Ancient Egyptian Furniture Volume I - 4000-1300 BC (PDFDrive)

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN FURNITURE
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN FURNITURE

VOLUME I
4000–1300 B.C.
GEOFFREY KILLEN
Oxford & Philadelphia

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First edition published 1980

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Front cover: A painted tomb wall scene depicting carpenters working in a carpentry workshop. Tomb of Rekhmira, TT 100, 18th
Dynasty, Sheikh Abd el-Qurna. Photograph courtesy of Lorraine March-Killen.
Contents
List of Figures vii

List of Plates ix
Acknowledgements xiii
Abbreviations and Sigla xv
Chapter 1. Furniture Materials 1

Chapter 2. Tools 13
Chapter 3. Bedframes 33
Chapter 4. Stools 59
Chapter 5. Chairs 91
Chapter 6. Tables 117
Chapter 7. Vase Stands 127
Catalogue of Museum Collections 135

Bibliography 163
To my wife Lorraine, and children Sarah, Karen and Caroline and my grandchildren, Ben, Emma, Sophie,
Hannah, James, Olivia, Jack and Noah for their patience and the encouragement they have shown during the
years this work has taken to materialise.
List of Figures
All the figures were drawn for this book by the Author. Where appropriate they are scaled in millimetres.
Figure 1. Scarf joint. 7

Figure 2. Carpentry workshop scene. (Tomb painting, Thebes, Tomb of Rekhmira,
TT 100, 18th Dynasty). 7
Figure 3. Predynastic burial. (Bahan, Grave 17:86). 34
Figure 4. Predynastic burial. (Bahan, Grave 17:7). 34
Figure 5. Bedframe construction. Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm. MM 10.232. 34
Figure 6. Bedframe. Manchester University Museum, 1st Dynasty, 5429. 35
Figure 7. Bedframes. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Hesyra, Saqqara, 3rd Dynasty). 37
Figure 11. Bedframe. (Queen Hetepheres I, Giza, 4th Dynasty), Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 53261. 39
Figure 12. Bedframe. (Queen Hetepheres I, Giza, 4th Dynasty), Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 53261. 39
Figure 13. Men stringing a bedframe. (Tomb painting, Thebes, Tomb of Menkheperraseneb TT 112,
18th Dynasty). 39
Figure 14. Bedframe. Kerma. 41
Figure 15. Folding bedframe. Tomb of Tutankhamun, Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62018. 43
Figure 16. Folding bedframe, detail of hinge. Tomb of Tutankhamun, Egyptian Museum,
Cairo. JE 62018. 44
Figure 17. Folding bedframe, detail of hinge. Tomb of Tutankhamun, Egyptian Museum,
Cairo. JE 62018. 45
Figure 18. Bed canopy. (Queen Hetepheres I, Giza, 4th Dynasty), Egyptian Museum,
Cairo. JE 57711. 46
Figure 19. Stool. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Hesyra, Saqqara, 3rd Dynasty). 60
Figure 20. Stool. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Hesyra, Saqqara, 3rd Dynasty). 60
Figure 21. Folding stool. British Museum, London. EA 29284. 62
Figure 22. Low stool. British Museum, London. EA 46705. 64
Figure 23. Round legged stool. British Museum, London. EA 2472. 68
Figure 24. Chair. (Stele of Prince Nisuheqet, Tomb 964 H8, Helwan, 2nd Dynasty). 92
Figure 25. Chair. (Stele of Sehefner, Tomb 2146E, Saqqara, 2nd Dynasty). 92
Figure 26. Chair. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Hesyra, Saqqara, 3rd Dynasty). 92
Figure 27. Chair. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Hesyra, Saqqara, 3rd Dynasty). 92
viii Ancient Egyptian Furniture: 4000–1300 B.C.
Figure 28. Middle Kingdom chair designs. 93

Figure 29. Chair. British Museum, London. EA 2479. 95
Figure 30. Chair. British Museum, London. EA 2480. 96
Figure 31. Royal Armchair. (Queen Hetepheres I, Giza, 4th Dynasty), Egyptian Museum,
Cairo. JE 53263. 99
Figure 32. Gold throne. Tomb of Tutankhamun, 18th Dynasty, Egyptian Museum,
Cairo. JE 62028. 101
Figure 33. Table. Manchester University Museum, 1st Dynasty, 5456. 118
Figure 34. Table. (Tomb of Perpaut). British Museum, London. EA 2469. 118
Figure 35. Vase stand. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Mereruka, Saqqara, 6th Dynasty). 128
Figure 36. Vase stand. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Mereruka, Saqqara, 6th Dynasty). 128
Figure 37. Vase stand. British Museum, London. EA 2470. 128
Figure 38. Vase stand. British Museum, London. EA 2471. 129
List of Plates
Plate 1. Bedframe leg. 20th Dynasty. Tomb of Rameses IX. British Museum, London. EA 21574. 11
Plate 2. Scribing instrument. New Kingdom. British Museum, London. EA 15742. 21
Plate 3. Try Square. Ptolemaic. Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology. UC 6925. 21
Plate 4. Adze blades. Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology. Top. UC 19836; Middle. UC 19837;
Bottom. UC 19838. 22
Plate 5. Adze blade. British Museum, London. EA 22841. 22
Plate 6. Adze. British Museum, London. EA 6061. 23
Plate 9. Axe blade. 1st Dynasty. Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology. UC 16174. 24
Plate 10. Chisels. Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology. Right. UC 19839; Middle top. UC 19840;
Middle bottom. UC 19841; Left. UC 19842. 25
Plate 11. Mortise chisel. British Museum, London. EA 6053. 26
Plate 12. Firmer chisel. British Museum, London. EA 6045. 26
Plate 13. Iron model woodworking chisels. Tomb of Tutankhamun. JE 61295, JE 61297, JE 61299,
JE 61301, JE 61304, JE 61307. Carter Nos 316 A,C,E,G,J,M. Burton Photograph p1052. 26
Plate 14. Sharpening hone. British Museum, London. EA 36728. 27
Plate 15. Oil flask. British Museum, London. EA 6037. 27
Plate 16. Wooden mallet. British Museum, London. EA 41679. 28
Plate 17. Saw knife. Badari. British Museum, London. EA 62274. 28
Plate 18. Saw. 1st Dynasty. British Museum, London. EA 66064. 29
Plate 19. Saw. New Kingdom. British Museum, London. EA 6046. 29
Plate 20. Pullsaw. New Kingdom. British Museum, London. EA 30245. 29
Plate 21. Bow and drill stock with stone cup. Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology. Bow UC 7085;
stock UC 7084; stone cup UC 19835. 30
Plate 22. Bow and Drill. New Kingdom. British Museum, London. Bow. EA 6040; Drill. EA 6042. 31
Plate 23. Awl. New Kingdom. British Museum, London. EA 6055. 31
Plate 24. Bedframe pole with webbing. Manchester University Museum. 5465. 47
Plate 25. Bedframe pole with webbing. Manchester University Museum. 5465. 47
Plate 26. Bedframe types. Tarkhan. 1st Dynasty. Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology. 48
x Ancient Egyptian Furniture: 4000–1300 B.C.
Plate 27. Bedframe. Tarkhan. 1st Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. AN1912.617. 49
Plate 30. Bedframe. Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm. MM 10.232. 50
Plate 31. Bedframe. Tarkhan. 1st Dynasty. Manchester University Museum. 5429. 51
Plate 35. Bedframe. New Kingdom. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. 6128. 52
Plate 36. Bedframe (Reproduction). Original from the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, Giza.
Reproduction in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 29.1858. 53
Plate 37. Model Bedframe. 12th Dynasty. Tomb of Sitrennut. Petrie Museum of Egyptian
Archaeology. UC 16139. 53
Plate 38. Bedframe. New Kingdom. Deir el-Medina. Narodowe Muzeum, Warsaw. 139068 MNW. 54
Plate 39. Bedframe. Tomb of Tutankhamun. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62017, Carter
No. 80. Burton Photograph p0067. 54
Plate 40. Bedframe. Tomb of Tutankhamun. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62016, Carter No. 47.
Burton Photograph p0063. 55
Plate 41. Bedframe. Tomb of Tutankhamun. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62014, Carter No. 466.
Plate 42. Folding bedframe. Tomb of Tutankhamun. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62018, Carter
Plate 43. Folding bedframe. Tomb of Tutankhamun. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62018, Carter
No. 586. Burton Photograph p1479a. 57
Plate 44. Bed canopy (Reproduction). Original from the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, Giza.
Reproduction in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 38.873. 56
Plate 45. Crude wooden stool. Kahun. 12th Dynasty. Manchester University Museum. 261. 71
Plate 46. Crude wooden stool. Kahun. 12th Dynasty. Manchester University Museum. 261. 71
Plate 47. Simple wooden stool. Early Dynastic Period. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. 910.37.14. 72
Plate 48. Statue of Ankhwa. 3rd Dynasty, Saqqara, British Museum, London. EA 171. 72
Plate 49. Stool with lion shaped legs. Middle Kingdom. Museum Gustavianum, Uppsala
University. B-2. 73
Plate 50. Stool with lion shaped legs. Tomb of Kha. New Kingdom. Egyptian Museum,
Turin. 8614. 73
Plate 51. Simple stool with shaped legs. Beni Hasan. 9th-12th Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford. AN1896-1908 E.4162. 74
Oxford. AN 1896-1908 E.4162. 74
Oxford. AN 1896-1908 E.4162. 75
Plate 54. Simple stool with shaped legs. 18th Dynasty. National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh.
1956.110. 76
Plate 55. Folding stool. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. MMA 12.182.58. 76
Plate 56. Folding stool. Middle Kingdom. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. 910.37.17. 76
Plate 57. Folding stool. Tomb of Ani. New Kingdom. British Museum, London. EA 29284. 77
List of Plates xi
Plate 61. Folding stool. 18th or 19th Dynasty. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. 914.2.1. 78
Plate 62. Folding stool. 18th Dynasty. Manchester University Museum. 4229. 79
Plate 63. Folding stool. 18th Dynasty. Manchester University Museum. 4229. 79
Plate 64. Stool. Tomb of Tutankhamun. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62035, Carter No. 83.
Plate 65. Low stool. 18th Dynasty. British Museum, London. EA 46705. 80
Plate 66. Low stool. 18th Dynasty. British Museum, London. EA 46705. 81
Plate 67. Low stool. Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm. MM 19.671. 81
Plate 68. Three legged stool. Tarkhan, 1st Dynasty. UC 17173. Petrie Museum of
Egyptian Archaeology. 82
Plate 69. Three legged stool with dished seat. British Museum, London. EA 2481. 82
Plate 70. Three legged stool. 18th or 19th Dynasty. National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh.
1956.107. 83
Plate 71. Three legged stool, Tomb of Tutankhamun, Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62043,
Carter No. 412, Burton Photograph p1670. 83
Plate 72. Stool. New Kingdom. National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh. 1956.111. 84
Plate 73. Stool with concave seat. Narodowe Muzeum, Warsaw. 143344 MNW (on loan from
Louvre Museum, Paris E 3858). 84
Plate 74. Lattice stool. 18th Dynasty. Brooklyn Museum, New York. 37.45E. 85
Plate 75. Lattice stool. Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm. MM 19.668. 85
Plate 76. Lattice stools. Tomb of Kha. New Kingdom. Egyptian Museum, Turin. 8512 and 8511. 86
Plate 77. Lattice stool. Tomb of Tutankhamun. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62041, Carter No. 81.
Plate 78. Stool. Tomb of Tutankhamun. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62038, Carter No. 467.
Plate 79. Round stool leg. 18th Dynasty. Manchester University Museum. 542. 87
Plate 82. Round legged stool. 18th Dynasty. British Museum, London. EA 2472. 89
Plate 83. Round legged stool. 18th Dynasty. British Museum, London. EA 2472. 89
Plate 84. Round legged stool. 17th or 18th Dynasty. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
MMA 14.10.4. 90
Plate 85. Chair. Nag el-Deir. 18th Dynasty. Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology, University
of California, Berkeley. 6-2062. 103
Plate 86. Chair. 18th Dynasty. British Museum, London. EA 2479. 104
Plate 87. Chair. 18th Dynasty. Brooklyn Museum, New York. 37.40E. 105
Plate 88. Chair. 18th Dynasty. British Museum, London. EA 2480. 106
Plate 89. Chair fragments. 18th Dynasty. Tomb of Maket. Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford. AN1890.859. 107
Oxford. AN1890.859. 107
Oxford. AN1890.859. 108
Oxford. AN1890.859. 108
Oxford. AN1890.859. 109
Plate 94. Chair. 18th Dynasty. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. MMA 12.182.28. 109
xii Ancient Egyptian Furniture: 4000–1300 B.C.
Plate 95. Chair. 18th Dynasty. National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh. 1956.106. 110
Plate 96. Chair. Tomb of Tutankhamun. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62032, Carter No. 349.
Plate 98. Armchair (Reproduction). Original in the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, Giza. Reproduction
in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 38.957. 112
Plate 100. Ceremonial chair. Tomb of Tutankhamun. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62030, Carter
Plate 101. Ceremonial chair. Tomb of Tutankhamun. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62030, Carter
Plate 102. Gold throne. Tomb of Tutankhamun. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62028, Carter No. 91.
Plate 103. Table. Tarkhan. 1st Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. AN1912.603. 121
Plate 104. Table. Tarkhan. 1st Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. AN1912.603. 121
Plate 105. Table. Tarkhan. 1st Dynasty. Manchester University Museum, Manchester. 5456. 122
Plate 106. Table. Tarkhan. 1st Dynasty. Manchester University Museum, Manchester. 5456. 122
Plate 107. Table. Tomb of Kha. New Kingdom. Egyptian Museum, Turin. 8258. 123
Plate 108. Table. 17th or 18th Dynasty. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. MMA 14.10.5. 123
Plate 109. Table. 18th Dynasty. Brooklyn Museum, New York. 37.41E. 124
Plate 110. Table. Tomb of Kha. New Kingdom. Egyptian Museum, Turin. 8432. 124
Plate 111. Three-legged table. British Museum, London. EA 2469. 125
Plate 114. Reed and rush table. Tomb of Kha. New Kingdom. Egyptian Museum, Turin. 8343. 126
Plate 115. Vase stand. Old Kingdom. Musée des Beaux-Arts de Limoges. E 958. 131
Plate 116. Vase stand. 18th Dynasty. British Museum, London. EA 2470. 132
Acknowledgements
Firstly, I would like to thank Mr T.G.H. James, W.V. he identi ation o an ient tim er as undertaken
Davies and more recently Dr Neal Spencer, Keepers – for me at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. I am grateful
Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan at the British to the staff of this institution and particularly Rosemary
Museum for the help and encouragement they have An el, the o er in har e o the museums di ision.
provided over the years this volume and subsequent In the United States of America I would like to thank
volumes have taken to materialise. They must be thanked Dr Christine Lilyquist, Curator of the Department of
for allowing me to have personal contact with much of Egyptian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
the valuable collection preserved in the British Museum. I York, for her help and guidance. Also, William Kelly
am also grateful to Mr Richard Burleigh and Dr Caroline Simpson, Curator of Egyptian and Ancient Near Eastern
Cartwright, Scientist, Department of Conservation and Art, and the curatorial assistants Edward Brovarski and
ienti esear h at the British Museum or the hel and Timothy Kendall of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
uidan e the ha e i en in the datin and identi ation From the Brooklyn Museum I received help from Vicky
of ancient timbers. Landy, a research assistant.
Professor H.S. Smith of the Department of Egyptology, Much valuable material was provided by Frank A.
University College London was instrumental during Norick, Principal Museum Anthropologist, University of
the on e tion and de elo ment o the rst olume. o California, Berkeley at the Lowie Museum of Anthropology
Professor Smith and Dr Geoffrey Martin I convey my (now Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology). Also,
gratitude. From the Petrie Museum, University College Ricardo A. Caminos, Department of Egyptology, Brown
London, I thank Dr Dixon, for allowing me to originally University, supplied some interesting material.
consult the collection and acknowledge the help given to The following people also helped in my original
me by Mrs Barbara Adams and Professor Stephen Quirke. research and here I record my sincere thanks: Christina
From Manchester Museum I would like to thank Madej, Archivist, University of Chicago, The Oriental
Professors A.J.N.W. Prag and Rosalie David and more Institute; Louise A. Shier, Curator, University of Michigan,
recently Dr Campbell Price, Curator of Egypt and Sudan, Kelsey Museum of Ancient and Mediaeval Archaeology;
for their help and support when studying at the museum. Mrs Jane Nelson, Assistant Curator, The Fine Arts
Mrs J. Crowfoot-Payne and more recently Dr Liam Museums of San Francisco; John D. Cooney, Research
McNamara, Assistant Keeper for Ancient Egypt and Sudan, Curator, The Cleveland Museum of Art; Mrs Thomas Y.
Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, Oxford Canby, Curator of Egyptian and Near Eastern Art, The
and Miss Murray, Dr Málek, Miss Strachen and Dr Liam Walters Art Gallery and Daniel S. Walker, Associate
M amara o the ri th nstitute, O ord, ha e all een Curator of Ancient, Near Eastern and Far Eastern Art,
very helpful and assisted me greatly with my research. Cincinnati Art Museum.
In Cambridge I am grateful to the staff of the Faculty From Canada I wish to thank N.B. Millet, Curator
of Oriental Studies library, where most of the research Egyptian Department, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto,
was undertaken. I would especially thank Barry Kemp for his quick and forthcoming assistance.
or his hel and riendl ad i e durin the time the rst From Europe I would like to thank the curators of
edition of this volume was written. many museums. In Belgium Mrs J Lambrechts-Douillez,
On the more technical advice I would like to express Associate Curator, Stad Antwerpen; L. Limme, Musées
my appreciation to G.W. Dimbleby of the Institute Royaux d’Art et Histoire, Brussels; Professor H. de
of Archaeology, University of London and J.F. Levy, Meulenaere, Seminarie voor Egyptologie, Gent; Pieter
Department of Botany, Imperial College of Science and de Bruyne, Professor in de Binnenhuiskunst, Aalst and
Technology. Cl. Evrard-Derriks, attaché, Musée de Mariemont. In
xiv Ancient Egyptian Furniture: 4000–1300 B.C.
Holland the following people have been of help, J.H.C. From other continents I must not forget the work
Kerne, Rene van Walsem, Rijksmuseum van Oudheden undertaken in Australia by T. F. Lane, Curator of
[Leiden]; M.C. Galestin, assistant keeper, Rijksmuseum Decorative Arts, National Gallery of Victoria, and
Meermanno-Westreenianum; Dr Beatrice Jansen, Vice Professor J. B. Hennessy, Professor of Middle Eastern
Director, Haggs Gemeentemuseum. Archaeology, and Mrs C. A. Lawler, Museum Assistant,
I have received help from those in the following University of Sydney. In India the Director of Museums,
French museums; Simone Bourlard-Collin, Musée Borely, Gujarat State, Baroda; and in Cuba, Hector Montenegro,
Marseille; Madeleine Marcheix, Conservateur, and more Museo Nacional, Havana. Also, I must thank Dr Kader of
recently Caroline Baujard from the Musée des Beaux-Arts the Egyptian Museum, Cairo for allowing me to examine
de Limoges: and R. Richard, Musée d’Amiens. the furniture in the museum and consulting the Journal
From the once German Federal Republic I wish to d’Entrée during the initial stages of my research.
thank Prof. Jürgen Settgast and Adelheid Shimmer of the I must apologise if I have overlooked any other
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preußischer Kulturbesitz; Dr person or institution which has been instrumental in the
Thimme, Badisches Landesmuseum, Karlsruhe. From the formulation of this volume.
once German Democratic Republic I thank Dr Wolfgang To my wife Lorraine, I give sincere thanks for the
Muller, Director, Ägyptische Museum, Staatliche Museum hours and days she has spent “shooting” developing
zu Berlin. and printing the high quality photographs which make
In Sweden the following people have given considerable up a large proportion of this work. Without them I am
help: Dr Beate George and more recently Carolin Johansson, certain this volume would suffer greatly. I would like to
Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm, and at the Institute of forward our best wishes to Adrian and Lucinda Phillips
Egyptology, Uppsala University; Lana Troy, Librarian, and and Michael Coultas, who showed us much kindness and
Sylvia Starck, assistant and more recently Dr Marika Hedin, ere e eedin l hel ul in the rodu tion o the rst
Director, Museum Gustavianum, Uppsala University. edition of this volume. I also wish to thank my friends
The Danish Museums in Copenhagen provided some who have provided support and encouragement during the
interesting material and I am indebted to Marie-Louise research and writing stages of this work. I can’t express in
Buhl, Antiksamlingen, Nationalmuseet and Mogens words my gratitude to my friend Elizabeth Simpson and
Jørgensens, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. From Austria, Dr once colleague and friend Trevor Porter who has followed
Helmut Satzinger, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, this revised work through to its delivery as a complete
provided some valuable research, as did Prof. Charles manuscript. Finally, I would like to thank Clare Litt,
Maystre, Musée D’Art et D’Histoire, Genève, Switzerland. publishing director, and Hannah McAdams, production
The Soprintendente, Prof. Silvio Curto, and more editor, and the team at Oxbow Books who have been
recently Dr Christian Greco, Director, of the Egyptian instrumental in publishing this revised second edition.
Museum, urin, tal , and Mrs ad i a Li i ska and
more re entl r Monika oli ska, enior ee er o the Geoffrey P. Killen
Egyptian Collection, Muzeum Narodowe w Warszawie, 1 th ul 1 7 rst edition
Poland, were supportive in supplying information 17th A ril 2016 re ised se ond edition
regarding the wonderful collections they conserve. St. Ives, Huntingdon.
Abbreviations and Sigla
Museum Catalogue Abbreviations Museum and Society Inventory Abbreviations

