Covalent: metal - metal

Ionic: metal - nonmetal

Covalent bonding
A chemical bond that involves sharing electrons to form electron pairs between atoms. H20

Ionic bond
Tends to be an electron donor

Property of water
Water has a high heat capacity, water has a high heat of evaporation, and water is a solvent:
because it can be attracted to either the positive or negative electrical charge on a solute.

Hydrogen bonding
Water results from the attractive force between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a very
electronegative atom such as an N, O, or F atom and another very electronegative atom.
Because of hydrogen bonding, water molecules cling
together, and this association gives water its unique chemical properties. Each water
molecule can hydrogen bond with up to four other molecules, in three dimensions. When in a
liquid state, water constantly forms and breaks hydrogen bonds. In carbon dioxide, O C O,
a slight difference in polarity between carbon and oxygens is present, but because carbon
dioxide is symmetrical, the opposing charges cancel one another and hydrogen bonding
does not occur.

Cohesive and Adhesive

Cohesion refers to the ability of water molecules to cling to each other due to hydrogen
bonding. Because water molecules are cohesive, a tension is created that pulls the water
column up from the roots. Adhesion refers to the ability of water molecules to cling to other
polar surfaces. Adhesion of water to the walls of the transport vessels also helps prevent the
water column from breaking apart.

Organic compound
Each carbon atom can make four bonds and so it can connect to four other atoms. In some
carbon compounds small molecules (monomers) bond with many other similar units to make
a very large molecule (polymer). The ability of carbon to combine and make macromolecules
(large molecules) is the basis of all biological molecules and provides great variety found in
living things.

Carbohydrates
The majority of carbohydrates have a carbon-to-hydrogen-to-oxygen ratio of 1:2:1 (CH2O).
The term carbohydrate (literally, carbon-water) includes single sugar molecules and chains
of sugars. Chain length varies from a few sugars to hundreds of sugars. The monomer
subunits, called monosaccharides, are assembled into long polymer chains called
polysaccharides.

Glycosidic bond only in carbohydrates

Glycosidic bond. A covalent bond joins the hemiacetal group of a saccharide molecule and
the hydroxyl group of some organic compound. Alpha h di atas beta oh di atas.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides consist of only a single sugar molecule and are commonly called simple
sugars. A monosaccharide can have a carbon backbone of three to seven carbons.
Pentoses are monosaccharides with five carbons and hexoses are monosaccharides with
six carbons. Monosaccharides have a large number of hydroxyl groups, and the presence of
this polar functional group makes them soluble in water. Glucose (C6H12O6) is an example
of a hexose. Glucose is a molecule that is broken down and converted into stored chemical
energy (ATP) during cellular respiration in nearly all types of organisms. Ribose and
deoxyribose, with five carbon atoms, are pentose sugars that are significant because they
make up the structural backbone, respectively, in the nucleic acids RNA and DNA.

Disaccharides
A disaccharide contains two monosaccharides that have joined during a dehydration
reaction. Maltose consists of two alpha glucose. Sucrose consists of glucose and fructose
monomers. Lactose is glucose combined with galactose.

Polysaccharides: Energy-Storage Molecules

Polysaccharides are long polymers of monosaccharides. Due to their length, they are
sometimes referred to as complex carbohydrates. Some types of polysaccharides function
as short-term energy-storage molecules. Plants store a large amount of glucose in the form
of starch. that starch exists in two forms: One form (amylose) is unbranched and the other
(amylopectin) is branched. Animals store a large amount of glucose in the form of glycogen.

Polysaccharides: Structural Molecules

Structural polysaccharides include cellulose in plants, chitin in animals and fungi, and
peptidoglycan in bacteria. In all three, monomers are joined by the type of bond shown for
cellulose. Glucose is the monomer that makes up cellulose while in chitin, the monomer has
an attached amino group. The structure of peptidoglycan is even more complex, with each
monomer containing an amino acid chain.

Lipids
Lipids doesn’t categorised as monomers or polymers. Lipids contain many carbon-hydrogen
bonds and almost no oxygen. When lipids are oxidised in the respiration process, the bonds
are broken and carbon dioxide and water are the final products. This reaction can be used to
drive the production of much atp. Triglycerides store about three times as much energy as
the same mass of carbohydrates. Lipids contain a much lower proportion of oxygen than
carbohydrates. Fats and oils contain 2 organic chemical substances, fatty acids and glycerol,
both are combined using ester bonds.

Fatty acids
Saturated fatty acid, each carbon atom is joined to the one next to it by a single covalent
bond
Unsaturated fatty acid, the carbon chains have one or more double covalent bonds between
carbon atoms in them.
Monounsaturated fatty acid has one carbon-carbon double bond.
Polyunsaturated fatty acid has more than one carbon-carbon double bond.
Ester bonds
A triglyceride is formed when the three hydroxyls (OH-) groups of a single glycerol molecule
react with the carboxyl group (COOH-) of three fatty acids by forming ester bonds.