Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dissertation
Dissertation
in Adult Relationships:
Understanding the Influence of Different Factors on Relationship
Attitudes
DISSERTATION
By
RISHITA AGARWAL
18BABBA236
Under the guidance of
DR. PRATEEK KUMAR SINGH
Examiners/Panelists:
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
Supervisor:
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
Chairman:
_________________________
Date: _______________
STUDENT’S DECLARATION
I, Rishita Agarwal, hereby declare that this written submission represents my ideas in
my own words, and where others’ ideas or words have been included, I have
adequately cited and referenced the sources. I also declare that I have adhered to all
principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or
fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source in my submission. I understand that
any violation of the above will be cause for disciplinary action by the PANDIT
DEENDAYAL ENERGY UNIVERSITY and can also evoke penal action from the
sources which have thus not been appropriately cited or from whom proper permission
has not been taken when needed.
(Signature)
_________________________________
(Name of Student)
18BABBA236
_________________________________
(Roll No.)
Date: / 05 / 2023
UNDERTAKING
I submit that the edifice of this dissertation research report on Impact of Emotion
Regulation Strategies on Attachment Styles in Adult Relationships: Understanding the
Influence of Different Factors on Relationship Attitudes is built and further developed
on the framework of extensive and critically focused literature survey with sources
listed in the bibliography. In addition, the recourse has also been made to a large
number of references based on critical analysis of experts, special reports in journals,
articles and research papers of journals and magazines, internet, newspapers, reports
of government agencies, conceptual anchoring attributable to standard works
including books and the vast treasure of secondary information. They have been
indexed at the end of this dissertation research report. I further submit that in the
process of the primary research, the conceptual underpinnings, hypotheses,
interpretations, and analysis leading to major findings are mine, and I, at the same
time, accept the limitations and inadequacies, if any. I certify that I have not copied
any material without citation from any published sources. I also certify that I have
checked the plagiarism of this dissertation thesis and it is under the prescribed limit
defined by the UGC i.e., University Grants Commission (UGC), Government of India.
I certify and declare that I have not been awarded or conferred any degree, diploma,
or distinction of any kind, either by Pandit Deendayal Energy University or any other
university for the work presented in this dissertation research report.
Signature
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
indirectly helped me with this dissertation. I would like to thank Dr. Prateek Kumar
Singh, my guide and mentor, for his invaluable advice, continuous support, and
patience during my research study. His immense knowledge and plentiful experience
have encouraged me in all the time of my academic research and daily life. Due to his
guidance, 1 could minimize my difficulties and convert them into strengths during
this dissertation process. Additionally, I would also like to extend my heartfelt thanks
to him for the technical support that he provided me with in my study. I would also
take this opportunity to extend my gratitude to our director Dr. Ritu Sharma for always
being a source of inspiration and strength. Further, I would like to thank all the
respondents who took time out of their busy schedules to respond to my questionnaire
and participate in the study. A big thank you to our university’s library support staff
knowledge on the research topic that I chose to work upon. Lastly, a special thanks to
all my faculty members, colleagues, peers, and my entire family for their constant
2
ABSTRACT:
Gross and John (2003) insist, that individual discrepancies in emotion regulation
being. The way individuals regulate their emotions can have a significant impact on
and Shaver (2007) Attachment theory suggests that attachment styles develop through
interactions with caregivers in early childhood and continue to shape our relationships
situations. These strategies can impact the way we form and maintain attachment
styles in adulthood.
Research has shown that emotion regulation strategies can have both positive and
negative effects on attachment styles. Sbarra and Hazan (2008) propose an integrative
analysis of adult attachment, separation, loss, and recovery, and suggest that
attachment processes. One study found that individuals who used reappraisal as a
strategy for regulating their emotions reported higher levels of secure attachment in
their adult relationships. This may be because reappraisal involves changing the way
we think about a situation, which can lead to a more positive interpretation and a better
understanding of our partner's needs and emotions. On the other hand, suppression,
which involves hiding or avoiding emotions, has been linked to a greater likelihood
3
Distraction, which involves diverting attention away from the emotional experience,
has also been found to have mixed effects on attachment styles. While distraction may
it can also lead to a lack of emotional engagement in relationships. This may lead to
a sense of emotional distance and detachment from one's partner, which can contribute
Moreover, individual differences, such as gender and personality traits, can also play
a role in the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and attachment styles.
For example, men may be more likely to use suppression as an emotion regulation
strategy, which can increase their risk of developing avoidant attachment styles.
attachment styles.
In conclusion, Simpson and Rholes (2017) argue that adult attachment, stress, and
romantic relationships are intertwined and that understanding the role of attachment
way we think about a situation, has been found to have positive effects on attachment
insecure attachment styles. Distraction has mixed effects on attachment styles, with
some situations where it may be helpful but can also contribute to emotional distance
and detachment. Individual differences, such as gender and personality traits, can also
4
influence the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and attachment
attachment styles can help individuals to develop healthier and more secure
relationships.
5
Table of Content:
Acknowledgment
Abstract
List of Tables and Figures
Abbreviations and Symbols
Chapter 1: Introduction...................................................................10
3.1. Variables
3.2. Sample
3.3. Tool
3.4. Procedure
3.5. Data Analysis
3.6. Ethical Considerations
References
Appendices
6
List of Tables and Figures
Table 3.1
Tabular Representation of Factors and their Corresponding Items (Variable I)
Table 3.2
Tabular Representation of Factors and their Corresponding Items (Variable II)
Table 3.4
Tabular Representation of Gender Distribution
Table 3.5
Tabular Representation of Age Distribution
Table 3.6
Tabular Representation of Statistical Data for all Variables
Table 3.7
Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 1
Table 3.8
Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 1
Table 3.9
Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 2
Table 3.10
Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 2
Table 3.11
Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 3
Table 3.12
Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 3
Table 3.13
Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 4
7
Table 3.14
Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 4
Table 3.15
Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 5
Table 3.16
Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 5
Table 3.17
Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 6
Table 3.18
Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 6
Table 3.19
Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 7
Table 3.20
Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 7
Table 3.21
Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 8
Table 3.22
Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 8
Table 3.23
Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 9
Table 3.24
Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 9
Table 3.25
Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 10
8
Table 3.26
Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 10
Table 3.27
Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 11
Table 3.28
Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 11
Table 3.29
Tabular Representation of Group Statistics for Hypothesis 12
Table 3.30
Tabular Representation of Independent Samples for Hypothesis 12
Table 3.31
Tabular Representation of Correlational Analysis of Expressive Suppression and
Attachment Anxiety Levels.
Table 3.32
Tabular Representation of Correlational Analysis of Cognitive Reappraisal and
Attachment Avoidance Levels.
9
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
10
Background of the Study:
Emotions are a crucial component of human experience and play a significant role in
shaping our behaviors, thoughts, and social interactions. Emotion regulation refers to
This strategy is commonly used to avoid social consequences, such as the disapproval
Cognitive reappraisal, on the other hand, involves changing the way we think about a
situation to alter the emotional impact it has on us. This strategy involves identifying
and modifying the meaning we attach to events or stimuli, thereby altering our
strategy for reducing negative emotions, such as anxiety, anger, and sadness, and
Research has shown that emotion regulation strategies are not only associated with
different emotional outcomes but also with various cognitive, behavioral, and social
11
outcomes. Expression suppression has been linked to increased stress, decreased
frequently use expression suppression may be at increased risk for developing anxiety
and depression.