h height ÄM Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Ägyptisches
w width Museum.
l length EA Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan,
British Museum.
t thickness
EES Egypt Exploration Society.
d depth
JE Journal de Entrée, Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
dia diameter
MM Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm, Sweden.
Badarian Period (5500–4000 B.C.)
MMA Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Naqada I (4000–3500 B.C)
UC Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology,
Naqada II (3500–3100 B.C.)
University College London.
EDP Early Dynastic Period (3100–2686 B.C.)
OK Old Kingdom (2686–2181 B.C.)
FIP First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 B.C.) Bibliographical Abbreviations
MK Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 B.C.) ASAE Annales du Service des Antiquités de
SIP Second Intermediate Period (1650–1550 B.C.) l’Egypte.
NK New Kingdom (1550–1069 B.C.) BSAE British School of Archaeology in Egypt.
TIP Third Intermediate Period (1069–747 B.C.) CUP Cambridge University Press.
LP Late Period (747–332 B.C.) EEF Egypt Exploration Fund.
PP Ptolemaic Period (332–30 B.C.) IFAO Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale.
RP Roman Period (30 B.C.–395 A.D.) JTTHS Journal of the Tool and Trades History
Society.
Coptic 395A.D.–c. 641 A.D.
TATHS Tool and Trades History Society.
Meroitic Butana region of Sudan (c.300 B.C.–350 A.D.)
TT Private Tomb numbers in Western Thebes.
B.C. Before Christ
A.D. Anno Domini
Cem. Cemetery Sigla
V.I. Plates and Figures found in Volume I (Killen § Section Sign.
1980; Killen 2017A).
V.II. Plates and Figures found in Volume II (Killen
1994; Killen 2017B).
V.III. Plates and Figures found in Volume III (Killen
2017C).
Chapter 1
Furniture Materials
1. Timber the furniture historian and technologist studying the timber

