Structural Health Monitoring Systems: an Overview

Carmelo Scuro, Pierpaolo Antonio Fusaro

Physics Department, University of Civil Engineering Department,
Calabria University of Calabria
Rende, CS, Italy Rende, CS, Italy
carmelo.scuro@unical.it fsrppl94h30a053x@studenti.unical.it
2022 IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for Living Environment (MetroLivEn) | 978-1-6654-0893-6/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/MetroLivEnv54405.2022.9826933

Abstract—This paper presents an overview about the

nowadays Structural Health Monitoring systems from a
metrological point of view. Indeed, many SHMs technologies
were developed during the last years, especially as concerning
with signal processing, innovative hardware architectures, IoT,
and informatics, but the literature has highlighted few
investigations about fundamental metrological aspects as
accuracy, and reliability analysis. These are fundamental to
reduce risk of false alarm or the missing of necessary alarm
provoking a waste of money, in the first case, and risks for
human line in the second one. The final aim is to stimulate the
research in this field by presenting, without any sake of
completeness, the state of the art of the technologies and
achieved results.

Keywords—Structural Health Monitoring, Accuracy, Fig.1 Block Diagram

Measurements, Distributed Measurement Systems, IoT, BIM.
I. INTRODUCTION
The advance in sensor technologies, electronics and
computer science has brought to an unprecedented spread of
monitoring systems to protect living environment [1],[2], to
reduce its impact on environment [3],[4], to monitor its
safeness [5]-[12], to make an inventory [13],[14]. In the last
two years, IEEE published more than 200 journal papers and
300 conference proceedings about Structural Health
Monitoring (SHM) [15]. This impressive numbers are
justified by the importance of these systems in protecting our
life in home, working place, and more in general to protect
human living environment.
The Internet of Things (IoT) [16],[18], unmanned systems
[19], mathematical models [20], [21] and automatic classifiers
based on artificial intelligence have boosted the research in the
field. In [22] and in [23] examples of SHM systems based on
IoT are given. In [24] an IoT monitoring system for masonry
structural health monitoring is proposed, the paper gives also
interesting examples of innovative applications. In [25] a
layered IoT architecture for structural health monitoring is
proposed. The paper gives a logical divide the SHM in layers,
describing, for each one the metrological requirements. In
[26]-[28] SHM systems based on artificial intelligence
algorithm and acoustic emission analysis are proposed. In
[28], interesting applicative aspects peculiar for ancient and
heritage buildings are considered and managed by AI. In [29],
the automatic crack classification by exploiting statistical
event descriptors for deep learning is proposed. This work
arises on the ability of machine learning to classify analog
signals [30].
However, few research is available about the detection
accuracy and reliability of such systems. The importance of
metrological aspects come from the waste of money caused
by a false alarm or the human life risk for a miss of a necessary
alarm. These aspects are introduced in [31] where the B-value
technique is used to classify the signals used to detect the
structural hazard.
To fulfil this lack, this paper would present the recent
research in SHM, with no aim to be exhaustive, due to the
huge research outputs only in the last 2 years, but to be a basis
to stimulate the metrological research in the field.
The paper is organized as follows. In section II the SHM
architectures are presented by focusing both on hardware and
software architecture. In section III the application of IoT
paradigm is presented highlighting the potentialities and the
metrological lacks. In Section IV the application of Artificial
Intelligence for the automatic detection of critical events is
described. The Conclusion follows.
II. SHM ARCHITECTURES
A. Hardware Architectures
As shown in the block diagram of Fig. 1, a SHM is
typically composed by several measurement nodes, each one
equipped by several sensors, a conditioning section used for
to drive the sensors if need and to condition the signal for the
successive elaboration, one or many digital to analog
converters, a storage memory, an elaboration unit, and a
communication section to send the measurement information
over the network.
Many different sensors and sensing techniques are used for
SHM.
Temperature and humidity sensors are typically used to
correlate these parameters to the increasing of visible or
hidden cracks [32]. For these studies, the temperature and
humidity sensors typically used give accuracy of humidity +-
2% and temperature +- 0.5 Celsius.
Crack width sensors are used for the monitoring of visible
crack. They are directly appended to the crack and change
their resistance with respect to displacement. This resistive
sensor typically uses full bridge strain gauge circuit as
conditioning section of the overall data acquisition system.
Linear Potentiometer sensors are typically used for load
testing of bridges as well as monitoring the displacement of

