognitive learning or an expansion of classical conditioning
into operant conditioning.

 Behaviorist Theory learning is the result of:

o Imitation (word-for-word repetition of someone else's utterances)
o Practice (repetitive manipulation of form)
o Feedback on success (positive reinforcement)
o Habit formation

The learner goes on imitating sounds or group of sounds from a teacher or an adult,
then the teacher shall do prior practice or word repetition of what he or she learned. After
that, the child is given a feed back on success or given a punishment of failures, and on top of
that, the correct imitation by practicing the word shall become a habit.

The Nature of Language Learning according to Behaviorist Theory:

 The language is learned through stimulus

o Stimulus- a thing that rouses activity or energy in someone or something; a spur
or incentive.
o Each stimulus is the cause of a response.
  Response
o Response becomes initiator of a stimulus.
o In a stimulus situation, a response is exerted, and if the response is positively
augmented by a reward, then the connection between the stimulus and response is
reinforced and the response will only be based on the type of stimulus or the
cause (habit-formation by reinforcement theory).
 Reinforcement
o All learning is the establishment of habit as the result of reinforcement and
reward.
 Positive reinforcement (reward)
 Negative reinforcement (punishment)

o If there is a successive learning of the language, the teacher will give a positive
reinforcement to the learner and make it as a habit, and if the learner fails, he or she will
receive negative reinforcement to make that mistake into right next time.
Audio Lingual Method and Behaviorism

o A method for teaching L2 that is popular in 1950s and 1960s.

o It is supported by the Behaviorist Theory of Skinner.
o It does not use mother tongue to explain vocabulary or grammar.
o Student driller in the use of grammar in the target language.
o The language is taught through discussion, conversation and reading when it comes to
L2.
o Students learned language through series of drills involving imitation, repetition, and
practice (Richard & Rogers, 2001).

2. Innatism (1959)

o It is coined by Noam Chomsky. It refers to the language to have an innate capacity. A

brain of a child contains special language learning mechanism at birth and that is called
as LAD.
 o Every child has a “Language Acquisition Device (LAD)” (Traxler, 2012).
o Children only need minimum language exposer to prime the LAD.
o Human brain is ready innately for language in the sense when children are exposed to
speech, certain principles for discovering and formulating language, automatically starts
to operate.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Theory
Chomsky asserted that children were born with a hard wired language acquisition
device. He asserted that children were born with the instinct or innate facility for acquiring
language. LAD is a postulated organ in the brain that is suppose to function as a congenital
device for language acquisition. It encodes the major principles of a language and its
grammatical structure into the brain of a child.

3. Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

“Language Acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does
not require tedious drill.”
“Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language- natural
communication—in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with
the messages they are conveying and understanding.”

- (Krashen, 1987)

Five Hypothesis of Krashen's Theory:

1. Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
 According to Krashen, there are two independent systems—the acquired system
and the learned system.
 Acquired system- is the product of a subconscious process. It requires
meaningful interaction in the target language.
 Learned system- is the product of formal instruction and learning. It involves a
conscious process which results in conscious knowledge about the target
language.

2. The Monitor Hypothesis

 Conscious learning is limited in Second Language Acquisition (SLA).
 Learning functions as a Monitor.
  Monitor acts in planning, editing and correcting function. The three specific
conditions needed to use monitor are the sufficient time, focus, on form and know
the rule.
 When monitor is not used, errors are natural.

3. The Natural Order Hypothesis

 The acquisition of language rules and grammatical structures follow a predictable
order. Some grammatical rules are acquired early than others have. It is
independent of the learner’s age, L1 background and conditions of exposure.

4. The Input Hypothesis

 It is only concerned with acquisition, not learning.
 L2 learners improve when they receive L2 ‘input'.
 “Human acquires language in only way by understanding messages or by
receiving comprehensible input.” (Krashen, 1987)
 Comprehensible input=understanding of input language, that contains a bit
beyond of the current level of competence. (;+1)
 Speech will emerge once the acquirer has built up enough comprehensible input.