Timber as used in carpentry and joinery was a scarce from which an artefact was produced is very important.
material in ancient Egypt. Most of the timber indigenous The introduction of certain timbers indicates the use of
to the country was, and is, either too small or of too poor either a ne te hnolo , or e am le steam endin and
quality to be used in furniture production. Therefore, load bearing capability or trading opportunities with
timber had to be imported into Egypt, principally from those outside E t s s here o influen e. Ea h tim er
those areas close to the Eastern Mediterranean Sea has an individual quality of working, and the potential
which supported a wide variety of good quality timbers. o ea h as ui kl identi ed E tian ar enters.
Importing timber began on a large scale at the beginning he determined throu h e erien e, the a a ilities o
of the 3rd Dynasty, 2686 B.C., being mainly used in each timber, very much like the modern master carpenter.
architectural works, but an offshoot of this industry was a he rst se tion o this ha ter is de oted to indi idual
dramatic change in both furniture design and manufacture. timber species whether native or imported into Egypt,
This is immediately evident when looking at stelae, reliefs and shows each timber’s characteristics and ancient uses.
and paintings of this period (Quibell 1913: pls. XVII–XX). Since the work undertaken by the Director and his staff at
he identi ation and datin o an ient tim ers used the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in analysing the ancient
in Egypt had not been undertaken on a wide scale by tim ers rom E t reser ed in that museum or the rst
museums and institutions until the latter part of the edition of this work, our knowledge of timber use in Egypt
twentieth century. One of the problems with timber has improved and is now recorded in the chapter “Wood”
identi ation is that the rain has to e e amined under see (Gale et al. 2000 33 371 .
100 ma ni ation, or a urate determination o the
timber. This means that a small clean cut sample has to be Acacia (Acacia)
prepared from the object. Naturally, not many museums Many types of acacia grow in Egypt, and until the 3rd
ere illin to e ose o e ts to this treatment, es e iall Dynasty would have been the most widely used indigenous
those arti les hi h are on ermanent e hi ition. o e er, timber. Some of them and in particular A. nilotica were
the alue o s ienti resear h into tim er identi ation valuable as furniture timber. Other uses which are also
and dating is now accepted and is producing some kno n are in o n arts and onstru tional ork ale et
valuable information into how different wood types al. 2000 335 336, . 15.1 . he s e ies o a a ia o erall
supported the needs of ancient civilizations. This has led was an important source of raw materials to the ancient
many leading museums to initiate programmes of research E tian until the Old in dom. he flo ers o the tree
into e aminin the rodu ts the reser e and identi in were used in collars, and gum Arabic was obtained from
the wood from which they were manufactured. This A. senegal hi h re in u ia, the um ein mi ed
approach has been employed by Dr Caroline Cartwright with coloured pigments to produce paint.
whose work on analysing timbers used to manufacture
o ns and mumm ortraits has si ni antl in reased Ash (Fraxinus)
our knowledge of the use of native and imported woods at The ash (Fraxinus excelsior) which is a hardwood and
di erent eriods in E t art ri ht 1 7 106 111 . or commonly known as the European ash, is distributed
2 Ancient Egyptian Furniture: 4000–1300 B.C.
widely and is found in Western Asia and on the North o A hanistan ere used. he edar tree is a er ne
African continent. Another variety (F. ornus or flo erin furniture producing timber, although the species C. libani
ash is also commonly found in Europe and Asia Minor is of poorer quality than some of the genus, being very
particularly in Syria. Fraxinus excelsior can reach heights soft with a rough grain and subject to shrinkage during
o 33 metres to 3 metres and attains a trunk diameter o natural seasoning. Even with these inferior characteristics
et een 0.75 to 1.75 metres. t is usuall a hite tim er it was widely used by Egyptian carpenters, who found it
although it can darken to a creamy brown; it has very good better to work with than native timbers.
seasoning qualities with little possibility of splitting. Ash urin the rei n o ne eru 2613 25 B. . e read
is a very tough timber and was used commonly as the hafts on the Palermo tone that ne eru uilt si t reat shi s
o a es, ad es and a les ale et al. 2000 3 1 . t also has to go to the Syrian coast. There, Egyptians felled great
e ellent steam endin ro erties, and arti ial endin trees rom the Le anon s orests and to ed the lo s a k
of timber is illustrated in a Middle Kingdom tomb, where to Egypt where they were used on large scale building
a wooden stick is shown being heated over a basin of hot onstru tion and to a limited e tent or urniture and
water and being bent by a carpenter (Newberry 1893: pl. o n manu a ture. his ra ti e is still ontinued to the
VII). From the tomb of Tutankhamun a compound bow present day. The Palermo Stone is part of a large basalt
E 6153 , arter o. 370 nn, as also identi ed as ein monument; fragments are found preserved at the Egyptian
ash. This timber may well have been used as veneer in Museum, Cairo and the Petrie Museum, University
an ient times arter and Ma e 1 23 11 Lu as 1 62 olle e London. his monument re ords the annals o
2 M Leod 1 70 21 . E t rom the red nasti kin s to a date late in the 5th
Dynasty. Its surface is divided into horizontal registers,
Birch (Betula) which are further divided vertically into compartments,
The Silver Birch (B. pendula) was probably used at some one for each regnal year, in which the name and principal
period by ancient Egyptian craftsmen although its use is events of the year were inscribed with the height of the
poorly attested (Gale et al. 2000 336 337, . 15.2 . inundation below, (For the record here alluded to, see
The timber is well established in Western Asia although Breasted 1 06 ol. . 1 6 .
it prefers those cooler climates of Northern Europe. It can C. libani ro s in ro es in the Le anon at hei hts
ro to hei hts o around 20 metres ut durin natural o 1,000 metres a o e sea le el, and is a reasona l
seasoning has been known to warp badly. ast ro in tree, rea hin hei hts o et een 20 and
33 metres. As with most cedars it is distinctly scented
Box (Buxus) and produces a reddish brown timber. Although it has
he ommon Bo B. sempervirens) is found in Europe, disadvantages in its use, the Egyptian carpenter fully
Western Asia and North Africa. It is known that it was e loited this tim er. he lar e shrines dis o ered in
used for inlay and that it was decoratively turned during the tomb of Tutankhamun as well as a chair (Egyptian
ancient times (Gale et al. 2000 337, . 15.3 . his slo Museum, airo, E 6202 ere made in edar ale et
growing bush type tree has a yellow timber, and only al. 2000 3 350, . 15.13 .
attains a hei ht o u to 10 metres.
Cypress (Cupressus)
Carob (Ceratonia) The cypress which was imported into Ancient Egypt
The carob (Ceratonia siliqua) used by Egyptians came would have been the variety (Cupressus Sempervirens).
from both Western Asia and those lands to be found at the The tree, which is coniferous, belongs to the Cupressaceae
southern end of the Red Sea (Gale et al. 2000 33 , . family and grows on low dry sandy soil, attaining a
15. . rom the rei n o hutmose 1 7 1 25 B. . hei ht o 30 metres. t ould ha e een im orted ith
may be gauged the quantity of carob-wood entering Egypt cedar, but in smaller quantities, for only a few small
from ancient records. During the 38th year of his reign is s e imens ha e een identi ed ale et al. 2000 350,
recorded a Syrian tribute of ivory and carob-wood (Breasted . 15.1 . t is not until the e in dom that lar er
1 06 ol. , 50 . Also in that ear a urther tri ute is s e imens are dis o ered. A ne e am le, hi h is er
shown to have come from Arrapachitis, and consisted of late, 30.1 3, is reser ed in the museum o the o al
t o lo ks o o er, 65 lo s o aro ood and all s eet Botanic Gardens, Kew.
oods o the ountr Breasted 1 06 ol. , 512 .
Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera)
Cedar (Cedrus) This tree is usually quite small, growing to heights which
Three main varieties of cedar were used in ancient do not e eed 20 metres. t is indi enous to E t and
Egypt. C. libani rom the Le anon ould ha e een its fruit has proved to be a most popular food. The tree’s
the most widely used. Atlas cedar (C. atlantica) from bark is of characteristic form, being made of the pruned
the Atlas Mountains of North Africa and to a lesser stubs of old leaf stems. The tree was cultivated from a very
e tent C. deodara which is found in the dense forests early period and would have been a totally unsatisfactory
1. Furniture Materials 3
furniture timber. The timber is very soft and its grain is TT 39 at Thebes, records that ebony was brought back
om osed o loose strin res. Old trees hi h had rom Asia on the shoulders o sla es a ies 1 22 103, l.
come to the end of their fruit bearing life were often used XIII). Ebony was mainly used in conjunction with ivory;
as beams for houses, the leaves for basketry, the bark as both cut into sheets of veneer and glued or pinned to the
fuel and the stalks of the fruit were plaited together to surfaces of caskets and furniture of poor quality timber
make cord and string (Gale et al. 2000 3 7 3 . A art during the Early Dynastic Period and Old Kingdom.
from the fruit the sap of the timber could be fermented rom the urniture o ueen ete heres . 2613
and used as a beverage. B.C.) strips of ebony were used on the back of the carrying
chair now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo (Reisner and
Dom Palm (Hyphaene thebaica) mith 1 55 33 ., . 3 , and ls. 27 2 . he amount o
The Dom Palm, common to Upper Egypt, could have e on hi h as im orted durin the rst t o in doms
been used in furniture manufacture. The timber of this tree was possibly used to cover and decorate wood. It is not
is very hard, particularly the outer layers, and it would until the e in dom, and the in reased e editions
ha e een di ult to ell ith earl o er a es ale and tributes, that it became possible to construct furniture
et al. 2000 3 7 . entirely of ebony. Bedframes from Kerma have been
The fruit of the Dom Palm is commonly discovered in discovered dating from the Second Intermediate Period,
predynastic graves and was used widely in conjunction the timber used is probably African Blackwood (Reisner
with early bowdrills as the cup which was placed over 1 23 213 223 . A er ne solid e on ed rame as
the sheath of the drill bit. discovered in the tomb of Tutankhamun and is preserved
in the E tian Museum, airo, E 62016. ndeed, durin
Ebony (Dalbergia) the 1 th nast , Amenhote 13 0 1352 B. . sent
Ebony, in Egyptian, hbny, is a dark jet black timber, four ebony bedframes with an ebony headrest, ten ebony
very heavy and with a dense grain. It is resistant to ootstools and si e on hairs to the in o Ba lon
atta k inse ts, is dura le, and di ult to steam end. and thirteen ebony chairs to the King of Arzawa (Mercer
he tim er seasons e e tionall ell ithout ra kin 1 3 17 and 1 5 .
or splitting. The term ebony has been confused with
two different timbers. Firstly, Diospyros is discovered Elm (Ulmus)
in several places, iospyros crassi ora and Diospyros The elm (Ulmus minor) is found in Western Asia, it attains
Piseatoria are both found in tropical areas of West Africa, the hei ht o 0 metres ith an o erall trunk diameter o
while Diospyros ebenum is indi enous to ri Lanka and 1.7 metre. The steam bending qualities are better than
Diospyros melanoxylon to India. No variety was grown ash and this, combined with the natural toughness and
in Egypt or close to Egyptian borders. It is possible that hardness of the timber, made it ideal for use by ancient
Diospyros ebenum grew in parts of Ethiopia. It would wheelwrights to construct chariot bodies, wheels, spokes
seem that specimens of ebony found in Egypt, and and a les ale et al. 2000 3 6 . t ma e noted that the
referred to in this work, are in fact Dalbergia melanoxylon ksos rulers 1650 1550 B. . ho had mi rated into
which is commonly known as African Blackwood and Egypt during the Middle Kingdom employed horse drawn
is not a member of the Diospyros family (Gale et al. chariots as part of their military strategy to subjugate
2000 33 33 , . 15.5 . his tim er as to e ound the inha itants o the E tian delta. he ksos ame
in u ia here it ro s to hei hts o 10 metres. he from those regions such as Palestine where the elm was
heartwood only of Dalbergia melanoxylon is dark black plentiful. In furniture it would have been used for large
or sometimes ro n ith flashes o la k. t seems likel constructional pieces, for the nature of the timber lends
that predynastic objects which are called ebony are in fact itself to such work.
A ri an Bla k ood. urin the 6th nast , 23 5 21 1
B. ., E tian e lorers ourne ed into u ia, and on Fig (Ficus carica)
one e edition re orded the rou ht a k 300 asses he is a er ommon tree ound throu hout the
laden with ebony and ivory. southern Mediterranean, being mainly used for the
B the e in dom E tian e lorers had ertainl cultivation of its fruit. It is not widely known as a timber
penetrated as far as Ethiopia, in the mortuary temple of rodu in tree as it ro s to less than 10 metres and
ueen atshe sut at eir el Bahri, a all relie sho s usually in bush form.
Egyptians removing branches from ebony trees in the land
o Punt a ille 1 15, ls. L , L . Fir (Abies)
urin the rei n o hutmose 1 7 1 25 B. . he ariet o r Abies cilicica) was used in ancient
essels loaded ith e on and other e oti tim ers su h as Egypt and grew in Western Asia. Being a tall tree of
cinnamon wood and khesytwood were brought back after hei hts o u to 30 metres it ould ha e een used in
an e edition to Punt alon the ed ea Breasted 1 06 onstru tion, oat uildin and the manu a ture o fla
ol. , 265 . Another re ord rom the tom o Pu emre, poles (Gale et al. 2000 3 3 , . 15.12 .
Hornbeam (Carpinus) Persea (Mimusops laurifolia)

Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) is native to the more Persea was cultivated in ancient Egypt, but again was
temperate areas of Europe and Western Asia. The tree unlikely to have been used for furniture production. Two
grows to between 16 and 26 metres in height and with ie es o this tim er ha e een ositi el identi ed, a
a trunk diameter of 1 metre. The timber is extremely orner ie e o a o n reser ed in the British Museum,
hard with a dense grain and it has good steam bending EA 24800, and a headrest in Heidelberg University
properties. Museum, 2 0 ale et al. 2000 3 2, . 15. . he ruit
would seem to have been this trees most important product.
Juniper (Juniperus)
Juniperus phoenica and Juniperus excelsa are varieties Pine (Pinus)
of timber which are widely distributed through Western Pinus halepensis grew in Western Asia and was used by
Asia. The timber is commonly confused with the cypress, an ient E tian ar enters in the manu a ture o o ns
of which family (Cupressaceae) Juniper is a member. The and boats (Gale et al. 2000 351 352, . 15.16 .
main use of this rich timber was for incense (Gale et al.
2000 351, . 15.15 . Plum (Prunus)
The variety of plum (Prunus domestica) is found in
Lime (Tilia) Western Asia, particularly around the Caspian Sea and
The Lime (Tilia), is widely distributed throughout the Caucasus. Ancient fragments have been discovered
Southern Europe and Western Asia and was used in in the spokes of a chariot wheel (Florence 2678). This
Egypt during the Late Period. It grows to a height of 33 tree grows quite quickly, up to 10 metres in height (Gale
metres with a trunk diameter of 1.3 metres (Gale et al. et.al. 2000: 343).
2000: 345–346).
Sidder (Zizyphus spina-christi)
Maple (Acer) Sidder (Zizyphus spina-christi), known also as Christ’s
Acer campestre is a small species of maple which grows thorn, re in an ient E t. Both ruit and tim er ere
in Western Asia. It has been found to have been used in used E tians. A ie e o o n ood dis o ered on
the floor rame o the hariot reser ed in the Museo the Brunton e edition to E t in 1 32 as identi ed
Archeologico Nazionale di Firenze 2678 (Gale et al. L A. Boodle at the o al Botani arden, e to e
2000: 336). an example of this particular timber (Gale et al. 2000:
3 7, . 15.11 .
Oak (Quercus)
From the tomb of Tutankhamun dowels of oak were found Storax tree (Liquidambar)
in the Pharaoh’s sarcophagus (Quercus cerris) (Carter Liquidambar orientalis as found in Western Asia, would
1 27 3 . his arti ular ariet ro s hiefl in Asia have been used by ancient Egyptians for the sweet gum
Minor and is ommonl kno n as urkish Oak. e ma it produces. This would have been used as a perfume
assume that by the 18th Dynasty trading relations existed and also in the embalming process (Gale et al. 2000:
between these two countries, which possibly accounts for 3 1 3 2, .15.7 .
small quantities of oak entering Egypt. No large pieces of
urniture ha e een ositi el identi ed as ein made Sycomore Fig (Ficus sycomorus)
from oak (Gale et al. 2000: 344). This tree grows widely throughout Egypt and many pieces
Other oaks hi h re in the Mediterranean asin ha e een ositi el identi ed. hese in lude o ns,
may have also been used by Egyptian carpenters, such roof trusses and statues (Gale et al. 2000 3 0, . 15.6 .
as Quercus ilex, which grows in some areas of North
Africa, and Quercus coccifera known as Kermes oak, Tamarisk (Tamarix)
hi h is to e ound in the Mediterranean asin and is a This tree may still be found widely spread throughout
very bushy tree. Egypt, the common species being T. nilotica (Gale et al.
Quercus cerris is a large tree attaining heights exceeding 2000 3 5 . t as rst used durin the eolithi Period
40 metres with a trunk diameter of two metres. It seasons as a carving material but it is unlikely that many large
very badly and is liable to decay quickly when buried, but pieces of furniture were produced from this timber, due
ould ha e een ro ta l used or uildin ork i lar e to its small si e and oor ualit . Mu h o the tim er is
enough quantities were available. Quercus ilex is another knotty with considerable defects. A chair with turned legs
hardwood, attaining heights of about 20 metres. This that was made of tamarisk and dated as 26th Dynasty is
timber shows clearly the “silver grain” of the true oak. no reser ed in the museum o the Oriental nstitute,
Another oak, commonly known as European oak, is a University of Chicago.
hybrid, and is known to grow on the North African continent. It would have been uneconomic and bad policy to
In warm dry climates this timber seasons very badly. fell such trees in ancient Egypt as they would have
een di ult to ut do n and sa into reasona l si ed 172.1 3 A ie e o o n ood, hi h as