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cracks. The resistance of linear potentiometer changes with
respect to movement of shaft. It generates an analog output
typically ranging from 0 (GND) to 3.3V DC (+VCC) and offer
an accuracy of 0.1 mm. For these sensors, bridge condition
sections are typically used, also.
Accelerometers are used to evaluate the displacement of
monitoring points of the structures. The monitoring points are
established by experts on the basis of the mathematical model
of the structures and by their experience. The continuous
monitoring of the point displacement, together with the
mathematical model allow the automatic detection of hazard.
Typically, the range of accellerometric sensor is in the range
±2 g up to ±6 g with resolution in the range [1.4 - 50]µg and
frequency band in the range [0-1800] Hz [33].
Piezoelectric sensors have made possible the detection of
Acoustic Emissions (AEs) generated by the hidden cracks.
Indeed, they are caused by the realising of energy following
an internal damaging of the building material [34], [35]. The
monitoring techniques based on AE give the advantage to not
use active sensor (think for example at the traditional
monitoring based on ultrasound). As a consequence, this kind
of monitoring is more suitable for IoT paradigm where the
reduction of energy consumption is a must.
The digital to analog conversion is typically performed by
using converters with at least 10 bits. The sampling frequency
varies from some Hz to MHz depending on the dynamic of the
input signal. Typically, humidity and temperature are
monitored with a sampling frequency in the order of some Hz,
accelerometer signals are sampled with a sampling frequency
in the order of tens of kHz, AE signal are sampled with
sampling frequency in the order of MHz, or tenth MHz in the
case of reinforced or armed concrete [35].
For low sampling frequency, Arduino, Arancino and other
low-cost developing board are used to implement the
measurement nodes. The first advantage is obviously the low
cost, but a metrological characterization of the overall
monitoring systems using this hardware is still missing.
Vice versa, for signals needing for high sampling
frequencies (more than tenth kHz) data acquisition board and
dedicated hardware is needed. In this case, between the
challenges to overcame there are the data storage limitation
and the transmission speed.
As concerns the first problem, in [36] a promising solution
based on trigger is proposed. It allows to save only the portion
of signals containing useful information without loose it. The
core of the proposal is an innovative hardware able of
continuous and inline monitoring. In [37] the accuracy of the
damage evaluation is improved by improving the
synchronization among the acquisition channels. In [38] the
problem of the possible lost of AE signals is considered and a
suitable solution was the adaptive acquisition of the time
interval. As concerning the second problem, valid solution is
the detection of the interesting event and the extraction of
features, useful for the detection of critical situations and the
automatic generation of alarm [39]. This second task is usually
executed by dedicated or general-purpose hardware executing
the node software architecture. In [40] a solution based on
system on chip (SoC) is proposed in order to make easier the
AE instrumentation design for SHM to be Internet-of-Things
(IoT) integrated. Indeed, the flexibility of the solution is due
to the: (i) on-board digital signal processing, (ii) local
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Decision Support System (DDS), and (iii) capability of
synchronization and triggering of multiple AE sensors.
An innovative approach for the reduction of the sample to
be stored and processed come form the compressive sampling
[41]. In [42] a preliminary assessment of the performance of
four Compressive Sampling (CS) algorithms used for
Acoustic Emission (AE) signals delivered by a distributed
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) system. Three random
CS-based methods (i.e., Random Demodulation, Gaussian,
and Bernoulli), already available in the literature, were
evaluated and compared to a deterministic CS-based
approach, called Deterministic Binary Block Diagonal
(DBBD). The obtained experimental results show that the CS-
based method relying on the DBBD outperforms the
efficiency of the random CS-based approaches in terms of
signal reconstruction quality. In particular, the figure of merit
Recovery Error (RE) has been calculated and it is shown that
REs are below 20% for compression ratios up to 6 in the case
of DBBD CS method.
Further problem tied with the analog to digital conversion
is the ADC characteristic, often far away from the ideal one.
In order to characterize the ADC testing signals must be used.
Promising one are the exponential signals [43]since are easy
to generate and can be used for the inline testing of the ADC