5. Affective Filter Hypothesis

 A barrier that prevents learners from acquiring the language.
 Even if there is enough input, affective feelings and emotional state play an
important role in L2 acquisition.
 When learners has high anxiety, low motivation and low confidence, the filter
turns on and causes barrier to block the language input.

Other Theories Besides from the Three Main Theories of Second

Language Acquisition
 Cognitive Theory
o A conscious and reasoned thinking process, involving deliberate use of learning
strategies.
o Learning strategies- are special ways of processing information that enhances
comprehension, learning or retention of information.
o It contrasts strongly with the behaviorist theory of learning.
o It is coined by McLaughlin. This theory juxtaposes processing mechanisms
(controlled and automatic) and categories of attention to form four cells.
o Controlled process- are capacity limited and temporary. We can think of
controlled processing as typical of anyone learning a brand new skill only a few
elements of the skill that can be retained.
o Automatic process- it is relatively permanent. It refers to processing in a more
accomplished skill where the “hard drive” of your brain (LAD) can manage
thousands of bits of information simultaneously.

 Long’s Interaction Hypothesis (1980)

o Long posits that comprehensible input is the result of modified interaction which
defined as the various modifications that native speakers and other interlocutors
create in order to render their input comprehensible to learners. Example:
native speakers often slow down speech to second language learner, speaking
more deliberately.
o In this view, action and input are two major players in the process of acquisition.
 o That is why, comprehensible input is important for language learning.
o This theory focuses on modified input (modified input>negotiated
interaction>communicating)
o Interactions may serve as a way of focusing the learner’s attention on a
difference between their knowledge of the target language and the reality of what
they are hearing.

How does this theory work?

o Interactional Hypothesis
o Modified Interaction
o Conversational Adjustment
o Comprehension of input
o Language Acquisition

Types of Modified input

o Pre-modified input: when the speech of Native Speaker is characterized with

decreased complexity, but increased length and repetition or redundancy like
foreigner talk.
o Interactionally modified input: Native Speaker provides opportunities for
Native Speaker--Non Native Speaker interaction.
Language users struggle to maximize comprehension. However with more adjustment
within interaction, the more input becomes comprehensible.
Facilitation of comprehension by input modification (to overwhelm some
communicative difficulties:
o Repetition
o Confirmation checks
o Comprehension checks
o Clarification request.

Limitations:
1. Interaction facilitates comprehension (not cause it). When learners have the
opportunity to signal their non-understanding and try to ask for clarification. (Ellis,
1999)
2. Comprehension does not depend on negotiation. Learners may benefit from the
dialogic interaction by other learners.
3. The most important factor of acquisition of word meaning is range (different
contexts).
4. Input and interaction alone are not enough to learn a target language.
5. Individual differences have been neglected.
6. Interactional hypothesis has an atomistic aspect, while language is, in fact, holistic
and dynamic. Modified input just facilitates acquisition of word meanings, not the
whole utterances.
Part III.

Implication to Classroom Setting

Language Learning Strategies

Strategies in language learning, or the steps that one take to learn a language, is very
important in ultimate language performance. It is defined as “specific actions, behaviors, steps,
or techniques — such as seeking out conversation partners or giving oneself encouragement to
tackle a difficult language task — used by students to enhance their own learning” (Scarcella &
Oxford, 1992, p. 63). There are six strategies that learners use when learning a language. The
strategies include:

1. Memory
2. Cognitive
3. Comprehension
4. Metacognitive
5. Affective
6. Social

Memory strategy

People who adopt the memory strategy depend on their memorizing ability. They find
ways to remember better to aid in entering information into long-term memory, by
creating a word-meaning map in their brain (mental linkages), and then being able to
retrieve that information.
Things they do: Do a lot of exercises on English grammar for the learners. Create a
word bank from your reading materials or TV shows and let them memorize the meaning
of the words and try to use them.
Cognitive strategy

People who adopt the cognitive strategy tend to analyze and reason. They form internal
mental codes and revise them to receive and produce the message in the target language.
Adopting this strategy will enable you to internalize the language in direct ways such as
through reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, practicing
in naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and sounds formally.