boards, and, as today, such trees were found in the most collected in Egypt by Dr Schweinfurth,
inhos ita le la es, su h as salt deserts. ere the are Date: unknown.
put to good use for many desert villages are surrounded
by Tamarisk trees which protect them against drifting Quercus Cerris
sand storms. No number Wood from Tutankhamun’s shrine.
denti ed L. A. Boodle 2.7.1 25.
Yew (Taxus) ork undertaken or Lu as, E tian
The yew (Taxus baccata) a variety found in Africa and Museum, Cairo.
estern Asia as ommonl used in o n onstru tion
and was an ideal material for carving. The head of the Tamarix Nilotica
statuette of Queen Tiye from Gurob (Ägyptisches Museen, 5.1 5 Part o a hammo k made rom stems,
Berlin, M 21 3 has een identi ed as ein modelled rom mumm , ent 20th nast .
from this timber (Gale et al. 2000 352 . Collected in Egypt by Dr Schweinfurth.
Kew Gardens Collection Tamarix (species)

im er identi ation undertaken on the olle tion o 61.1923 Throwstick from a tomb at Thebes, c.
ancient timbers in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (Kew 1700 B. . Presented Pro essor
catalogue numbers given). Newberry.
Abies Lime
30 .1 2 A ie e o o in ood o rae o No Number Fragment of wood from panel on which
Roman period, which was collected in an early Roman portrait was painted.
Egypt by Dr Schweinfurth and presented Discovered in Egypt. 1st cent. A.D. by
to e in 1 , identi ed in 1 7 . Petrie in 1 11. denti ied L. A.
Boodle 6.2.1912.
Acacia
160.1 5 Pie e o tim er rom ahun, 12th Zizyphus spina-christi
nast , .1 5 B. . olle ted in E t o um er A ra ment o o n ood. th nast .
by Petrie. is o ered the Brunton e edition
to Egypt.
Cedrus
3 .1 2 ood rom ouse . rom near
ell el Amarna, 13 0 B. . olle ted in 2. Other Materials and Methods
E t Pro . .LL. ri th. denti ed
L A. Boodle 10.7.1 2 . Ivory
Ivory the dentine product of elephant and hippopotamus
Cupressaceae tusk was widely used in Egypt. Because by the Early
30.1 3 A ie e o o in ood o rae o nasti Period the ele hant as alread e tin t ithin
Roman period, which was collected in Egypt’s borders it forced Egyptians to look towards
Egypt by Dr Schweinfurth and presented Africa and western Asia to import the raw material.
to e in 1 . denti ed in 1 7 . i o otamus tusk ould e sour ed rom ithin E t
and the culling of hippopotami was done as a way of
Ficus Sycomorus reducing the population as the animal was seen as a “pest”
30.1 1 o ie es o o n ood o rae o r s ko ska and Morkot 2000 320 331 .
Roman period, which were collected in ine i or ar in is rst attested in emale urines
Egypt by Dr Schweinfurth and presented o the Badarian Period, . 5500 000 B. . hi h ere
to e in 1 . denti ed in 1 7 . found in graves. Ivory takes kindly to being carved
S.6932 Figure made of wood, 11th Dynasty. or it has a arti ularl dense rain. B the Late
107.1 7 o in ood rom Ale andria, date Pred nasti Period, . 3200 B. . ar ed eremonial
unknown. objects such as the famous knife-handles from Gebel
17 .1 5 ns ri ed models o o and ha radle. El-Arak and elsewhere were being made of ivory. In
Deir el-Bahri 17th Dynasty. Presented the 1st Dynasty, year names and events were recorded
by EEF. on ivory tablets, probably used as labels for items
7.1 27 ra ments o ainted ood. ell el of the funerary provision. Small ivory furniture legs
Amarna, presented by the EES. fashioned in bovine form have been discovered in the
1st nast ro al tom s at A dos. ota le e am les to have been employed to disguise poor quality wood.
come from the tomb of King Djer, now in the Fitzwilliam This is noticeable from the furniture discovered in the
Museum, am rid e E. 6.1 00 and the tom o in tomb of Tutankhamun where much of the plain carcase
emerkhet, no in the Ashmolean Museum, O ord construction was veneered with rarer woods.
(E.1283). These legs were most probably used to support
small caskets or miniature stools, while larger wooden Marquetry and Parquetry
legs have been found which support beds and stools. In Marquetry, the art of applying complicated patterns and
the 1st Dynasty tombs at Abydos were also discovered floral de oration made o di erent oloured oods to the
e am les o i or inla , o ten in ised ith diamond side anels o askets and o es, as idel ra tised
patterns which are usually stained red. from the New Kingdom. Ancient Egyptian carpenters
of the New Kingdom were also to perfect the technique
Leather of parquetry, where regular geometric patterns were
Leather as used in stri orm as a thon to tie to ether constructed by laying thousands of slivers of wood and
elements of furniture, before the introduction of animal ivory onto a panel creating a stunning visual effect. This
glue. It was used as a protective covering to furniture is e em li ed on one o E 61 61 dis o ered in the
and to ro ide the fle i le seat o man oldin stools. tomb of Tutankhamun where an estimated thirty-three
riel Murra 2000 2 31 . thousand individual pieces of wood were glued to the side
anels and lid o the o in a herrin one attern, hei ht
Inlay 216 mm, len th 25 mm, idth 22 mm. Another o ,
We have already discussed ivory inlay but many other E 61 62, arter 1 33, 66 and l. A , hei ht 27
timbers were used, one of the most common was African mm, len th mm, idth 2 mm, dis la s e en more
Blackwood. Most of the inlay used is quite thick, between pieces of wood placed in a parquetry design.
2 mm and mm and ould ha e een ut ith a small
thin laded sa Plate 1 . On lose e amination o lar e Plywood
pieces of African Blackwood inlay it is often easy to see Although the laminated structure of wood veneers,
the neat saw lines on the surface of prepared inlay. Much commonly known as plywood, was not widely used
o the earl inla ould ha e een ed into osition in ancient Egypt, one specimen has been discovered.
resin, although by the New Kingdom animal glue was ra ments, hi h had si la ers o eneer, ea h la er
ein e tensi el used. One o the earliest e am les o running at right angles to the other, were discovered at
lar e inla ork omes rom a urtain o , hi h as a a ara in a assa e o oser s te P ramid . 26
resent rom ne eru to his i e, ueen ete heres . B. . . he ra ments make the side o a o n, and ere
2613 B. . , E 53265, len th 06 mm eisner and mith found in an alabaster sarcophagus. The layers, none of
1 55 25 27, s. 2 a and 2 , ls. 12 13 illen 1 hi h ere the e a t hei ht or len th o the o n ere
11, . , l. 3 illen 2017B 11 12, . , l. 3 . A dowelled together producing a large laminated sheet,
o and arm hair rom the same onte t ere inlaid ith the size of which could not have been cut from any logs
faience, carnelian and gold, a practice which continued, available at that time (Gale et al. 2000 356, . 15.1 .
and is est e em li ed, in the de oration o the a k
su ort o utankhamun s old throne, E 6202 , Plate Glue
102 and i ure 32 . Glue was not widely used in ancient Egypt on a large scale
until the 5th nast 2 23 5 B. . . On the urniture
Veneer o ueen ete heres , th nast , . 2613 B. ., the
eneer as de elo ed durin the 1st nast 3100 2 0 elements are still tied together with leather thongs. The
B. . . Emer dis o ered in the tom o emaka at inlay work to the arm panels of the second chair (which
a ara a round o , ut rom a solid lo k o ood, was never reconstructed, although a modern reproduction
hi h as de orated ith eneer, ro a l ed resin has een re entl manu a tured rom ne arts at ar ard
to the outer surface. The design was of a chequered pattern University, Cambridge, Mass.), may have been attached
of different coloured woods. The thickness of the veneer is to the wood with glue, but more probably with gesso.
about the same as inlay and always remains so throughout Glue would have been made by boiling the bone and
the Pharaoni era. Ea h flit h as ut ith a sa hi h skins of animals in water which was allowed to evaporate
must have resulted in a lot of wastage (Emery 1938: Cat. to concentrate the solution and was then cast into ingots
o. 32, l. 23a . eneers are ed to the sur a e and in and allowed to set. The ingots would then be broken into
no way recessed into the surface as are inlays. Some large smaller pieces or ground into powder and when needed
pieces of veneer are pinned or dowelled into position; this placed in a pot with a small amount of water and reheated
was done to prevent the veneer from twisting. o er a re until the lue had returned to a is ous orm.
Whereas inlay would have been used to decorate It would then have been applied to the joints of furniture
the surface of reasonably good wood, veneers seems and inla rush. A ne s ene illustratin a l in
and heating glue comes from the 18th Dynasty tomb at