[44]. Another problem that can affect the sampling accuracy
is the jitter [45], [46] that although it affects the time in which
the sampling is acquired, the facto this provokes uncertainty
in the amplitude values. Therefore, the recent literature has
proposed interesting solutions for its evaluation [47]
Fig.2 Block Diagram of the architecture proposed in [32]
Further hardware architecture part affecting the accuracy
and the reliability of the detection of critical event is the
synchronization of all system components [48]. in [49] an
interesting overview is given by considering the
synchronization requirements at each logical level in which
the monitoring system is divided. It can be achieved by
aligning signals used to trigger the different components of the
node [50]-[53] or by deploying clocks. Obviously, the
achievable synchronization accuracies are coarse in the
second case, but this second solutions allow the
synchronization of far-away nodes [54],[55]. In this second
case a further problem to be solved is the reduction of energy
consumption, since often these systems are powered by
batteries. Obviously, this creates a trade-off between the
achievable synchronization accuracy and the consumed
power. Suitable solution is proposed in [56] where only the
node involved in the sensing are synchronized with higher
accuracy, and in [49] where the Authors highlight that the
synchronization accuracy requirements change on the basis of
the logical level of the monitoring system. The
synchronization method that can be used are different and
depends on the network, as described in Section II.B.
B. Software Architectures
A first task of the software architecture is the pre-
elaboration of the acquired signals to extract the measurement
information. For example, look-up tables of conversion
formulas are used to convert the voltage level in temperature,
humidity or other physical quantities, and in the case of AE to
detect if the acquired signal comes from a new fracture or a
assessment of existing ones. In this last case the information
can be extracted by shape characteristics [31], [39] or by using
automatic classifiers [29].
A second task of the software architecture is the automatic
deployment of the network allowing the communications
among measurement nodes and with the users. In the
architecture presented in [32], a client server architecture is
proposed where the measurement node can switch on client to
server mode based on a command received by human users.
When it is in server mode, it waits for the clients, i.e., the
sensors. It communicates to each connected sensor the ID, the
SSID of the router, the router’s password, and other
networking information.
Once the network is built, several actions must be
performed as the management of the concurrency among
measurement nodes and the storage of the information
collected by the nodes. Then the problem to keep updated the
user interface occurs and much software is nowadays
available to this aim. For example, in [32] ReactJS is used.
For the synchronization of the measurement nodes, at
software levels many techniques are available to preserve the
synchronization accuracy during all the monitoring. In [57] a
statical analysis of the received synchronization messages is
performed by each node to preserve the synchronization
accuracy from the adding of a new non synchronized one. In
[58] the problem of the communication delay on the
synchronization accuracy is considered and in [59] a
synchronization algorithm robust to the communication delay
is proposed.
III. IOT PARADIGM
IoT in SHM opens new perspectives especially as
concerning the automated monitoring.
IoT paradigm allows the cooperation of many
heterogeneous SHM devices by means of Internet. The
devices must be able to local processing of the data, and to
transmit the measurement information that they evaluate.
A general description of IoT based monitoring system is
presented in [17].
In [24] an overview of IoT based SHMs for masonry
structural health monitoring is given. In this field the main
uses, is to monitor individual structural elements, for the
identification, detection and characterization of damage and
degradation of construction materials. The paper focuses on
masonry structures belonging to historical and cultural
heritage [60], arguing their use for the protection from
earthquakes. In the paper, it is highlighted the logical design
of the described IoT systems by taken into account the logical
division of the cyber and physical parts.
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In [32] IoT is proposed for the automatic auditing and
testing of the structures. The aim is to propose a system where
users can see live data on the web page. The architecture of
the system is presented in Fig.2. The monitoring system is
designed to monitor bridge crack width with respect to
temperature.
Sensor nodes: Authors propose the use of linear
potentiometer, crack width sensor, temperature, and humidity