Cognitive reappraisal, on the other hand, has been associated with decreased
physiological stress, increased positive affect, and improved social functioning. This
strategy has also been found to be effective in reducing symptoms of anxiety and
differences in the use and effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies. For example,
gender differences in emotion regulation have been reported, with women more likely
to use cognitive reappraisal and men more likely to use expression suppression.
extraversion, and openness, have been found to be associated with different patterns
It is also important to note that emotion regulation strategies are not used in isolation
but in combination with other strategies and in response to different situations. For
while using cognitive reappraisal in private settings where they have more control
12
Recent research has also explored the neural mechanisms underlying emotion
such as the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia. In contrast, cognitive reappraisal
reappraisal, such as the prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex.
These strategies are associated with different emotional outcomes and can have
as gender and personality traits, can also influence the use and effectiveness of
strategies can help individuals to develop healthier and more effective ways of
Cognitive Reappraisal:
Cognitive reappraisal can be divided into three general stages: (1) the identification
13
strategy, and (3) the implementation of that strategy (Gross, 2002). The goal of
Research has demonstrated that cognitive reappraisal can be an effective strategy for
regulating emotion. For example, studies have shown that individuals who frequently
use cognitive reappraisal are less likely to experience negative emotions, such as
anxiety and depression, and more likely to experience positive emotions, such as
outcomes. For example, it has been associated with improved mental health, better
reducing the emotional distress associated with a range of mental health disorders,
including anxiety disorders and depression (McRae, Ciesielski, & Gross, 2012).
Expression Suppression:
may also have negative long-term consequences, as it can interfere with emotional
processing and lead to a buildup of negative emotions (Gross & John, 2003).
14
Research has shown that expression suppression can have negative consequences for
emotional wellbeing. For example, studies have found that individuals who frequently
use expression suppression experience more negative emotions, such as anxiety and
depression, and have poorer social functioning than those who use other emotion
consequences. For example, studies have shown that the suppression of emotions can
lead to increased levels of stress hormones and cardiovascular reactivity, which can
Overall, expression suppression is a strategy that may be useful in some contexts, but
reappraisal has been shown to have a variety of positive outcomes and is a more
alter its emotional impact, while expression suppression involves inhibiting the
expression suppression has been associated with negative emotional and physiological
15
consequences. Thus, cognitive reappraisal is a more effective long-term strategy for
and maintain emotional bonds with others. According to attachment theory, the
models of themselves and others, which in turn influence their attachment style in
Attachment styles can be categorized into three main categories: secure attachment,
a strong sense of emotional security, trust, and comfort with closeness and intimacy.
Individuals with an anxious attachment style tend to feel insecure in their relationships
and worry that their partner will abandon or reject them (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016).
This anxiety can lead to behaviors such as clinginess, jealousy, and a need for constant
reassurance from their partner. Anxious individuals may also have a tendency to
overthink and overanalyze their relationships, which can lead to increased anxiety and
stress.
Research has shown that individuals with an anxious attachment style may have
16
(Ein-Dor, Mikulincer, & Doron, 2010). They may also engage in maladaptive emotion
regulation strategies, such as rumination and emotional suppression, which can lead
to negative outcomes such as anxiety and depression (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016).
interpret ambiguous social cues as negative, which can lead to increased anxiety and
insecurity in their relationships (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016). For example, an anxious
individual may interpret their partner's failure to return a text message as a sign that
their partner is losing interest in the relationship, even if there is no evidence to support
this interpretation.
emotional closeness and may avoid intimate relationships (Mikulincer & Shaver,
2016). Avoidant individuals may have difficulty expressing their emotions to others
Research has shown that individuals with an avoidant attachment style may have
difficulty recognizing their own emotions, which can interfere with their ability to
form and maintain intimate relationships (Crowell, Fraley, & Shaver, 2015). They
emotion and avoidance of emotional topics, which can lead to negative outcomes such
Furthermore, individuals with an avoidant attachment style may be less likely to seek
social support in times of stress, which can further exacerbate their feelings of
loneliness and isolation (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016). Avoidant individuals may also
17
have a tendency to minimize the importance of relationships in their lives, which can
style and enhancing emotion regulation skills for both anxious and avoidant
individuals (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016). This type of therapy focuses on developing
anxiety and avoidance attachment styles (Snyder, 2013). CBT focuses on identifying
and changing negative thought patterns and maladaptive behaviors that contribute to
of emotional and behavioral patterns that can impact relationships. Individuals with
an anxious attachment style may struggle with regulating their emotions and
interpreting social cues, while individuals with an avoidant attachment style may
struggle with emotional closeness and recognizing their own emotions. Attachment-
based therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy are effective treatments for improving
outcomes such as anxiety and depression. On the other hand, individuals with
18
avoidant attachment style feel uncomfortable with emotional closeness and may avoid
intimate relationships. They may have difficulty expressing their emotions and seek
to avoid emotional topics. This can lead to negative outcomes such as loneliness and
Attachment theory provides a framework for understanding how individuals form and
maintain emotional bonds with others. Attachment styles, including anxious and
avoidant attachment, are shaped by early caregiving experiences and influence adult
distant and may have difficulty recognizing and expressing their emotions.
19
Statement of Problem:
suppression, have also been found to impact relationship outcomes. However, there is
The problem addressed in this study is the limited understanding of the impact of
Previous studies have explored the relationship between attachment styles and
emotion regulation strategies, but there is limited research on how these strategies
affect attachment styles in romantic relationships. This gap in the literature highlights
relationships, and a lack of effective emotion regulation skills can lead to negative
certain attachment styles tend to use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, this
20
relationships. If we do not understand how emotion regulation strategies impact
satisfaction and overall well-being. This study seeks to fill this gap in the literature by
exploring the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and attachment styles
3. Does the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and attachment styles
adult romantic relationships. The findings from this study can inform interventions
21
Research Objectives:
population.
(2) To understand the role of the age factor and its influence on the dominant
(3) To understand the role of income source and family settings and their
avoidance.
anxiety.
(6) To understand the role of residential settings and their influence on the
attachment styles.
22
Research Hypothesis:
pocket-money-dependent individuals.
pocket-money-dependent individuals.
by individuals living with parents versus the ones living independently or with friends.
23
H0: There is no significant difference in the prevalence of avoidance levels manifested
by individuals living with parents versus the ones living independently or with friends.
24
H9: There is a significant difference in the prevalence of adaptive cognitive
pocket-money-dependent individuals.
pocket-money-dependent individuals.
by individuals living with parents versus the ones living independently or with friends.
by individuals living with parents versus the ones living independently or with friends.
25
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
26
Literature on Variable I (Emotion Regulation Strategies)
Introduction:
Emotions play a crucial role in human behavior and affect every aspect of our lives.
experiences in order to achieve their goals, maintain social relationships, and reduce
involve changing the emotion after it has been experienced (Gross, 2015). This
Antecedent-Focused Strategies:
example, instead of feeling angry when a friend cancels plans, an individual may
reappraise the situation and realize that their friend had a legitimate reason for
emotions in both laboratory and real-life settings (Gross & John, 2003).