ekhmira at he es, tom 100 i ure 2 .
Gesso
esso as made mi in a h drated orm o sum
with glue, or another adhesive such as gum, to produce
a ne laster. his ould ha e een a lied to ood or
several reasons.
1. It would have been applied to wood during the Early
Dynastic Period as a base to attach inlay.
2. By the 18th Dynasty much of the furniture produced
was being gessoed, undoubtedly to cover poor quality
wood or even as a base for painting upon, as on the three
le ed ta le in the British Museum, London EA 2 6 .
See Plates 111–113.
3. Gesso was also applied during the New Kingdom as
an adhesive to hold gold and silver foil to wood.
Figure 1. Scarf joint.
Figure 2. Carpentry workshop scene. (Tomb painting, Thebes, Tomb of Rekhmira, TT 100, 18th Dynasty).
Gold Sheet the resulting varnish whilst hot to the wood surface
The art of gilding, laying very thin sheets of gold foil over er i o 2000 5 60 .
wood that has been previously covered with a layer of
adhesive gesso was well known as a decorative technique. Dowels
One of the royal beds from the tomb of Tutankhamun was o els are used as earl as the 1st nast , an e am le
de orated in su h a a E 62015 . of dowelled wood was discovered at Abydos and possibly
Another method employed to embellish furniture, forms part of a hinged lid or chair back fragment
especially royal furniture, was with either thick gold or Ashmolean Museum, O ord, E. 13 , tom o in
silver sheet. This technique is seen on a bedframe (JE Semerkhet). Dowels were widely used on all types of
6201 , Plate 1, and the old throne E 6202 , Plate jointing even when glue was employed. This was due
102, rom the tom o utankhamun. Another ne ie e to carpenters being unable to cramp up work as the glue
is reser ed in the British Museum, London EA 2157 , cured, so holding joints with dowels was still necessary.
being reputed to be the fragments of a royal throne that
elon ed to ueen atshe sut 1 th nast , 1 73 1 5 Scarf joint with Butterfly Cramp
B.C.), Plate 1. But recently it has been reassigned a later Egyptian timbers were often short, due to being cut by a
date having now been established that it was found in pullsaw, which meant that each strip could be no longer
the 20th nast tom o ameses , 1126 110 than the post to which the board was tied, which was
B.C.). This new date is certainly feasible because these usually the height of the sawyer unless he stood on a
fragments form part of a royal bedframe as the style of the stone block which elevated him slightly. This is shown
legs are very much of a Classic Kerma bedframe design in some tomb scenes illustrating carpenters at work. This
ein eauti ull ar ed into a o ine orm. o e er, problem meant that the battens which made the side rails
its de oration is e lusi el E tian, desi ned ith the o lar e o es had to e ointed to ether their end
royal cobra (uraeus). The leg is covered with gold sheet grain. This type of contact is not now used, as we can
and the hoof with silver sheet. In this object the technique obtain long lengths of rotary cut timber. The Egyptians
of laying sheet metal is completely different to gilding; must ha e e erien ed ro lems in ointin len ths o
here the sheet metal has rst een lannished onto the small sectioned timber, as the end grain of timber do not
hardwood leg and attached by small gold and silver nails, glue satisfactorily together.
which pierce both precious metal sheet and wood core. his is the reason h o es are usuall o a small
Another decorative technique is applied to this piece character during the earliest dynasties. It is not until the
whereby the uraei on the uprights of the footboard have Middle Kingdom when the technique of scarf jointing with
been inlaid with tiny silver rings punched into the wood. a utterfl ram e ame idel used, that the dimensions
o tim er ramed o es and hests han ed reatl . he
Beeswax scarf joint, (Figure l), is where two battens of wood join
The Egyptians apparently realised the opportunities of together by their end grain; the faces in contact are cut
o erin ooden rodu ts ith ees a , ith e iden e through at an angle and into the top surface of the timber
of its use found in the black varnish coating of a shabti elements is cut a double dovetail, which is the hole that
EA 571 rom the tom o ameses , 1126 110 en a es a utterfl ram . hen the utterfl ram is
B. . er i o and hite 2000 20 22, . 17.17 . t forced into the double dovetail the two battens are securely
is ossi le that urniture as rote ted ith ees a , or locked together.
it is the base from which most modern natural polishes Some longer timbers were prepared by cleaving boards
are derived. from the tree trunk. Wooden wedges would be driven into
the end and side grain which allowed boards to be split
Varnish from the trunk. Once cleaved the boards were trued by a
Translucent varnish became widely used during the New carpenter who used a large adze.
Kingdom, particularly over painted surfaces of mummy
ases and hests. A nota le e am le is the ainted hest Nails and Tacks
rom the tom o utankhamun E 61 67 illen 1 We have already discussed the use of tacks to fasten
53 55, ls. 5 illen 2017B 6 70, ls. 5 . On gold sheet and veneer to wood, however, during the 18th
painted surfaces it still retains a high lustre although much Dynasty gold studs were also employed to secure joints
has turned dark yellow due to its age and the modern together.
preservatives applied to it after its discovery. Varnishes
would have been applied by brush as they were made Hinges
by melting resins, such as pistacia resin. Black varnish Metal hinges were developed during the New Kingdom,
which served as a black paint was also used on wood, to and t o er ne e am les are to e ound in the urniture
protect it, during the New Kingdom. It would have been of Tutankhamun. Simple butt hinges made of gold are used
prepared by strongly heating pistacia pitch and applying on a small solid i or asket E 61 . he lar e o er
hin es used on the oldin ed, E 6201 and des ri ed lid was slid into position along a pair of runners housed
fully in Chapter 3, are a great technical achievement. alon the to ed es o the lon sides o the o . On e the
lid was in place the swivelling latch would freely drop
Locks lo kin the lid to the o illen 1 3 3 , . 53,
Until the New Kingdom locks were not used on furniture, ls. 31 32 illen 2017B 51, . 53, ls. 31 32 . An
althou h durin the Middle in dom o ns ere sealed alternati e method used to se ure the ontents o o es
a s stem o ei hts hi h dro ed hen the o n as was to employ a simple rotary lock; this is best seen on
shut and made it impossible to open again without using a hest rom the tom o utankhamun, arter o. 5 5
force. The main method of securing chests throughout E 61 56 Aldred 1 5 6 5, . 6B illen 1 6 ,
ancient Egypt was to attach a seal to cord which was . 72 illen 2017B 3, . 72 . An e ternal kno is
wound around knobs on both the lid and front panel of onne ted to a sha t inside the o . he kno hi h is
the chest. If the lid was opened the cord and seal would on the lid is able to turn and so turns the shaft through
have to be broken. which at right angles is a pin. This pin engages in a slot
Another method o lo kin a o as to in lude a on the inside anel o the o , a small ankh” symbol on
s i ellin at h, lo ated in the ront a le o a o the the knob indicates when the lid is locked by its position.
Plate 1. Bed rame le . 20th nast . om o ameses . British Museum, London. EA 2157 . British Museum.
Chapter 2
Tools
The working of timber in ancient Egypt occurred from the nished arte a t as sanded and urnished a ies 1 3
earliest times, during the Badarian period c. 5500–4000 pls. LII–LV). A notable red burnisher of stone is preserved
B. . e nd sim le tim er oles e. . Petrie Museum, in the British Museum, EA 21 07 130 mm 35 mm.
University College, London. UC 9294) employed as The role of the carpenter in Egypt changed greatly
stretchers on which was laid a matting of twigs for the as his services became more widely used, during the 1st
body of the deceased to be placed upon. Also from this Dynasty for mainly funerary type furniture but as shown
period we see the use of sculptured fertility models which later on more normal household items of furniture. In a
are carved mainly in ivory. Although not furniture they scene from the tomb of Ty which is dated as 5th Dynasty
begin to show us that these people had knowledge and teindor 1 13 l. , and also in the later model
understanding of cutting tools. The origins of many of rom the 11th nast tom o Meketra, ar enters are
the tools used in the dynastic period were developed in seated u on the orksho floor. his ie is radi all
predynastic times. changed by the New Kingdom where we see carpenters
The principles of in cutting timber have not changed; seated on three le ed or latti e ra ed stools a ies
therefore the original solutions are as perfectly valid 1 27 l. a ies 1 33, l. a ies 1 3, ls.
today as they were thousands of years ago. Until the 20th L L . Man o these later ar enters ork at rimiti e
century, with the introduction of machine tools, carpenters benches which appear to be large blocks of timber, for
continued in a timeless profession. When studying the tomb scenes show them to be covered with lines
reliefs and paintings that survive from ancient Egypt it hi h imitate ood rain. ome ar enters are seen to
is quickly established that all the hand techniques used embed their adze into the top surface of the bench. The
today were being employed by ancient carpenters. In fact front edge of many of these benches has a right angled
this information on the use of tools comes not only from sectioned removed, obviously positioned to hold planks
tomb scenes but also from models of carpenters at work. which are being sawn to length. This is very much like
rom the 11th nast tom o Meketra 2 0, e the modern bench hook which is held in the bench vice.
have a model in which we see carpenters seated around he ar enter s i e as not a ie e o e ui ment used
the walls of their workshop, engaged in sawing, trimming ancient craftsmen). In Figure 2 may be seen the processes
tim er ith ad es, ho in mortises, nishin tim er and tools illustrated rom the tom o ekhmira rei n o
and sha in tools or in inlo k 1 55 0, ls. hutmose , 1 7 1 25 B. . .
21, 2 , 2 , 6 , 6 . A ain rom the 1 th nast tom
o ekhmira 100 e ma o ser e the hole ran e
of carpentry skills which not only includes the techniques 1. Scribing inStrument (Plate 2)
previously mentioned but also the splitting of timber with New Kingdom.
axes, drilling and measuring the length of timber with British Museum, London. EA 157 2.
a cubit rod. The cubit rod also acted as the carpenter’s O erall len th 106 mm, lade len th 7 mm.
straight edge and for checking the angular accuracy of
parts he uses both try and mitre squares. Furniture parts he markin kni e s ri in instrument , as idel used
ere ed to ether ith lue a lied rush e ore the by Egyptian carpenters, examples have been discovered
as earl as the 12th nast at ahun 7302 . ni es Very small adzes were used during predynastic times to
were used to score lines on wood so allowing carpenters trim and smooth the materials used for small carvings.
to ork and ut the ood to the marks. u h lines an e They are commonly discovered with straight edges, on
seen on one of the holes in the bow of the bowdrill now examination of this blade the cutting edge is seen to have
in the British Museum, EA 60 0, Plate 22. he markin been ground to form a sharp rake, suitable for cutting
knife consists of a soft wooden handle with a small bronze and slicing. The thickness of this blade tapers towards
forged blade pressed in at one end. the edges.
2. try Square (Plate 3) 4. adze blade (Plate 4, middle)

Ptolemai Period. 1st Dynasty.
Petrie Museum, ni ersit olle e, London. 6 25. Petrie Museum, ni ersit olle e, London. 1 37.
idth 25 mm, len th 2 mm. Len th 205 mm, idth at uttin ed e 33 mm,
thickness at centre of blade 4 mm.
The origin of the try square is uncertain but it was widely Petrie 1 17 l. , 270 .
used during the New Kingdom. This particular try square,
Plate 3, is histori all late, ut undou tedl similar to those Larger adze blades are found at the beginning of the
examples illustrated from the New Kingdom, Figure 2. dynastic period, which coincides with the larger funerary
a ies 1 3 ls. L and L . he s uare is made rom bedframes and furniture which were constructed during
reddish ood o re tan ular se tion 33 mm 1 mm. t this eriod. hese lades are ast and flared or in
is made from two elements, the stock and blade, being which increases the width of the cutting edge. The top
connected by a bridle joint and secured by two metal pins. of the blade is often rounded but there are examples
The joint is wedged, this obviously being driven into the joint hi h still retain the flat s uare to a nota le e am le
to open the two elements to enclose a perfect right angle. is no reser ed in the British Museum, London EA
Below the try square that is illustrated in Figure 2 5 223. his e am le Plate , middle rom the Petrie
can be seen a mitre square that has been placed on the Museum, ni ersit olle e, London, has a er shar
orksho floor ehind the ar enters en h lo k. A rake round to 30 .
similar mitre s uare has een identi ed the author
and is also reser ed in the Petrie Museum, ni ersit
olle e, London. 27 7 ii illen 2003 0, . 3 . 5. adze blade (Plate 4, bottom)
4th or 5th Dynasty.
Petrie Museum, ni ersit olle e, London. 1 3 .
The Adze Len th o lade 1 2 mm, idth at uttin ed e 3 mm,
The adze was employed for the same purpose as our thi kness 3 mm.
modern jack and smoothing planes. The copper bladed Petrie 1 17 l. , 277 .
adze appears before the dynastic age, usually as small thin
laded tools, o ten ith strai ht ed es Petrie 1 17 16 and By the 4th and 5th Dynasties the shape of the adze blade
l. , 60, 61 . t is not until the d nasti a e e rst had han ed. t still retained the flared od and strai ht
dis o er the flared lade hi h as ast in o er Petrie cutting edge with a rounded top but below this it became
1 17 16 and l. , , 66, 67 . he o er lade o an more necked.
adze was attached to a carved wooden haft by means of a
leather binding. The earliest blades are cast then forged,
since forging increased the hardness of the blade by the 6. adze blade (Plate 5)
mole ular ork hardenin o the o er. Man o the Middle in dom.
earliest lades ere made ith flat ends ut o er time the British Museum, London. EA 22 1.
design and size changed as the adze was employed to cut Len th o lade 167 mm, idth o uttin ed e 51 mm,
different types and sizes of timber. thickness of blade at centre 5 mm.
The necking of the adze blade continued to the point

3. adze blade (Plate 4, toP). here it as redu ed to one th o the uttin ed e. his
Pred nasti . particular blade is cast in bronze and forged to shape; the
Petrie Museum, ni ersit olle e, London. 1 36. or in marks an e learl seen. his lade is flared
Len th 77 mm, idth at uttin ed e 15 mm, thi kness rom the ne k and is t i al o lades o the Middle and
2 mm. New Kingdoms. The cutting edge of the blade is slightly
Petrie 1 17 l. , 260 . curved and the rake has been forged onto the blade before
ein nall round.
2. Tools 15
7. adze (Plate 6) to size. The latter operation was replaced by the pullsaw
New Kingdom. hi h e ol ed later than the Earl nasti Period. here
British Museum, London. EA 6061. are three main type of axe.
Overall length of haft 245 mm, length of bronze blade 1. Plain round laded a es.
1 0 mm, idth o uttin ed e 30 mm. 2. Axes with two lugs which were attached to the axe
Baker 1 66 2 7, . 5 . haft.
3. A es ith so kets hi h allo ed the ha t to ass
This small adze is designed for small delicate work; through the blade. These axes developed later, and
the ha t is made o a li ht oloured ood and is o ne ere ast in ron e hi h has a etter a nit to flo
condition being well carved and sandstoned. The base of around the sand cores needed to produce the socket
the handle has been sawn through. The blade is attached hole in the mould.
to the haft by a length of mummy bandage, no doubt a
temporary method of securing the blade to the haft. The he rst t e o a e seems to e the most idel used
blade is cast and forged in bronze, 2.5 mm in thickness, as a carpenter’s tool during the dynastic period. The
and is flared ith a ur ed uttin ed e. he main od introduction of the axe was due to the greater capability
of this blade is of the later necked design. of casting copper during the 1st Dynasty and the need to
cut down larger trees to make larger pieces of furniture.
o er had re iousl een di ult to re ne and smelt
8 adze (Plate 7) and therefore smaller quantities of the metal were cast
New Kingdom. and fashioned into the cutting blades of adzes and chisels.
British Museum, London. EA 2627 .
O erall len th 330 mm, len th o lade 15 mm, idth
o uttin ed e 6 mm. 10. axe blade (Plate 9)
1st nast , A dos tom 3 7.
The haft of this adze, which is larger than the previous Petrie Museum, ni ersit olle e, London.
example, is designed for more general use. It is cut and 1617 .
carved from a conveniently shaped wooden element. e th 153 mm, idth 122 mm, thi kness o lade
Along the side of the haft is incised a cartouche bearing 15 mm.
the name of Queen Hatshepsut. The blade is attached to the Petrie 1 25 l. 6 , l. .
haft by a strip of light red leather, which is woven about
the blade and haft and continuing below the characteristic The carpenter’s axe was a much heavier implement
step on the haft. The ends of the leather strap are wedged than the lighter battle-axe, which had a thinner blade.
beneath the circular layers which still hold the blade Carpenters’ axes were cast in hollow sand moulds which
tightly. The bronze blade is very thin and is of the necked le t them ith flat a es. he ed es o the a e ere then
design with a straight cutting edge. forged on both sides to form the characteristic double
cutting edge of the axe, unlike the adze blade which is
sharpened on one side and similar to a modern plane
9. adze (Plate 8) blade. The blade of the axe is tied to the haft by means
New Kingdom. o leather thon s later lades had lu s hi h tted to the
British Museum, London. EA 22 3 . haft and made the tying of both elements together easier.
Overall length 540 mm, length of blade 205 mm, With the axe the cutting edge is parallel to the haft and
idth o lade at uttin ed e 65 mm, thi kness o the haft is thicker and shorter than the adze. This allows
lade mm. for heavier blows and violent levering of the axe from
Baker 1 66 2 7, . 5 . the timber. These characteristics are unlike those of the
adze, which as we have seen was mainly used for delicate
This large adze would have been used for the roughing, work, although heavy adzes were employed. With the
shaping and removal of bark and sapwood from large introduction of pullsaws the popularity of the axe as a
timbers. The wooden haft is neatly carved and the blade woodworker’s tool must have reduced, although it would
is attached to it by thick strips of white leather, which has still have been used by lumbermen. This is very much like
been bound around the blade. the situation today where we have come to disregard the
a e as a ar enter s tool. o e er, rom the 1 th nast
scenes of carpenters at work in the tomb of Rekhmira
Axes i ure 2 t o ar enters are sho n s littin tim er lo s
The axe as used by carpenters in Egypt developed during ith a es a ies 1 3 l. L .
the 1st Dynasty as a tool to fell trees and to cut timber
Chisels urin the Middle in dom this t e o hisel as