Things they have to do: Let them watch American dramas or movies who have different
language and try to replicate how the characters pronounce words. Also, to watch
Korean dramas and try to replicate how the characters use certain words in a
sentence. Let them write emails or letters in SL, to read SL reading materials such as
magazines and newspapers.

Comprehension strategy

People who adopt the comprehension strategy find themselves guessing unknown words
when listening and reading. They also try to replace words they do not know with
longer phrases or other words that they know when speaking and writing to overcome
gaps in knowledge.

Things they have to do: Let the learners to guess the meaning of words they don’t
know. Then, let them try to understand the meaning through looking at the word in
context. After that, let them guess the meaning of some words by reading the whole
passage and also to look for cues or nonverbal signs when in conversation.

Metacognitive strategy

People who adopt the metacognitive strategy plan, arrange, focus, evaluate on their
own learning process. They identify and monitor their own learning style preferences
and needs, such as gathering and organizing L2 materials, arranging a study space and a
schedule for L2 revision and learning, monitoring mistakes made in L2, and evaluating
task success, and evaluating the success of any type of learning strategy.

Things they have to do: Observe how the SL teacher speaks in the SL. Observe how
they themselves speak in the SL. Practice speaking in SL in front of the
mirror.  Crosscheck with Google to find out if their pronunciation is correct, and correct
it. Doing crossword puzzles and play word games like scrabble. Take note of how other
people communicate in SL, especially natives.

Social/Affective strategy

People who adopt the social/affective strategy control their feelings, motivations and
attitudes when in social situations such as asking questions, communicating with
others, facilitate conversation and interaction.

Things they have to do: Encourage themselves to speak in SL even when they are afraid
of making a mistake. Reward themselves for good performance. Let them remind
themselves that it is okay to make mistakes. They tell themselves to be confident and not
be afraid to make mistakes then try to speak in SL to others. Provide clarifications of a
confusing point of the L2, or when communicating.
 Statistics teaching can be more effective if teachers determine what it is they really want
students to know how and do as a result of their course and then provide activities designed to
develop the performance they desire. Appropriate assessment is recommended in order for the
teachers to determine whether the learning goals are being achieved in time in order for them to
do something about short comings before the course is over. Educators should think about
continually assess their personal theories of learning and teaching in light of the evidence
classroom experience provides. They need to establish classroom norms indicating that every
student deserves all opportunity to respond. In classroom where the norm is that every student is
capable of giving complete and correct answers, teachers provide prompts, when necessary to
help students give correct answer. Such teacher understand that student question are essential to
deep engagement with and learning particular content. Students are encourage to discover
themselves through spontaneous interaction with the environment. It's implications for how
teachers teach and learn are enormous.
Part IV.

Reflection

As a future educator, I found out that theoretical approaches in explaining second

language learning are necessary for me as well as for everyone who are interested in the field of
teaching English as a second language. These theoretical approaches provided me with
perspectives and explanations on how learners acquired the second language and what factors
can affect their ability to acquire the second language. I found it very helpful as it gave me the
idea on how L2 should be taught and learned in classroom. Among the theoretical approaches
that were discussed above, the Krashen's Monitor model particularly the Input Hypothesis is the
one that I think provide the most basic way in acquiring second language. In its most basic form,
the input hypothesis argues that learners progress along the Natural Order only when they
encounter second language input that is one step beyond where they are in the natural order. In
my view as a student, I think there is no solid theoretical approach which can exactly provide the
ultimate explanation of second language learning. In this case, we as future educators must base
our classroom practices and pedagogical techniques on several theories rather than a single
theory as learners learn and acquire second language differently. In that sense, it will help us
make more informed decisions around the design, development and delivery of learning to our
learners.

Part V.
List Members:
1. Katherine Dedace
2. Ara Marie Correa
3. Josua Lor
4. Clowilyn Nuñez