27
Another antecedent-focused strategy is situation selection, which involves choosing
to enter or avoid a situation based on its emotional impact. For example, an individual
may avoid a crowded party if they know it will make them feel anxious. Situation
selection has been shown to be effective in reducing negative emotions and increasing
Response-Focused Strategies:
been shown to be ineffective in reducing negative emotions and can have negative
one thinks about the emotion after it has been experienced. For example, an individual
may reappraise their fear of public speaking as excitement rather than anxiety.
Functional imaging studies have shown that emotion regulation is associated with
28
regulation, including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), ventrolateral
prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) (Ochsner et al.,
2012). These regions are involved in attentional control, working memory, and
cognitive reappraisal.
Gender differences have been observed in emotion regulation strategies. Women tend
to use more cognitive reappraisal and less suppression than men, which may be related
discourage men from doing so (Gross & John, 2003). However, the effectiveness of
disorders, mood disorders, and personality disorders. Cognitive reappraisal has been
disorder, may have difficulty using cognitive reappraisal effectively (Gross, 2015).
29
Conclusion:
Emotion regulation strategies are important for maintaining emotional well-being and
research has identified regions of the prefrontal cortex involved in emotion regulation,
while gender differences have been observed in the use of emotion regulation
aspect of treatment.
factors, including the individual, the situation, and the emotion being regulated.
dysregulation.
30
Emotion regulation refers to the processes by which individuals modulate the
and expression suppression. Cognitive reappraisal involves changing the way one
involves inhibiting the outward expression of emotions. This literature review will
Cognitive Reappraisal:
way one thinks about a situation. This technique involves reframing an emotional
event in a more positive light, thereby reducing negative emotions such as anxiety,
that they have prepared thoroughly and that the presentation will be an opportunity to
Research has shown that cognitive reappraisal can be an effective emotion regulation
31
Furthermore, a study conducted by McRae and colleagues (2010) found that
individuals who engaged in more cognitive reappraisal had greater activity in the
prefrontal cortex, a brain region involved in cognitive control, and were better able to
Expression Suppression:
emotional responses modulate their cognitive processes (Gross, 2015). For example,
if someone is feeling angry, they might suppress their expression of anger to avoid
While expression suppression may be useful in some contexts, research suggests that
it can have negative consequences for emotional well-being. A study by Gross and
John (2003) found that individuals who habitually used expression suppression had
reported more negative emotions than those who used cognitive reappraisal.
Similarly, a study by Gross and Levenson (1997) found that suppressing emotions
32
Comparison of Cognitive Reappraisal and Expression Suppression:
regulation strategies, research suggests that they have different consequences for
One possible explanation for these differences is that cognitive reappraisal involves a
involves actively changing the way one thinks about a situation, whereas expression
33
Both cognitive reappraisal and expression suppression have been found to have
different effects on mental health, social relationships, and other outcomes. The
regulation and social outcomes. Individuals with insecure attachment styles, such as
emotions and may be more vulnerable to mental health problems and interpersonal
conflicts.
attachment styles can provide valuable insights into how individuals manage their
emotions in close relationships and cope with life stressors. The literature reviewed
in this study highlights the need for further research to explore the complex
relationships between these variables and their implications for mental health and
interpersonal functioning.
Future studies could also examine how interventions that target emotion regulation
strategies and attachment styles may be used to promote mental health and improve
relationships.
34
Literature on Variable II (Attachment Styles)
Introduction:
responses that individuals exhibit towards their significant others, primarily romantic
partners. Attachment theory has been studied extensively over the past few decades,
with research indicating that attachment styles are shaped by early childhood
experiences with caregivers, and can have a significant impact on adult romantic
relationships. This literature review will examine the different attachment styles
identified in psychology, their underlying mechanisms and how they affect adult
relationships.
The secure attachment style is characterized by individuals who have a positive view
of themselves and their relationships with others. These individuals have a relatively
easy time forming and maintaining close relationships, and tend to be comfortable
with intimacy and emotional closeness. They exhibit low levels of attachment anxiety
and avoidance and are comfortable with relying on their partner for support when
needed.
Research has consistently found that secure attachment styles are associated with
35
and accepting of their partner’s faults. They are less likely to engage in behaviours
relationships, often worrying about whether their partner truly loves them and is
committed to the relationship. They exhibit high levels of attachment anxiety and low
levels of avoidance. These individuals often fear abandonment and tend to cling to
Research has found that individuals with an anxious attachment style are more likely
possessiveness. They also tend to exhibit more negative emotions and conflict in their
relationships. These behaviours often push their partner away, further exacerbating
and emotional closeness. They exhibit low levels of attachment anxiety and high
levels of avoidance. These individuals often maintain emotional distance from their
partners and may have difficulty expressing their emotions or relying on their partner
for support. They may also have a tendency to withdraw from conflict in an effort to
36
Research has found that individuals with an avoidant attachment style are more likely
and avoidance. They also tend to exhibit less empathy and less investment in the
child’s needs. Children who experience consistent and responsive care from their
caregivers tend to develop a secure attachment style, while children who experience
attachment styles. Studies have found that individuals with a secure attachment style
exhibit greater activation in brain regions associated with positive emotions and social
activation in brain regions associated with negative emotions and cognitive control.
Conclusion:
Attachment styles play a significant role in shaping adult romantic relationships. The
three primary attachment styles identified in psychology are secure, anxious, and
37
avoidant. Individuals with a secure attachment style tend to have positive and lasting
relationships, while individuals with an anxious or avoidant attachment style are more
shaped by early childhood experiences with caregivers and are associated with
identifying effective interventions for individuals with insecure attachment styles and
working models can shape an individual's perceptions of self and others and influence
their attachment style in adulthood. Attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance are
two primary dimensions of attachment styles that have received considerable attention
relationships.
Attachment Anxiety
attachment anxiety may have an intense need for reassurance and closeness from their
partners and may become overly dependent on their partners for emotional support.
They may also be more likely to experience jealousy and insecurity in relationships
38
Development of Attachment Anxiety
responses to their needs may develop a sense of insecurity and uncertainty in their
in later relationships.
attachment anxiety on a continuum from low to high and asks individuals to rate their
level of agreement with statements such as "I often worry that my partner will abandon
me."
Attachment anxiety has been found to be associated with a range of negative mental
health outcomes, including depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem. Individuals with
high levels of attachment anxiety may be more vulnerable to the negative impact of
stress and may have a more significant emotional reaction to negative events in their
39
less stable and less satisfying relationships and a greater likelihood of conflict and
infidelity.
Attachment Avoidance
attachment avoidance may view emotional intimacy as threatening and may attempt
to maintain emotional distance from their partners. They may also be more likely to
may develop a sense of independence and self-reliance as a way to cope with the lack
Attachment avoidance can be assessed using self-report measures such as the ECR
high and asks individuals to rate their level of agreement with statements such as "I
40
Impact of Attachment Avoidance on Mental Health and Interpersonal Relationships
Attachment avoidance has been found to be associated with a range of negative mental
health outcomes, including depression, anxiety, and substance abuse. Individuals with
numbness and detachment and may have difficulty forming close relationships. In
intimate and less satisfying relationships and a greater likelihood of conflict and
infidelity.
Attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance are not mutually exclusive and can co-
occur in individuals. Individuals who exhibit high levels of both attachment anxiety
and attachment avoidance may experience conflicting desires for closeness and
relationship instability.
attachment styles have been linked to various negative outcomes in adult relationships
such as increased conflict, decreased satisfaction, and higher rates of breakups and
divorce. However, there is hope for individuals with these attachment styles as
41
research has also shown that with proper interventions and therapies, individuals can
Overall, attachment anxiety and avoidance are complex and multifaceted constructs
that require further research to fully understand their mechanisms and the best ways
to address them in clinical settings. Future studies may focus on exploring the different
developing more effective interventions that can help individuals transition to more
secure attachment styles. Through continued research and exploration, we can gain a
deeper understanding of attachment styles and provide individuals with the tools they
42
Theoretical Approach of Variable I (Emotion Regulation Strategies):
in order to meet one's goals and adapt to the environment. While there are many
strategies are cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. In this review, we will
Cognitive Reappraisal
the situation itself. For example, if someone receives negative feedback at work, they
may use cognitive reappraisal to view the feedback as an opportunity for growth rather
The technical approach to cognitive reappraisal involves several key steps. First, the
individual must identify the emotional stimulus and their initial emotional response.
Next, they must generate an alternative interpretation of the situation that is more
adaptive and less emotionally arousing. Finally, they must actively replace their initial
Research has shown that cognitive reappraisal can be an effective emotion regulation
strategy in a variety of contexts. For example, studies have found that individuals who
use cognitive reappraisal in response to stress experience lower levels of anxiety and
43
depression than those who do not use this strategy (Gross & John, 2003). In addition,
response to social rejection (Eisenberger et al., 2003) and physical pain (Lieberman
et al., 2011).
report scales. One of the most widely used measures is the Emotion Regulation
Questionnaire (ERQ; Gross & John, 2003), which assesses the use of both cognitive
reappraisal and expressive suppression. The cognitive reappraisal subscale of the ERQ
consists of six items that ask respondents to rate how frequently they engage in
(CRS; Peña-Sarrionandia et al., 2015) and the Reappraisal Inventory (RI; Rachman,
1980). The CRS consists of 12 items that assess the use of reappraisal in response to
both positive and negative emotions (e.g., "I try to see the positive aspects of a
situation when I am feeling down"). The RI is a 12-item scale that assesses the use of
reappraisal in response to anxiety-provoking situations (e.g., "I try to see the situation
changing the way one thinks about a situation in order to alter the emotional response.
research, including the Cognitive Reappraisal Scale (CRS) and the Emotion
44
1. The Cognitive Reappraisal Scale (CRS) was developed by Gross and John
(2003) and consists of seven items that assess an individual's tendency to use
(strongly agree). Sample items include "When I want to feel less negative
emotion, I change the way I'm thinking about the situation" and "When I'm
faced with a stressful situation, I make myself think about it in a way that helps
me stay calm."
colleagues (2003) and assesses the use of two emotion regulation strategies:
to feel more positive emotion (such as joy or amusement), I change the way
I'm thinking about the situation" and "When I'm faced with a stressful
The ERQ has been widely used in psychological research and has demonstrated good
45
Other scales used to measure cognitive reappraisal include the Cognitive Emotion
Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ) and the Positive Reappraisal Scale (PRS). The
CERQ was developed by Garnefski and Kraaij (2006) and assesses nine different
cognitive emotion regulation strategies, including cognitive reappraisal. The PRS was
Expressive Suppression
others. This approach is often used in situations where it is not socially acceptable to
express one's emotions or where the expression of emotions may have negative
consequences. For example, someone may use expressive suppression to hide their
The technical approach to expressive suppression involves several key steps. First, the
individual must become aware of their emotional response and the urge to express it.
Next, they must actively inhibit the expression of the emotion, often by using physical
they must maintain the inhibition of emotion until the situation or context changes and
it becomes socially acceptable or safe to express the emotion. This process can be
46
To measure expressive suppression as an emotion regulation strategy, researchers
have developed various scales and instruments that assess an individual's tendency to
inhibit the expression of emotions. One commonly used scale is the Emotion
Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) developed by Gross and John in 2003. The ERQ
consists of six items that assess the frequency with which an individual inhibits the
emotions, I make sure not to express them" and "I control my emotions by not
expressing them". Participants rate their agreement with each item on a 7-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), with higher scores
strategy.
Emotional Control Scale (CECS) developed by Martin and colleagues in 1983. The
tendency to control their emotional expression in various situations, such as "I keep a
lid on my feelings" and "I rarely show my emotions to others". Participants rate their
agreement with each item on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all like me)
to 3 (very much like me), with higher scores indicating a greater tendency to use
expressive suppression.
(EDA) has been used to measure the skin conductance response (SCR) during
emotional experiences. The SCR reflects the activity of the sympathetic nervous
47
system and increases when an individual experiences emotional arousal. However,
activity can be used to assess the inhibition of emotional expression during expressive
suppression.
Expressive suppression, on the other hand, involves inhibiting the outward expression
of emotions, which can have both positive and negative effects. On the one hand,
satisfaction.
Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), which assesses deficits in emotion regulation. The
48
suppression, while the DERS measures difficulties in emotional awareness,
well-being.
Expressive suppression is one of the two main strategies used in emotion regulation,
of the ERQ contains four items, which ask individuals to rate how often they
try to control the way they express their emotions (e.g., "I keep my emotions
to myself").
to use expressive suppression as a strategy for coping with stress. The scale
contains 21 items, which ask individuals to rate how frequently they use
49
3. Emotion Regulation Skills Questionnaire (ERSQ): The ERSQ is a self-report
regulation skills. The scale contains nine subscales, one of which assesses the
rate how often they suppress their emotional expressions in different situations
These scales provide researchers and clinicians with a tool to assess the extent to
different contexts. The use of these scales can help identify individuals who may be
at risk for negative outcomes associated with the overuse of expressive suppression,
Additionally, the use of these scales can inform the development of interventions
50
In conclusion, emotion regulation is a crucial aspect of psychological well-being and
is relevant to a wide range of psychological disorders. The two most widely studied
reappraisal involves changing the way one thinks about a situation to alter its
expression of emotions. The use of these strategies can impact attachment styles,
which can in turn affect the quality of adult relationships. Research has shown that
individuals with an anxious attachment style tend to use less effective emotion
individuals with an avoidant attachment style tend to use more cognitive reappraisal
strategies, which can lead to emotional disengagement from the relationship. Future
regulation strategies and attachment styles, and how this affects the development and
Understanding how individuals regulate their emotions can lead to the development
51
Theoretical Approach of Variable II (Attachment Styles):
Attachment styles refer to the characteristic ways in which individuals approach and
interact with others in close relationships. These styles develop in infancy and
childhood and shape the nature and quality of social interactions throughout life. In
scales and measures that allow for a quantitative assessment of attachment styles. This
The most widely used and well-known scale for measuring attachment styles is the
Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) (George, Kaplan, & Main, 1996). This measure
Questionnaire (ASQ) (Feeney, Noller, & Hanrahan, 1994). This self-report measure
views on the importance of emotional intimacy. The ASQ yields scores on three
used measure of attachment styles (Fraley, Waller, & Brennan, 2000). This self-report
52
questionnaire consists of 36 items that assess an individual’s attitudes and behaviors
abandonment, and tendency to seek or avoid intimacy. The ECR-R yields scores on
feelings about relationships. The RSQ consists of 30 items and yields scores on four
measure that assesses an individual’s attachment style based on their responses to four
The Brief Assessment of Adult Attachment (Collins & Read, 1990) is a self-report
In addition to these commonly used measures, there are several other scales and
questionnaires that have been developed to assess attachment styles, including the
Attachment Style Questionnaire for Children (Kerns, Klepac, & Cole, 1996), the
Adult Attachment Scale (Collins & Read, 1990), and the Relationship Questionnaire
53
In summary, the measurement of attachment styles in psychology involves a variety
of scales and measures that assess an individual’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors in
styles and allow for the study of how attachment styles relate to various psychological
report scales and questionnaires. The following are some of the most widely used
measures:
that measures attachment anxiety and avoidance. Participants rate their agreement
with statements such as "I worry about being abandoned" and "I find it difficult to
allow myself to depend on others". The ECR has demonstrated good internal
avoidance, and secure attachment. Participants rate their agreement with statements
such as "I find it easy to get close to others" and "I prefer not to be too close to
3. Adult Attachment Scale (AAS): The AAS is a 40-item measure of adult attachment
style that includes two subscales: attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance.