o ularl used. Most ro a l this arti ular hisel as
used to cut and incise wood, a technique popularly used
11. Small engraving tool/chiSel (Plate 10 during the 11th Dynasty. There are no signs of damage
right) to the top of the handle and this suggests that such thin-
Petrie Museum ni ersit olle e, London. 1 3 . bladed tools were not used for mortising. However, there
Len th 10 mm, idth 3.5 mm, thi kness 2.5 mm. are examples of chisels which are of similar design but
om are Petrie 1 17 l. , . with thicker blades; these would have certainly been
used to ut mortises in ooden elements Petrie 1 17
e rst nd small o er hisels in the nds o red nasti l. , .73 .
urials in E t. u h small hisels are er ommon and
were used extensively throughout the dynastic age as well.
These chisels are characteristically bars of copper which 15. mortiSe chiSel (Plate 11)
are flared at oth ends or in to i e t o uttin New Kingdom.
edges. They would have been used like an engraver by British Museum, London. EA 6053.
gripping the centre of the blade as if writing with a pencil. O erall len th 330 mm, len th o ooden handle
Obviously they could only be used with the pressure that 20 mm.
could be applied by the hand. Baker 1 66 2 7, . 5 .
This particular chisel would have been used for cutting

12. Small domed headed chiSel (Plate 10, mortises. The size and general appearance of the chisel
middle toP) indicates its special purpose. The handle, like its modern
Pred nasti , ara eh. counterpart is very long and the blade only goes partly into
Petrie Museum, ni ersit olle e, London. 1 0. it. The length of the handle is necessary due to the repeated
Length 45 mm. pounding of a mallet on the head of the chisel handle.
Petrie 1 17 l. , 5 . The further away the tang of the blade is from the point
of contact with the mallet, the less likelihood of splitting
This small chisel has been used like a cold chisel, that the handle. This must have occurred regularly with chisels
is, the end of the chisel has been burred over by repeated used for this purpose during the Old Kingdom. On the
hittin o the head a hard im lement. his is the rst top of this chisel handle may be clearly seen the damage
type of chisel to have been used to cut holes and grooves caused by the repeated pounding of the mallet. The blade
in wood and ivory. o this hisel is made rom s uare se tioned ron e 6 mm
s uare in h s uare is the normal si e modern mortise
chisels are manufactured). It proved necessary for the
13. chiSel handle (Plate 10, middle bottom) mortise chisel to have a thick blade from a very early
1st Dynasty. age, for the technique of mortising involves the levering
Petrie Museum, ni ersit olle e, London. 1 1. o hi s o ood out o dee holes. he thinner rmer
Len th 3 mm, diameter 17 mm. blade chisel used in general bench work would have bent
Petrie 1 17 l. , 65 . or broken when used for mortising. The cutting edge of
this chisel is forged to a slight taper and leaves the blade
This is a small handle from an early chisel, the blade of 7 mm ide.
which is now lost. During the 1st Dynasty there was a great
change in emphasis in woodwork. Larger articles were
being manufactured, which required chisels with handles 16. firmer chiSel (Plate 12)
through which the pressure could be applied by the hand New Kingdom.
directly to the cutting edge. Hand carving of wood was British Museum, London. EA 60 5.
now possible unlike with previous engraving techniques. Overall length 254 mm, length of wooden handle
150 mm, width of blade l0 mm, thickness of blade
5 mm; cutting edge 15 mm.
14. chiSel (Plate 10 left) Baker 1 66 2 7, . 5 .
11th Dynasty, Asyut.
Petrie Museum, ni ersit olle e, London. 1 2. This particular type of chisel originates as far back as
O erall len th 150 mm, handle len th 2 mm, thi kness the 1st nast . rom tom 3 71 at a ara, Pro essor
of blade l mm, width of blade at tang 14 mm. W.B. Emery discovered a large collection of chisels
Petrie 1 17 l. , 70 . which were used as general bench chisels as well as a
2. Tools 17
num er o mortisin hisels. he handle o the rmer, Lubrication during the process of sharpening tools on a
Plate 12, hi h is rom the e in dom is shorter stone is best achieved by placing a little oil on the stone.
than a mortising chisel, and there is a split along one he oil flask as ar the most on enient a o
side of it which may have been caused by incorrect use storing oil for this purpose. This example was made from
or, more probably, by time and climatic change. There is a hollow horn which was plugged at the largest end with a
no damage to the top of the handle which indicates that it ooden sto er 55 mm in diameter hi h ts ti htl into
as not used ith a mallet. More likel the ressure used the horn. The stopper is made from a wooden bung cut
on these chisels would have been applied by hand. The through a tree branch. At the other end is placed a spout
bronze blade is thinner than the mortise chisel but wider which again is made from wood, it is shaped in the form
and this is hara teristi o rmer hisels. o a s oon ut is atta hed to a errule, o 17 mm diameter,
which passes over the horn. The ferrule is attached to
the horn by a small wooden dowel. It would seem that
the ferrule was bound with string binding, which is now
17. chiSelS (Plate 13)
adl de a ed, ossi l this as used to han the flask
Tomb of Tutankhamun. on a peg. When this particular object was discovered it
E tian Museum, airo. E 612 5, E 612 7, E still contained a small quantity of oil.
612 , E 61301, E 6130 , E 61307, arter os 316
A, , E, , , M.
arter 1 33 0, l. .
20. Wooden mallet (Plate 16)
his set o ne iron hisels as dis o ered in the tom o e in dom. em le o Mentuhote , eir el Bahri.
Tutankhamun. It is unlikely that these small chisels were British Museum, London. EA 167
used by carpenters but possibly placed in the tomb as a Len th o handle mm, len th o head 136 mm,
presentation set. The production of iron from its ore or diameter of head 110–112 mm.
smelted from meteor particles, which probably gave the
metal value, was not a widespread process at this time. The mallet is a primitive tool and many have been
These chisels were probably placed in the tomb to herald dis o ered hi h are not in ood ondition. ome mallets
the arrival of a new age in metallurgy. ha e een ound o stone a nota le limestone e am le
is no in Petrie Museum, ni ersit olle e, London.
1671 , ut it is not kno n hether these ere used
18. SharPening hone (Plate 14) with cold chisels by masons or with wood chisels by
New Kingdom. ar enters. his hea mallet Plate 16 is in er ne
British Museum. EA 3672 condition and obviously never used. It is cut from a single
Len th 1 3 mm, idth 2 mm. block of wood; the head has been carefully shaped with
Baker 1 66 2 7, . 5 . an adze into a domed form. The sharpness of this tool
that formed this mallet can be gauged by the cleanness
As with modern tools, ancient tools were sharpened on a of the cut marks. The handle is reduced to an elliptical
hone. his ne e am le is no reser ed in the British shape and the slicing marks are narrower which indicates
Museum. t is a sla o reen re mudstone hi h has that this art as ut ith a rmer hisel. he head o
a 6 mm diameter hole drilled out at the thi kest end. his this mallet has a heart shake through it which indicates
hole was possibly used to suspend the hone much like a that this piece of wood was cut from the centre of a tree
modern leather. At the hole end, the hone has a thickness trunk for there is no evidence of sap wood.
o 16 mm, hereas in the entre it thins to mm. his
has been caused by the honing action of chisels and adze
blades. A great many score marks maybe seen throughout Saws
the length of the stone and a few grazes at right angles to he metal sa made o o er is rst dis o ered durin
these are also visible. These smaller grazes would have the 1st Dynasty, although the technique of sawing was
been caused by rubbing away the burred metal on the known in the Badarian period 5500–4000 B.C.
cutting edge after the blade had been sharpened.
19. oil flaSk (Plate 15) 21. SaW knife (Plate 17)
New Kingdom. Badari, c. 4000 B.C.
British Museum, London. EA 6037 British Museum, London. EA 6227 .
Overall length 220 mm. Len th 1 mm, idth 32 mm.
Baker 1 66 2 7, . 5 .
We first find flint knives from the Badarian period; This small hand tenon saw which dates from the New
some are found to have their blades very roughly and Kingdom is beaten from a sheet of cast bronze, is
irregularly serrated as this example. The cut made not perfectly uniform in thickness or true in line. The
with these saw knives were very crude, although by tip of the blade is slightly tapered and finishes in a
. 3000 B. . sa kni es had de elo ed to ha e ine rounded blunt form. The cutting edge is curved making
serrated uttin ed es e. . British Museum, London, the cutting action of this particular saw similar to a
EA 2 2 . hese sa s ould ha e ut thin se tions o ro kin stroke. Alon the uttin ed e, hi h is 25
wood well, but on larger sections or boards they would mm in length, are punched 110 teeth of irregular size
have been ineffective. and it h distan e a art . he set on this sa is a ain
all punched in one direction; the teeth, which are small
equilateral triangles, point vertically downwards. The
22. SaW (Plate 18) sawing stroke would have been on the forward motion;
1st Dynasty. this is determined by the shape of the wooden handle
British Museum, London. EA 6606 . which is curved, allowing it to be in contact with the
Len th 355 mm, idth o lade 5 mm, thi kness o palm of the hand. Through this would have been passed
blade 1 mm. the forward thrust, very much like the handle of a
modern dovetail or tenon saw. The shape of this handle
The thin copper saw originates during the 1st Dynasty gives a more comfortable grip, and is better to work
and again its basic design was taken from the copper with than the straight plain cylindrical saw handles
kni e. Pro essor .B. Emer dis o ered in tom 3 71 of the 1st Dynasty. The handles of small hand saws
at a ara a ne olle tion o sa s Emer 1 30 31 were attached to the blade by means of a tang which
l. 1 is hara teristi o those ound . Alon one ed e was a stout projection of metal from the blade. The
of the blade and not always along its entire length are tang would have been heated and then pushed into the
found the serrations we basically classify as saw teeth. handle; this would allow the tang to burn its shape into
These teeth are not all the same shape and the distances the handle. These particular saws with shaped handles
between them often differ, sometimes greatly. This saw, are illustrated as early as the 5th Dynasty in the tomb
like all sa s until the Late Period, has a totall di erent o at a ara teindor 1 13 l. .
type of set to that of modern saws. The irregularities in
the saw’s teeth are caused by the teeth being punched
out all from one side and not alternately as on a modern 24. PullSaW (Plate 20)
saw set. The saw is forged from a narrow bar of copper, New Kingdom.
the tang of which is left the original size and like 1st British Museum, London. EA 302 5.
nast kni es tted into a ooden handle. he lade otal len th o sa 567 mm.
of the saw is greatly reduced in thickness; the end of the Baker 1 66 2 7, i . 5 .
saw is left with a round blunt form. Due to the forging
a slight rib is left along the centre of the saw which It would not have been very long after the 1st Dynasty,
merges into the tang. when problems were experienced in sawing logs into
At Tarkhan were found many 1st Dynasty wooden lanks, that the ullsa emer ed. Most o the lar e
o ns made rom ut oards Petrie 1 13 27, ls. workshop scenes illustrated in tombs show a carpenter
, . t is seen that ar enters had ro lems using a pullsaw. Notable examples from the private
when sawing large planks with such saws. The saw tom s at he es ma e ound in the tom s o e amun
lines on these o ns ut a ross the sur a e at man and uk 1 1, a ies 1 25 l. A
angles. It is not until the introduction of the pullsaw 217 , a ies 1 27 l. Menkhe errason
that cutting planks from logs became an easier process. 6 , a ies 1 33 l. e er hote ,
However, wood veneers would still have been cut with a ies 1 33A l. ekhmira 100 , a ies
such small saws. 1 3 l. L .
The importance the Egyptian carpenter gave to the
pullsaw is beautifully illustrated in the model of carpenters
23. SaW (Plate 19) at ork dis o ered in the l1th nast tom o Meketra.
New Kingdom. Here the pullsaw is being used at the centre of the
British Museum, London, EA 60 6. workshop, where there is placed a thick wooden post
Len th o ooden handle 11 mm, o erall len th o which would have been sunk deeply into the ground. The
sa 3 0 mm, idth o lade at idest art 35 mm, carpenter has secured to the post with rope the piece of
thickness of blade l mm. timber he wishes to rip down. He grasps with both hands
Baker 1 66 2 7, i . 5 . the handle of the saw and pulls it towards himself for the
teeth of such saws always point towards the handle.
2. Tools 19
Obviously this method would have been used like which would have engaged into a stone cup, sometimes
our modern rip or cross-cut saws, but it must have still a dom palm nut cup was used. There is no hole at the
een di i ult to ut a uratel ith ullsa s. Pullin base of the stock in which would have been placed
the saw through timber, even well-seasoned wood, must the metal drill. Also in the Petrie Museum is the sto k
have created problems and I can envisage the sawyer of a wooden fire-lighter which would have been used
using his feet as a lever against the post to enable in a similar way to the drill stock but used to create
himself to pull the saw through the timber cleanly. ri tion to o tain ire 16772 this sto k is dated
ome s enes hi h illustrate ullsa s sho the ker o as e in dom, ein ound at uro , in tom 553.
the sawn timber being opened with a weight suspended The important feature of this stock is that in one side
from a rod which is tied to the top of the timber. The there is a hole, which enters into the peg hole. This
ullsa in the British Museum sho n in Plate 20 is a enabled a burnt peg to be removed by pushing it out
fine example; it is made from a large forged sheet of of the collet and a new peg could be inserted.
bronze, with its teeth pointing towards the handle. It
is not until the Roman period and the introduction of
large quantities of iron that the saw with the modern 26. boW (Plate 22)
tooth-set developed. New Kingdom.
British Museum, London, EA 60 0.
O erall len th 7 mm.
The Bowdrill Baker 1 66 2 7, i . 5 .
The development of the bowdrill from the bow and
arrow happened most certainly shortly before the This bow, which is much later, is again made from a
dynastic age. By the 5th Dynasty we have tomb conveniently shaped branch. At the bow’s elbow it may
scenes, from the tomb of Ty, which show accurately be seen how the wood’s grain freely flows around the
the o eration o an earl o drill teindor 1 13 l. bend. The ends of the bow are rounded, and at each
. t ma e seen that the o erator is kneelin end have rectangular holes cut vertically through the
in front of the casket he is working on. In his right hand bow. On one of these holes there seems to be evidence
he holds the bow, the cord of which is wrapped about of preliminary marking out of the hole with a marking
the stock, which is held in a cup by the craftsman’s knife or scribing instrument. The bow string is made
le t hand. Pressure is a lied his le t hand throu h from plaited plant fibre, being bound at each end of
the cup and stock to the drill which is embedded in the the bow through the rectangular holes, and being tied
bottom of the stock. The bow-cord which is wrapped in the centre of the hole. The bow string is a great deal
once around the stock is drawn backwards and forwards longer than the bow which allows it to be wound around
by the operator’s right hand. This motion turns the drill the stock of the drill.
which bores a hole depending upon the sharpness of
the drill.
27. drill (Plate 22)
New Kingdom.
25. boW and drill Stock, With Stone cuP British Museum, London. EA 60 2.
(Plate 21) Overall length 240 mm, length of wooden sheath
12th Dynasty, Kahun. 137 mm.
Petrie Museum, ni ersit olle e, London. Bo Reference as for preceding item.
70 5, sto k 70 , stone u 1 35.
Bo len th 330 mm, sto k hei ht 215 mm, stone The drill is made from two elements, the stock and
u dia. 62 mm. embedded metal bit. The stock is cut from a light
Petrie 1 1 l. , 23, and Petrie 1 17 l. L , coloured wood which has split badly from the top. The
sto k . top of the stock is sharply tapered and domed over; over
Petrie 1 1 l. , 22, and Petrie 1 17 l. L , this would have been placed the half cup of a dom palm
o . nut. Around the stock may be seen the friction marks
created by the bowstring as it was operated to and fro at
his o drill is dated as Middle in dom ut is er high rotational speeds. The drill is of forged bronze, and
similar to that illustrated from the 5th Dynasty. The bow is ed ed into a hole in the ottom o the sto k. Man
is cut from a conveniently shaped branch; at one end drills were forged with square shanks; this eliminates
is a hole through which the bowstring is tied while at the drill turning in its stock while being operated. The
the other end the string is simply looped over a lug on cutting edges of these drills were flattened to a sharp
the end of the bow. The stock is not finished and has edge, the shape of which is characteristic of the blade
never been used. At the top of the stock is a carved knob of a modern screwdriver.
28. aWl (Plate 23) a ara man 1st nast a ls Emer 1 7, .