sensor. No information about the achievable overall accuracy
is available. Indeed, this would imply the developing of an
uncertainty model that was out of the scope of the authors.
Edge: it is used for gathering the data of sensors and
routing data and commands between cloud and sensors. A
peculiarity of the Edge is the ability to manage concurrency.
It tracks the connected sensors and save their data in a
relational database. Then it routes data to cloud over
websocket. Also in this case, no information about
measurements for security and reliability are available.
Cloud: it maintains the websocket connection with edges,
and users, receives data coming from them and saving it in a
relational database, transmit data to users. A new user will
receive all the previous data while the old ones just the
updates.
Client Application: connects to cloud via websocket and
receives data acquired by sensors. To this aim, the software in
client application is based on React Rechart library.
IV. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Artificial intelligence is raising its importance in the
detection of hazards and the automatic generation of alarm. In
the following some examples of SHM based on AI is given.
In [61] a vision-based system is proposed for the automatic
detection and semantic segmentation of lesions to carry out
damage detection. The main problem that the Authors
overcome is that the semantic segmentation approach
separates regions that contain only objects of the same class.
Concrete surface damage can contain multiple cracks: vertical
crack, horizontal crack, diagonal crack, branch crack, and
spall, that need to be segmented. To fulfil this limit Authors
propose the Mask Region-Based Convolutional Neural
Network (Mask R-CNN). The Classifier was trained and
tested over 800 images. Many parameters to evaluate the
effectiveness of the proposal are given but a metrological
study about the achieved accuracy should be boosted.
In [62], the detection and the classification of column
cracks is achieved by the analysis of data acquired by
microwave sensors by means of Bayesian Classifier and the
probabilistic pattern recognition.
In [63] the machine learning for automatic processing of
modal analysis in damage detection of bridges is proposed.
The aim is the automatic detection of anomalies in bridge
structures from vibrational data. The Authors starts from the
stabilization diagram obtained through operational modal
analysis (OMA) for the clustering of modal frequencies and
their tracking. Features are extracted and then given as input
to a one-class classification algorithm for the automatic
anomaly detection. To evaluate the proposal effectiveness it
was compared with other classification methods based on the
principal component analysis (PCA), the kernel PCA
(KPCA), the Gaussian Mixture Model, and the
autoassociative neural network.
 The historical heritage requires a continuous monitoring to
preserve its state of conservation. SHM systems are
fundamental for the automatic detection of critical events that
would ruin the state of conservation of the building. In [28]
the Authors propose the use of a SHM system based on the
automatic analysis of the acoustic emissions in conjunction
with a K-nearestneighbor (KNN) Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Algorithm for the classification of the data. The features used
for the training and the use of the automatic classifier are
estimated by using the Gutenberg–Richter law, typically used
in the analysis of the earthquake. This permits to correlate the
characteristic of the magnitude acoustic emission due to an
event in the building with the number of the events.
The proposed architecture is experimentally tested on
concrete cube samples, and the results show that the KNN has
good classification accuracy and low misclassification.
Further research is needed for an extensive testing of the
proposal.
V. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper an overview about the cutting edge technologies
for Structural Health Monitoring systems is presented from a
metrological point of view. Many SHMs technologies were
developed during the last years, especially as concerning with
signal processing, innovative hardware architectures, IoT, and
computer science, but the literature has highlighted few
investigations about fundamental metrological aspects as
accuracy, and reliability analysis. The risk concerns with the
occurrence of false alarm or the lack of necessary alarms. This
can provoke a waste of money, due to the un-useful
intervention of specialized technicians and, often, the
interdiction of the structures until the inspection finish. If an
alarm is not generated of it is generate too late, the risk for
human life occurs. The final aim is to stimulate the research in
this field by presenting, without any sake of completeness, the
state of the art of the technologies and achieved results.
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