Participants rate their agreement with statements such as "I worry a lot about my
54
relationships" and "I find it difficult to trust others completely". The AAS has
style that includes three subscales: attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and
secure attachment. Participants rate their agreement with statements such as "I worry
about being rejected" and "I am comfortable depending on romantic partners". The
validity.
avoidance, and secure attachment. Participants rate their agreement with statements
such as "I worry about being alone" and "I am comfortable with intimacy and
closeness". The ASM has demonstrated good internal consistency and construct
validity.
Overall, these scales and questionnaires provide researchers and clinicians with
reliable and valid measures of attachment anxiety, allowing for a better understanding
55
Attachment avoidance is another important attachment style in psychology that has
been studied using various scales and questionnaires. Here are some commonly used
anxiety and 18 items measuring attachment avoidance. Respondents rate how much
they agree or disagree with each statement on a 7-point Likert scale, with higher scores
2. Adult Attachment Scale (AAS): The AAS is a 40-item self-report questionnaire that
anxiety and 20 items for measuring attachment avoidance. Respondents rate each item
Respondents rate each item on a 6-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly
56
4. Relationship Questionnaire (RQ): The RQ is a 4-item self-report questionnaire that
on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (not at all like me) to 7 (very much like me).
includes 15 items for measuring attachment anxiety and 15 items for measuring
attachment avoidance. Respondents rate each item on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging
These scales and questionnaires have been used extensively in attachment research
avoidance in adults.
57
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN
58
Variables:
The independent variable in the study of the impact of emotion regulation strategies
dependent variable is the attachment style of the individual in the adult relationship,
The study aims to investigate whether the use of different emotion regulation
variable because it is influenced by the use of the emotion regulation strategy. For
two groups. One group may be instructed to use expressive suppression when
experiencing a negative emotion, while the other group is instructed to use cognitive
reappraisal. The level of attachment anxiety is then measured and compared between
between those who used expressive suppression versus those who used cognitive
reappraisal.
of two groups. One group may be instructed to use expressive suppression when
experiencing a negative emotion, while the other group is instructed to use cognitive
59
reappraisal. The level of attachment avoidance is then measured and compared
avoidance between those who used expressive suppression versus those who used
cognitive reappraisal. Therefore, the independent variable in both cases is the type of
while the dependent variable is the attachment style (attachment anxiety or attachment
experiences and responses. It involves the ability to recognize and understand one's
own emotions, and then use strategies to either enhance positive emotions or reduce
regulation strategies to see how they affect other variables of interest, such as
uses no specific emotion regulation strategy. The attachment style of both groups can
group that used emotion regulation strategies and the control group. Overall, emotion
styles.
60
(ii) Attachment Styles (Dependent Variable):
they are typically measured or observed as a result of other factors, such as childhood
throughout life. For example, in a study examining the relationship between childhood
childhood would be considered the independent variable, while the attachment style
attachment styles, the use of emotion regulation techniques would be considered the
independent variable, while the attachment style exhibited by participants after using
these techniques would be the dependent variable. The attachment style could be
research because they are often measured or observed as a result of other factors or
61
Sample:
When you conduct research on a group of individuals, it’s rarely doable to collect
statistical data from everybody within that particular group. Instead, a researcher
population.
Samples are utilized in statistical testing when population sizes are overly large for
represent the population as a whole and not be influenced by any bias toward a specific
attribute. The set of criteria to find out which subjects would be included in the sample
is the “Inclusion Criteria” while the criterion to find out which subjects will not
• Males and Females who know how to read and respond to English.
• Males and Females below the age of 18 and above the age of 25.
• Males and Females who do not know how to read and respond to English.
62
population. The sample knowledge includes information about the individuals who
were involved in the research study, such as their age range, gender, relationship
The sample knowledge is critical because it helps to determine whether the results of
any potential biases or limitations in the study, such as sample selection bias or
confounding variables.
population in terms of age, gender, and relationship status. For example, a study by
Huang and colleagues (2018) included 155 participants, ranging in age from 20 to 65
Another study by Dykas and Cassidy (2011) included 142 participants, ranging in age
from 18 to 29 years, who were also in a romantic relationship. Both studies included
health status, their previous experiences with relationships, and any other relevant
contextual factors that could impact their attachment styles or emotion regulation
strategies.
63
For example, a study by Borelli and colleagues (2010) examined the impact of
maternal emotional expressiveness on infant attachment and found that infants with
mothers who were more expressive had a greater likelihood of developing a secure
Overall, having a clear understanding of the sample population is essential for drawing
Hence, the current study was conducted considering a population sample of college-
going students ranging within the age limit of 18 – 25 years, i.e., the youth population,
and data was collected from 112 respondents (N = 112); and under the same, 48 males
and 64 females voluntarily participated in the online survey circulated through the
mode of Google forms. Further, 52 respondents lied between the age range of 18 to
64
Tool:
(01) Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) for assessing the variable of Emotion
Regulation:
suppression and cognitive reappraisal. The ERQ was developed by Gross and John
(2003) and consists of ten items, with five items measuring each emotion regulation
strategy. Participants are asked to rate their level of agreement with each statement on
The first subscale of the ERQ, expressive suppression, measures the extent to which
individuals inhibit the expression of their emotional responses. Example items from
this subscale include "I keep my emotions to myself" and "I control my emotions by
not expressing them." Scores on this subscale range from 5 to 35, with higher scores
The second subscale of the ERQ, cognitive reappraisal, measures the extent to which
emotional responses. Example items from this subscale include "When I want to feel
more positive emotion (such as joy or amusement), I change the way I'm thinking
about the situation" and "I change the way I'm thinking about the situation in order to
change how I feel about it." Scores on this subscale range from 4 to 28, with higher
65
The ERQ has been shown to have good internal consistency, with Cronbach's alpha
coefficients ranging from .68 to .80 for the expressive suppression subscale and from
.72 to .79 for the cognitive reappraisal subscale (Gross & John, 2003). The ERQ has
also been found to have good test-retest reliability over a 6-week period (Gross &
John, 2003).