New Kingdom. 2 . he ere er ne, and ere similar to this e am le
British Museum, London. EA 6055. no reser ed in the British Museum. his a l ould
O erall len th 11 mm, len th o ooden handle have been employed either to bore holes through thin
3 mm. sheets of wood or used to mark the positions for drilling.
Reference as preceding item. he handle is made o nel olished ood the lade is
forged from square section bronze. The point of this awl
The awl is probably slightly earlier than the bowdrill. has been ground to shape, as there are very small grinding
Pro essor .B. Emer e a ated rom tom 3 71 at marks around the point.
Plate 2. ri in instrument. e in dom. British Museum, London. EA 157 2. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 3. r uare. Ptolemai . Petrie Museum o E tian Ar haeolo . 6 25. © Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology,
UCL.
Plate . Ad e lades. Petrie Museum o E tian Ar haeolo . o . 1 36 Middle. 1 37 Bottom. 1 3 .
© Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UCL.
Plate 5. Ad e lade. British Museum, London. EA 22 1. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.

Plate 6. Ad e. British Museum, London. EA 6061. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 7. Ad e. British Museum, London. EA 2627 . Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.

Plate . Ad e. British Museum, London. EA 22 3 . Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate . A e lade.
1st nast . Petrie
Museum o E tian
Archaeology. UC
1617 . © Petrie
Museum of Egyptian
Archaeology, UCL.
Plate 10. hisels. Petrie Museum o E tian Ar haeolo . i ht. 1 3 Middle to . 1 0 Middle ottom.
1 1 Le t. 1 2. © Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UCL.
Plate 11. Mortise hisel. British Museum, London. EA 6053. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 12. irmer hisel. British Museum, London. EA 60 5. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 13. ron model ood orkin hisels. om o utankhamun. E 612 5, E 612 7, E 612 , E 61301, E 6130 , E
61307. arter os 316 A, ,E, , ,M. Burton Photo ra h 1052. © riffith nstitute ni ersity of ford.
Plate 1 . har enin hone. British Museum, London. EA 3672 . Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 15. Oil flask. British Museum, London. EA 6037. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 16. ooden mallet. British Museum, London. EA 167 . Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 17. a kni e. Badari. British Museum, London. EA 6227 . Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 1 . a . 1st nast . British Museum, London. EA 6606 . Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 1 . a . e in dom. British Museum, London. EA 60 6. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 20. Pullsa . e in dom. British Museum, London. EA 302 5. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 21. Bo and drill sto k ith stone u . Petrie Museum o E tian Ar haeolo . Bo 70 5 sto k 70 stone
u 1 35. © Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UCL.
Plate 22. Bo and rill. e in dom. British Museum, London. Bo . EA 60 0 rill. EA 60 2. Photographic credit:
Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 23. A l. e in dom. British Museum, London. EA 6055. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Chapter 3
Bedframes
Predynastic Burials to orm mattin . A sin le small ed rame ole ra ment,

Many Predynastic burials in the Nile valley were laid on or hi h as dis o ered at arkhan, is no reser ed in the
o ered ith mattin made rom lant res. ood e am les Man hester ni ersit Museum, 5 65, Plate 2 . he
o ur in the earl Pred nasti emeter at Bahan e a ated pole displays the common woven string plaiting pattern of
by Reisner and Firth during the 1907-11 archaeological this a e. he strin is made rom o en rush and ra ed
sur e o u ia eisner irth 1 10 115 1 7 . ome around the pole before being plaited in groups of four in
of the burials at Bahan contained not only matting but also a one o er one under and ea e. A retainin raid o
ooden oles, some o hi h ere adl de a ed. hese string is placed against the pole running along its entire
oles ere usuall la ed arallel to the od . len th Plate 25 . his ena les the ea e to start smartl
One arti ularl ne urial, rom ra e 17 6, as and reduces any wear from movement when tension was
ound inta t. t om rised o a emale skeleton, o ered, la ed on the mattin .
and l in on a mat i ure 3 . his as then la ed on a he onstru tional ointin o all these ed rames
rid o ne ran hes and tree stems hi h ere su orted ma e lassi ed into our t es Plate 26 . he sim lest
at the ends t o lon oles runnin arallel to the od . in onstru tion, Plate 26 ottom ri ht, as made rom a
Another burial, 17:7, was originally considered as an early conveniently formed branch, which had grown to a right-
orm o o urial, or the od as laid on a hea an led sha e, ein stron and a a le o takin ei ht
rame ork o ood, i ure , hi h as onsidered at the el o . A hole as ut in the ran h to house a
to e the ase o a urial o . o e er, eor e eisner thinner cross pole; each leg was similarly designed and
later concluded that this burial was in fact placed upon a the webbing would have been made from plaited rush and
primitive bed, for the body and frame were covered with reed Baker 1 66 22, . . .
the ommon re mattin eisner 1 23 20 227 . As
for the jointing of this particular frame, no records seem
to ha e sur i ed. 1. Bedframe (Plates 27, 28, 29)
1st nast , arkhan.
Ashmolean Museum, O ord. A 1 12.617.
Bedframes Len th 1 0 mm, idth 0 mm.
1st Dynasty (Plates 24, 25, 26) his er sim le re tan ular ed rame Plate 27 onsists
A large number of 1st Dynasty bedframes were discovered o our len ths o s uare ood er rou hl nished
Petrie at the reat emeter o arkhan Petrie 1 13 hi h make the side and ross rails and are throu h
23, l. . he ed rames dis o ered sho ed a lar e mortised and tenoned to ether Plate 2 . On the inside
ariation in st le and ra tsmanshi . he e in or and bottom surfaces of the rails are slots through which
these bedframes ranged from elaborate slots cut around the leather straps would have passed and then woven to form
frame through which passed leather straps to simple reed the mattin . he le s o this arti ular ed rame are lost
and rush ork strin ra ed a out the rame and o en but would have been similar to the leg and bedframe
Figure 3. Predynastic burial. (Bahan, Figure 4. Predynastic burial. (Bahan, Grave 17:7).
Grave 17:86).
Figure 5. Bedframe construction. Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm. MM 10.232.

3. Bedframes 35
Figure 6. Bedframe. Manchester University Museum, 1st Dynasty, 5429.
sho n in Plate 26 to le t. here are t o holes at the to i ure 5. t ma e seen that the ross ole A and the
of this leg through which would have passed a strip of side pole (B) are jointed by a cross halving joint, with a
leather; when tied about both elements it would give the mortise cut through the centre of the joint to house the
oint e tra ri idit . ed le . hese oints are ell ut and the nishin
On the underside o this ed rame Plate 2 one ma o the ood is ood. he e in o this ed rame as
see clearly the webbing slots and at the ends of the side made from leather straps which pass through seventeen
rails the lar e mortise hole or the le tenon to en a e in. holes alon the inside o oles B .
he le to side rail oint is in a t a stu mortise and tenon, his t e o ed rame onstru tion, here all oints
or the mortise does not ull ass throu h the side rail. converge at one place, often means that the length of the
Undoubtedly this simple bedframe construction must ed rame is shorter than those e am les here the side
e similar in desi n to the Pred nasti e am le e pole and cross pole are jointed away from the leg, Plate
e amined in i ure and dis o ered in emeter 17 at 26 ottom le t. O iousl shorter ed rames re uired a
Bahan eisner and irth 1 10 115 1 7 . contracted sleeping position and as the side poles got
shorter the ed rame e ol ed into a stool.
2. Bedframe (Plate 30 and figure 5)