The ERQ has been used in numerous studies to investigate the role of emotion
and interpersonal relationships. For example, research has found that greater use of
Similarly, greater use of expressive suppression has been linked to higher levels of
expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal. The ERQ has good psychometric
properties and has been used in numerous studies to investigate the role of emotion
of the ERQ, as well as its scoring system, is crucial for researchers and clinicians
The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) measures the two main emotion
consists of ten items in total, with six items assessing cognitive reappraisal and four
66
Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)
A. Cognitive 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10 6
Reappraisal Facet
B. Expressive 2, 4, 6, 9 4
Suppression Facet
Items 10
The scoring of the ERQ is based on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 to 7, with 1
indicating "strongly disagree" and 7 indicating "strongly agree." For the cognitive
emotion regulation strategy. For example, the item "When I want to feel more positive
emotion (such as joy or amusement), I change what I'm thinking about" is scored on
a 1-7 scale, with 1 indicating "strongly disagree" and 7 indicating "strongly agree." A
high score on this item indicates that the individual frequently uses cognitive
For the expressive suppression items, a higher score indicates greater use of
expressive suppression as an emotion regulation strategy. For example, the item "I
67
disagree" and 7 indicating "strongly agree." A high score on this item indicates that
The ERQ has been widely used in research to examine individual differences in
(02) Experiences in Close Relationship Scale- Short Form (ECR-S) for assessing the
measure of adult attachment styles. The ECR was originally developed by Brennan,
Clark, and Shaver in 1998, and has been revised and validated in subsequent studies.
The short form of the ECR, ECR-S, is a 12-item questionnaire that assesses
attachment anxiety and avoidance in close relationships. The ECR-S consists of two
subscales, each containing six items. The first subscale measures attachment
anxiety, which refers to the fear of abandonment and rejection in close relationships.
The second subscale measures attachment avoidance, which refers to the desire to
rate each item on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7
(strongly agree).
The attachment anxiety subscale of the ECR-S includes items such as “I worry a lot
about my relationships” and “I fear being alone”. Higher scores on this subscale
need for intimacy and fear of rejection. The attachment avoidance subscale includes
items such as “I prefer not to be too close to romantic partners” and “I get
68
uncomfortable when a romantic partner wants to be very close”. Higher scores on
to maintain emotional distance and avoid intimacy. The ECR-S has been found to
have good psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and test-
retest reliability. It has been used in numerous studies to examine the relationship
In terms of scoring, the ECR-S provides separate scores for attachment anxiety and
avoidance. Each subscale score is calculated by summing the responses to the items
on that subscale, with higher scores indicating greater levels of attachment anxiety
or avoidance. Total scores can also be calculated by summing the scores on both
It is important to note that the ECR-S is a self-report measure, and therefore relies
thoughts and feelings accurately. Additionally, the ECR-S only assesses attachment
anxiety and avoidance, and does not capture other dimensions of attachment such as
attachment styles.
in adult romantic relationships. The ECR-S comprises 12 items, six of which measure
69
Experiences in Close Relationship Scale-Short Form (ECR-S)
B. Attachment 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 6
Avoidance
Items 12
For each item, participants are asked to rate their level of agreement with a statement
To score attachment anxiety, the items are reverse-scored, so that higher scores
indicate greater anxiety. The scores are then summed to produce an overall attachment
To score attachment avoidance, the items are not reverse-scored. Higher scores
indicate greater avoidance. The scores are then summed to produce an overall
The ECR-S has been used extensively in research to examine the relationship between
regulation strategies. Overall, these scales provide researchers with valuable tools for
70
Procedure:
The procedure for conducting a psychology study while forming tools and collecting
As mentioned above, in total, two questionnaires were employed under this research
study, namely; the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (10 item scale and a 7 Point
Likert Scale) Experiences in Close Relationship Scale-Short Form (ECR-S) (12 item
scale and a 7 Point Likert Scale). In all, the final form circulated for the data collection
process included an informed consent, including the intention behind conducting this
research study, conveying all the details regarding the goal of the chosen topic, and
Considering the convenience and avoiding the dire consequences of the current post-
pandemic situation, the forms were circulated through the online platform of Google
Forms. Initially, 127 respondents voluntarily participated in the research study, out of
which, 112 responses were considered as the remaining ones had to be removed due
Furthermore, respondents were also given the choice of receiving a response sheet
containing the responses that they had submitted. Also, on request of some of the
participants, their scores on the tests were also shared with them. The data was
analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
71
Data Analysis:
Gender Distribution
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent
Percent Percent
Table 3.4 demonstrates the gender distribution of male college-going students and
female college-going students. It can be seen in the table that, in all 112 participants
willingly volunteered for the data collection process, of which, 48 were males and 64
of them were females. The percent and valid percent values for male and female
72
Data Analysis:
Age Distribution
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent
Percent Percent
18 to 20
52 46.4 46.4 46.4
age
Valid 21 to 25
60 53.6 53.6 100.0
age
Table 3.5 demonstrates the age distribution of the total population. The sample
population was divided into two clusters, i.e., 18 to 20 years and 21 to 25 years. It can
be seen in the table that, out of the total sample population consisting of 112
belonged in the age range of 21 to 25 years. The percent and valid percent value for
18 to 20 year olds versus the 21 to 25 year olds is 46.4 and 53.6 respectively.
73
Data Analysis:
Emotion
Attachment
Regulation
Styles
Strategies
Table 3.6 demonstrates the basic/ fundamental statistical data for both variables. As
mentioned above in the procedure section, 15 responses had to be discarded from the
original data sheet due to the technical error of duplication. Hence, out of a total of
127 responses, only 112 were considered for data analysis purposes due to the same
reason. Therefore, all the missing values display a 0 against them, as those entries
have been removed from the original datasheet. Considering the variable of emotion
regulation strategies, the table demonstrates that the mean, median, standard
deviation, and variance are 46.27, 47.00, 11.973, and 143.348 respectively.
Considering the variable of attachment styles, the table demonstrates that the mean,
median, standard deviation, and variance are 44.55, 46.00, 9.650, and 93.134
respectively.
74
Tabular Representation of Hypothesis 1:
Group Statistics
Gender N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Expressive Male 48 18.42 5.549 0.801
Suppression
Emotion Female 64 18.16 5.457 0.682
Regulation
75
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 1:
The 1st hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
and female college-going students. Table 3.7 demonstrates the group statistics for
testing hypothesis 1. The mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for male
students are 18.42, 5.549, and 0.801 respectively. On the other hand, the mean,
standard deviation, and standard mean error for female students are 18.16, 5.457, and
0.682 respectively.
Table 3.8 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 1. From this table, it
manifested by male and female college-going students because Sig. (2- tailed) value
of 0.805 > α 0.05, and as per the norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/
p-value 0.05 suggests that there is no significant difference in the two conditions
presented.
76
Tabular Representation of Hypothesis 2:
Group Statistics
Age N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Expressive 18 to 20 52 17.65 6.253 0.867
Suppression age
Emotion 21 to 25 60 18.58 4.800 0.620
Regulation age
77
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 2:
The 2nd hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
individuals between the age range of 18 to 20 versus the ones lying between the age
range of 21 to 25. Table 3.9 demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 2.
The mean, standard deviation and standard mean error for students in the age group
of 18 to 20 years are 17.65, 6.253, and 0.867 respectively. On the other hand, the
mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for students in the age group of 21
Table 3.10 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 2. From this table, it
manifested by individuals between the age range of 18 to 20 versus the ones lying
between the age range of 21 to 25 because Sig. (2- tailed) value of 0.350 > α 0.05, and
as per the norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/ p-value 0.05 suggests
78
Tabular Representation of Hypothesis 3:
Group Statistics
Income Status N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Expressive Financially 28 20.08 4.898 0.926
Suppression Independent (partially
Emotion or completely)
Regulation
Financially 84 17.51 5.550 0.606
Dependent (on
Parents)
79
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 3:
The 3rd hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
Table 3.11 demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 3. The mean,
standard deviation and standard mean error for financially independent individuals
are 20.08, 4.898, and 0.926 respectively. On the other hand, the mean, standard
Table 3.12 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 3. From this table, it
because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.022 < α 0.05, and as per the norm, any value less
than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that there is a significant
difference in the two conditions presented. Furthermore, this suggests that financially-
80
Tabular Representation of Hypothesis 4:
Group Statistics
Current N Mean Std. Std. Error
Residence Type Deviation Mean
Home (or other 102 20.45 6.913 0.684
places under
Avoidance
authority)
Levels
By self (without 10 16.71 0.684 3.059
authority)
81
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 4:
The 4th hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
avoidance levels manifested by individuals living with parents versus the ones living
independently or with friends. Table 3.13 demonstrates the group statistics for testing
hypothesis 4. The mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for individuals
living with parents or under some authority are 20.45, 6.913, and 0.684 respectively.
On the other hand, the mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for
individuals living independently or with friends are 16.71, 0.684, and 3.059
respectively.
Table 3.14 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 4. From this table, it
the ones living independently or with friends because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.603 >
α 0.05, and as per the norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/p-value
0.05 suggests that there is no significant difference in the two conditions presented.
82
Tabular Representation of Hypothesis 5:
Group Statistics
Type of N Mean Std. Std. Error
Family Deviation Mean
Expressive Nuclear 88 20.22 7.489 0.798
Suppression Family
Emotion Joint 20 19.71 6.890 1.540
Regulation Family
83
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 5:
The 5th hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
joint family. Table 3.15 demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 5. The
mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for individuals brought up in a
nuclear family are 20.22, 7.489, and 0.798 respectively. On the other hand, the mean,
standard deviation, and standard mean error for individuals brought up in a joint
Table 3.16 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 5. From this table, it
family versus in a joint family because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.617 > α 0.05, and as
per the norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that
84
Tabular Representation of Hypothesis 6:
Group Statistics
N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Relation Expressive 112 18.12 5.434 0.514
between Suppression
Emotion Emotion
Regulation Regulation
Strategy and Anxiety 112 24.32 7.886 0.745
Attachment Levels
Styles
85
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 6:
The 6th hypothesis claims that there is a significant relationship between maladaptive
Table 3.17 demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 6. The mean,
standard deviation and standard mean error for high use of maladaptive expressive
suppression emotion regulation strategy individuals are 18.12, 5.434, and 0.514
respectively. On the other hand, the mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error
for high attachment anxiety individuals are 24.32, 7.886, and 0.745 respectively.
Table 3.18 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 6. From this table, it
individuals, because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.009 < α 0.05, and as per the norm, any
value less than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that there is a significant
relationship between the two conditions presented. Furthermore, this suggests that
strategy utilization lean more towards developing high attachment anxiety, as per the
mean values.
86
Tabular Representation of Hypothesis 7:
Group Statistics
Gender N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Cognitive Male 48 28.73 8.406 0.896
Reappraisal
Emotion Female 64 27.77 7.008 1.567
Regulation
87
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 7:
The 7th hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
female college-going students. Table 3.19 demonstrates the group statistics for testing
hypothesis 7. The mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for male students
are 28.73, 8.406, and 0.896 respectively. On the other hand, the mean, standard
deviation, and standard mean error for female students are 27.77, 7.008, and 1.567
respectively.
Table 3.20 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 7. From this table, it
by male and female college-going students because Sig. (2- tailed) value of 0.447 > α
0.05, and as per the norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/ p-value 0.05
88
Tabular Representation of Hypothesis 8:
Group Statistics
Age N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Cognitive 18 to 20 52 28.18 8.346 1.157
Reappraisal age
Emotion 21 to 25 60 28.32 6.970 0.900
Regulation age
89
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 8:
The 8th hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
between the age range of 18 to 20 versus the ones lying between the age range of 21
to 25. Table 3.21 demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 8. The mean,
standard deviation and standard mean error for students in the age group of 18 to 20
years are 28.18, 8.346, and 1.157 respectively. On the other hand, the mean, standard
deviation, and standard mean error for students in the age group of 21 to 25 years are
Table 3.22 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 8. From this table, it
by individuals between the age range of 18 to 20 versus the ones lying between the
age range of 21 to 25 because Sig. (2- tailed) value of 0.972> α 0.05, and as per the
norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that there
90
Tabular Representation of Hypothesis 9:
Group Statistics
Income N Mean Std. Std. Error
Status Deviation Mean
Cognitive Financially 28 30.04 6.636 1.254
Reappraisal Independent
Emotion (partially or
Regulation completely)
Financially 84 27.62 7.840 0.855
Dependent
(on Parents)
91
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 9:
The 9th hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 9. The mean, standard
deviation and standard mean error for financially independent individuals are 30.04,
6.636, and 1.254 respectively. On the other hand, the mean, standard deviation, and
standard mean error for pocket-money-dependent individuals are 27.62, 7.840, and
0.855 respectively.
Table 3.24 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 3. From this table, it
because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.122> α 0.05, and as per the norm, any value more
than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that there is no significant
92
Tabular Representation of Hypothesis 10:
Group Statistics
Current N Mean Std. Std. Error
Residence Type Deviation Mean
Anxiety Home (or other 102 23.69 7.767 0.769
Levels places under
authority)
By self (without 10 31.29 6.130 1.938
authority)
93
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 10:
The 10th hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
anxiety levels manifested by individuals living with parents versus the ones living
independently or with friends. Table 3.25 demonstrates the group statistics for testing
hypothesis 10. The mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for individuals
living with parents or under some authority are 23.69, 7.767, and 0.769 respectively.
On the other hand, the mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for
individuals living independently or with friends are 31.29, 6.130, and 1.938
respectively.
Table 3.26 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 10. From this table,
prevalence of anxiety levels manifested by individuals living with parents versus the
ones living independently or with friends because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.005 < α
0.05, and as per the norm, any value less than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05
Furthermore, this suggests that individuals living by self and away from family or
94
Tabular Representation of Hypothesis 11:
Group Statistics
Type of N Mean Std. Std. Error
Family Deviation Mean
Anxiety Nuclear 88 24.62 8.127 0.866
Levels Family
Joint 20 22.65 7.026 1.571
Family
95
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 11:
The 11th hypothesis claims that there is a significant difference in the prevalence of
joint family. Table 3.27 demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 11.
The mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error for individuals brought up in
a nuclear family are 24.62, 8.127, and 0.866 respectively. On the other hand, the mean,
standard deviation, and standard mean error for individuals brought up in a joint
Table 3.28 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 11. From this table,
versus in a joint family because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.376 > α 0.05, and as per the
norm, any value more than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that there
96
Tabular Representation of Hypothesis 12:
Group Statistics
N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Relation between Cognitive 112 28.22 7.510 0.710
Cognitive Reappraisal
Reappraisal Emotion
Regulation Regulation
Strategy and Avoidance 112 20.28 7.264 0.686
Attachment Styles Levels
97
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 12:
The 12th hypothesis claims that there is a significant relationship between adaptive
Table 3.29 demonstrates the group statistics for testing hypothesis 12. The mean,
standard deviation, and standard mean error for high use of adaptive cognitive
reappraisal emotion regulation strategy individuals are 28.22, 7.510, and 0.710
respectively. On the other hand, the mean, standard deviation, and standard mean error
for high attachment avoidance individuals are 20.28, 7.264, and 0.686 respectively.
Table 3.30 demonstrates the independent samples for hypothesis 12. From this table,
individuals, because Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.001 < α 0.05, and as per the norm, any
value less than the standard alpha value/p-value 0.05 suggests that there is a significant
relationship between the two conditions presented. Furthermore, this suggests that
utilization lean more towards developing high attachment avoidance, as per the mean
values.
98
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 6 (Correlational Analysis):
Expressive Anxiety
Suppression Levels
N 112 112
N 112 112
The above-mentioned box is called the “correlation matrix”. The correlation matrix
Table 3.31, it can be concluded that the correlation between the Expressive
Suppression ER strategy and Anxiety attachment style is 0.152. This means that both
of these variables are positively correlated, i.e., as the independent variable increases,
so does the dependent variable. Hence, in our case, it means that, as the Expressive
considered valid because several research studies support the same hypothesis.
99
Data Interpretation of Hypothesis 12 (Correlational Analysis):
Cognitive Avoidance
Reappraisal Levels
N 112 112
The above-mentioned box is called the “correlation matrix”. The correlation matrix
Table 3.32, it can be concluded that the correlation between the Cognitive Reappraisal
ER strategy and Avoidance attachment style is 0.062. This means that both of these
variables are positively correlated, i.e., as the independent variable increases, so does
the dependent variable. Hence, in our case, it means that, as the Cognitive Reappraisal
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Ethical Considerations:
• During the circulation of the online survey, participants’ anonymity and the
participants was maintained throughout the data collection process. Hence, the
• An informed consent was circulated along with the survey and the intention to
was also conveyed to them beforehand. Therefore, all the participants were
questions were aimed at exposing the participants to mental stress, and none
Through this, the respondent’s right to respect and safety was maintained.
• A provision of providing the responses that the respondents had filled in was
also provided to them since the mode of the survey was online. Respondents
had the right to ask for the response sheet that they had filled in, alongside
requesting full information pertaining to the scores they had received on each
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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
102
Results and Discussion:
accepted).
versus the ones lying between the age range of 21 to 25. (H0 accepted).
by individuals living with parents versus the ones living independently or with friends.
(H0 accepted).
accepted).
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(08). There is no significant difference in the prevalence of adaptive cognitive
versus the ones lying between the age range of 21 to 25. (H0 accepted).
by individuals living with parents versus the ones living independently or with friends.
(H10 accepted).
variables, namely; emotion regulation strategy and attachment styles, the result of
which is in major consensus with already researched and concluded findings. The
emotion regulation strategy and attachment avoidance. These are the findings of the
sixth and twelfth hypothesis, respectively. We also witnessed the impact of income
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strategy, and the impact of living independently on attachment anxiety levels. These
and travel, collecting the responses from all the participants personally was not a
feasible option. Additionally, another major reason for a limited sample size can also
be the scarcity of technological devices / resources. Since the forms were circulated
through an online platform, many respondents eligible to volunteer for the data
collection process could not have been able to do so due to the lack of computers,
The sample population only considered those individuals lying in the range of 18 to
25 years. It excluded all the individuals lying in the age of below 18 and above 25.
Hence, our research only focussed on the youth population. Hence, the results
obtained from the study cannot be generalised for individuals not lying in this age
As a cross sectional research methodology was employed under this research, a proper
trend of the impact of emotion regulation strategy and attachment styles on every
105
potentially influencing factor could not be measured. These characteristics and
practices change over time due to variations in the internal and external factors. But
because the research had employed a cross sectional design, the trend pattern and
Initially, 127 respondents voluntarily participated in the research study, out of which,
112 responses were considered as the remaining ones had to be removed due to the
issue of duplication. Hence, due to the limited sample size, the results that were
analysed do indicate positive / negative correlations, but the values are not significant
enough to make any concrete conclusions. For serving the same purpose, a large
sample size needs to be incorporated under the research study so as to get strong
Since the questionnaire consisted of 22 items in total, there was immense space for
consequently drop out from the middle of the data collection process. Qualitative
questions could enhance the understanding of the topic as novel perspectives could be
reflected upon and light could be shed on individual behaviours more accurately, but
due as the questionnaire was already created and used, the idea of adding open ended
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CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
107
Conclusion and Future Directions:
Hence, we can say that emotion regulation and attachment styles can be considered as
working synonymous to the findings of relation. But, due to a small sample size, the
overall values were not significant enough to conclude the same, hence, further
research is needed along with a large sample size to provide considerable evidence on
this topic. One major limitation of this research study is that only individuals ranging
from 18 to 25 were considered under this project, and due to the current circumstances
relationships has been extensively researched in the field of psychology. The review
of literature shows that emotion regulation strategies such as cognitive reappraisal and
avoidance.
promoting secure attachment styles and reducing attachment anxiety and avoidance.
Expressive suppression, on the other hand, has been found to be less effective and
avoidance.
Moreover, the review highlights the importance of using valid and reliable scales to
measure emotion regulation and attachment styles in research studies. The Emotion
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Short Form (ECR-S) are two widely used scales for measuring emotion regulation and
Future research can explore the impact of other emotion regulation strategies such as
be valuable to investigate the mediating and moderating factors that influence the
In clinical settings, the findings of this review can inform interventions aimed at
promoting secure attachment styles and reducing attachment anxiety and avoidance.
patterns of attachment.
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APPENDICES
110
Appendices:
Scoring Information:
Anxiety = 2, 4, 6, 8 (reverse), 10, 12
Avoidance = 1 (reverse), 3, 5 (reverse), 7, 9 (reverse), 11
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Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)
Description of Measure:
We would like to ask you some questions about your emotional life, in particular, how
you control (that is, regulate and manage) your emotions. The questions below involve
two distinct aspects of your emotional life. One is your emotional experience, or what
you feel like inside. The other is your emotional expression, or how you show your
emotions in the way you talk, gesture, or behave. Although some of the following
questions may seem similar to one another, they differ in important ways. For each
item, please answer using the following scale:
1. ____ When I want to feel more positive emotion (such as joy or amusement), I
change what I’m thinking about.
5. ____When I’m faced with a stressful situation, I make myself think about it in a
way that helps me stay calm.
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6. ____ I control my emotions by not expressing them.
7. ____When I want to feel more positive emotion, I change the way I’m thinking
about
the situation.
8. ____ I control my emotions by changing the way I think about the situation I’m
in.
10. ____When I want to feel less negative emotion, I change the way I’m thinking
about the situation.
Scoring:
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