ate un ertain. 3. Bedframe (Plates 31–34 and figure 6)
Medelha smuseet, to kholm. MM 10.232. 1st nast , arkhan, ra e 1 .
Len th 16 mm. Man hester ni ersit Museum. 5 2 .
Len th 1760 mm, idth 0 mm, hei ht 250 mm.
his is a er ne dark ood ed rame it is ertainl later Petrie 1 13 2 , ls. and Baker 1 66 23,
than the 1st nast , Plate 30. o e er, it still on orms s. and .
to the second type of bedframe construction discovered at
arkhan Plate 26, to ri ht . his is here the le , side his ed rame as the lar est dis o ered Petrie at
and cross poles converge in one joint, a unique concept, arkhan, Plate 31, and one o the est reser ed in
for the lashing from the leg not only ties the side pole but construction it conforms to the third type of design found
also the ross ole rml into osition. rom the 1st nast urials Plate 26 ottom le t . he
he e am le reser ed in the Medelha smuseet is side poles of this bedframe are well formed and have been
indeed er ne the ointin stru ture is illustrated in smoothed sandstone. n se tion i ure 6 these oles
(A) are circular, the diameter of which is slightly larger in of this bedframe were not covered with leather but were
the centre of the poles than at the ends where the head (B) encased with thin sheet copper, beaten to the shape of
and foot (C) poles are jointed by simple through mortises the ore terminal and inned ith tin o er ta ks
and tenons to the side oles. Both ends o the side oles also sheathed with copper were the hoof drums of this
are neatl ormed ith a rus flo er terminals, this is a ed rame. Other e am les o urniture dis o ered in tom
common design element found on furniture of this period 3 71 also sho the te hni ue o en asin ooden ores
and the Old in dom Plate 32 . with copper to prevent daily wear and give a decorative
n Plate 32 e ma see the remains o a leather sheath nish Emer 1 57 5 , s. 2 , 30 and l. 11a .
hi h as sunk into osition or lued some earl
adhesi e, um or resinous material, to the handle. Alon
the entire length of both side poles may be found traces 5. Bedframe (Plate 35)
o the leather o erin Plate 33 . On the inside a and unsthistoris hes Museum, ienna. 612 .
ottom sur a es o the side oles are teen re tan ular e in dom.
holes, ut ith a thi k laded mortise hisel thirteen o Len th 11 0 mm, idth 560 mm, hei ht 1 0 mm.
these holes are between the front (D) and rear (E) legs
o the ed rame. Both head B and oot oles are o e eral ed rames on ormin to the third t e o
an elliptical cross section, in each are eight holes on the ed rame onstru tion dis o ered at arkhan are
inside and ottom d sur a es o oles B and . reser ed in olle tions a out the orld. One o the
hrou h these re tan ular holes see se tion ould est is in ienna it is dated as e in dom, as man
have passed leather straps; however, none of the webbing of the other bedframes are, but it still shows the typical
remains. hese t es o ed rame that ha e leather stra s design elements which we see founded during the Early
to form the woven webbing seem less common than those nasti Period. his sho s that sim l desi ned
o en ith reed and rush. and constructed bedframes remained a popular piece
On lose e amination o the rame oints the ould o urniture throu h to the e in dom. A urther
seem to have been wedged, for on discovery the frame had ed rame o similar desi n and in e ellent ondition is
to e s re ed to ether, to i e it e tra ri idit Plate 32 . preserved in the Museu Egipci, Barcelona, E-434, length
in a t these oints ere ori inall ed ed, or the oint 2030 mm, idth 00 mm, hei ht 330 mm.
is loose and there is no isi le a o holdin it rm ith
leather ties. he ur ed shoulders o the tenoned ross ars
(B) and (C) would have acted as the support as wedges 6. Bedframe diagrams from the tomB of
ere or ed in throu h a s in the oint. hesyra (figures 7–10)
he le s o this ed rame are nel ar ed in the 3rd nast , a ara. om o es ra.
ommonl ound o ine orm. his intri ate ar in ui ell 1 13 ls. Baker 1 66 3 35,
is sho n in Plate 3 , hi h sho s the lean ne lines . 27 .
o the hoo . he tenon o the le is re essed into the
ur ed shoulder hi h ts a uratel into the mortise ut Most o the urniture that e isted durin the Earl
erti all throu h the side oles A . t is unlikel that nasti Period and Old in dom has not sur i ed. One
wedges were driven into this joint, for at the top of each o the a s in e lorin the si e and om le it o this
leg are two small holes, either being drilled or pierced, furniture is by the study of reliefs and wall paintings that
through which passed leather thongs which bound each leg still remain in tom s o that a e.
to the side oles A . hese leather thon s hen soaked urin the 1 11 12 e a ations at a ara the tom
in ater ould shrink and hen tied a out oth elements o es ra, an o ial s ri e to in oser, as reo ened
ould hold the oint rml to ether. ui ell. he ork undertaken durin that ear o
e a ation as the re ordin o a uni ue set o all
paintings, some of which were badly decayed, from this
4. Bedframe tom . hese aintin s dis la the ommon household
1st nast , a ara, tom 3 71. arti les and eneral tools used E tians o es ra s
ei ht 2 0 mm, idth 660 mm, len th not re onstru ted. position at the transition of the Early Dynastic Period to
Emer 1 57 5 , . 2 Baker 1 66 25, . 10. the Old in dom. llustrated in the all aintin s are
eight different types of bedframe, as well as other types
Another bedframe from the 1st Dynasty and dated to o urniture hi h ill e dis ussed in later ha ters.
the rei n o er, as dis o ered Emer at a ara. hese dra in s, as aith ull re rodu ed rom the ori inal
n onstru tion it as similar to the ed rame dis ussed paintings as possible, show the common tendency for
a o e, no 3. t as not as ell reser ed, or the side draughtsmen of that age to combine both the side and
poles were badly decayed and it could not be accurately front elevations or the side and plan elevations of a product
re onstru ted. he a rus terminals to the side oles or ie e o urniture in one dra in , aintin or relie .
3. Bedframes 37
From Figure 7, we see in the top drawing the plan and This would be achieved by either the removal of the
side elevations of a simple bedframe, it has obviously oot le s as e ha e alread seen or in the e am le o a
been designed to slope from the head to its foot as do four legged bedframe the head legs would be cut slightly
other bedframes in this series of paintings. The legs are longer than those used for the foot end. The mattress is
carved in the bovine form and are mortised and tenoned shown as a sheet of fabric or leather attached to the side
into the side rails and then lashed with leather thongs. and end rails by laces which act as springs, similar to the
Papyrus terminals cap the head end of both side rails modern bed of a trampoline.
of this bedframe, while the frame at the bedframe’s In the lower illustration, Figure 7 (bottom), is a similar
foot rests upon the ground and is not supported by legs. sloping bedframe with legs of an unconventional type,
his is the rst ed rame e ha e e amined that slo es only commonly used in the Hesyra series of bedframes.
gently towards the foot. It is interesting to see how this They seem to be of bent wood the lower bend resting on a
occurred by the removal of the foot leg supports but from drum so eliminating any rocking. Whether these particular
now on there seems to be movement in favour of sloping le s ere ut rom the solid, arti iall ent or e en ro n
bedframes. to that shape is uncertain, although we do have evidence
rom the Middle in dom that ood endin arti ial
means was successfully carried out by craftsmen (Gale et
al. 2000 356 357, . 15.20 .
In Figure 8 we see two similar sloping bedframes; the
top bedframe, although showing no legs, obviously slopes
rom head to oot. his e am le is onstru ted o lanks o
wood, jointed to the side rails; this type of construction is
uncommon, for a further soft mattress would be needed on
the planks. Such an unusual construction was later effectively
used in the royal bedframe discovered at Giza and comprising
art o the urniture o ueen ete heres . . 2613 B. . .
he remainin our ed rames i ures and 10 sho
four-legged bedframes each with a gentle slope. Those
in Figure 9 have legs fashioned in the unconventional
orm hile those illustrated in i ure 10 ha e o ine
formed legs, being held to the side poles by lashings. As
Figure 7. Bedframes. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Hesyra, Saqqara,
an additional design element a frame has been erected at
3rd Dynasty). the foot end to stop the bedclothes slipping from the now
Figure 8. Bedframes. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Hesyra, Saqqara, 3rd Dynasty).

slo in ed rame. t is interestin to see that at this earl ome o the elements o these ed rames are stron l
design stage the footboard frame has a separate function, marked to sho rain atterns, or erha s to re resent
for it does not support the bedframe, although it has legs rare oods su h as A ri an Bla k ood.
which reach the ground, they act only as secondary legs,
or the main ei ht is taken the un on entional or
o ine ashioned le s at the oot end. t is not until the th 7. royal Bedframe of Queen hetePheres i
nast that e see that the oot oard is nall ointed (Plate 36 and figures 11-12)
to the oot rail hi h om letes the desi n ro ess. rom th nast , i a.
the lower bedframe (Figure 10) we see that the footboard E tian Museum, airo, E 53261 ori inal .
rame has een lled ith er rou hl ut erti al anels. e rodu tion, Plate 36, made a inetmaker ose h
3. Bedframes 39
Figure 11. Bedframe. (Queen Hetepheres I, Giza, 4th Dynasty), Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 53261.
Figure 12. Bedframe. (Queen Hetepheres I, Giza, 4th Figure 13. Men stringing a bedframe. (Tomb painting, Thebes,
Dynasty), Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 53261. Tomb of Menkheperraseneb TT 112, 18th Dynasty)
erte, 1 6 1 67. E edition.

Bed o ueen ete heres re rodu tion . 2 .1 5 .
E tian, Old in dom, nast , rei n o ne ru to eisner and mith 1 55 32 33, . 33, l. 26 a e
hu u, 2575 252 B. . Baker 1 66 3, 5, s. 31, 37.
E t, i a, om 7000 ori inal .
ood, old, o er, sil er, leather, aien e, e on . ueen ete heres ed rame as dis o ered eisner
ei ht idth len th 3.6 7.5 177 m 17 durin e ruar 1 25 at the ottom o a sha t in a small
3 6 ¾ in. urial ham er lose to her son hu u s ramid at
Museum o ine Arts, Boston. i a. his ed rame as ori inall la ed in the tom
ar ard ni ersit Boston Museum o ine Arts up-side down and the footboard had been separated from
the ed rame. ertain ooden elements o the ed rame t is un ertain h this model ed rame as manu a tured,
ere in reasona le ondition due to the thi k old sheet Plate 37, although it is possible that it may have been
hi h had een eaten a out the ooden ores. rom used as a ra tsman s or studio model, or the standard
these wooden cores it was possible to layout the general o orkmanshi is er ood. his small e am le o
si e and the t e o onstru tion used on this ed rame, bedframe is important for it shows a series of new design
although some of the wooden elements which were cased elements not ound in this t e o urniture until the 12th
with thin gold sheet, or had no protection at all, had badly nast ut then e tensi el used rom then on.
de a ed to a ne o der. rom the mi ros o i stud o he rame o this model ed rame is made rom
the ooden re o der, hi h remained on the ham er rectangular sectioned wood elements which have been
floor, it e ame ossi le throu h er ainstakin resear h ell nished. t has een ointed our stu mortises
to reconstruct the general appearance and form of this and tenons, these being dowelled to give the frame
ro al ed rame. e tra ri idit . hirt holes are drilled alon the inside
e onstru tin the ed rame as le t to te art, a o the side rails and ele en inside oth o the ross rails.
mem er o eisner s sur e team i ure 11 . he side hrou h these holes ould ha e een threaded a ne
rails (A), head (B) and foot (C) rails are made of circular ea e o rush, similar to Plates 2 and 25, ut e ause
se tioned ood see se tional ront ele ation , the the strin used as ner a more ontrolled ea e ould e
to sur a e ein flattened and onne ted a sim le a hie ed. his de elo ment dra s rom oth the leather
lap joint to side boards (D) and end boards (E) on which strap through slot method and the binding of reed and
the mattress ould e la ed. Both oards and E rush a out the rame. Beneath the o en ed rame are
were mitred together and the butt joint fastened by a t o stret hers one no roken hi h are stu mortised
small o er late a ta ked to the underside o oth and tenoned into the inner side rails. hese stret hers a t
oards. he interior o the ed rames mattress su ort as as a support to the body, eliminating large amounts of
constructed from boards (F) each being jointed to boards strain on the o en reed and rush strin . At rst these
(D) by a bare-faced tongue and groove, (see detail from stret hers ere flat ut soon e ame ur ed to take the
se tional ront ele ation . Beneath oards E and sha e o the od , makin them more om orta le hen
run t o semi ir ular se tioned runners hi h are slee in . e ma see rom a later all relie in the tom
mortised and tenoned into rails B and . o Menkhe errasene 112 at he es, men ea in
he le s at the head o the ed rame are taller than ord a ross a ed rame i ure 13 .
those le s at the oot oard end. he are ashioned in a he le s o this ed rame, Plate 37, are unt i al, like
feline form and set on drums; this bedframe has a distinct es ra s ed rames, ut ne er et seen on a ull si e ed.
de line to ards the oot end. At oth ends o the side rails he are neatl nished, the ottom ein set on drums
A are a rus flo erin terminals . he ointin o and the top jointed with a stub mortise and tenon to the
le s and to the side rail A and the head and underside of the side rails; each of the joints is secured
foot (B) rails was the only area in reconstruction which our do els. At the oot end o the ed rame, a sin le
as a ause or on ern. t is thou ht that the tenon o anel has een la ed as the oot oard. t is held at oth
rail i ure 12 hi h tted into a mortise in rail A ends and to the ed es o the side rails an le ra kets
as held in osition the tenon o le , ein o set a ain do elled to oth elements.
and uttin artl throu h the tenon rom rail . his
hole arran ement as nall held leather thon s
hi h assed throu h t o holes in the to o le s and 9. Bedframe (figure 14)
and a out the side rail A . u ian, lassi erma, a out 1700 1550 B. .
o ta ered tenons hold the oot oard in t o eisner 1 23 213 223 Baker 1 66 1 , . 220.
mortises in oot rail . he oot oard is made rom
our ie es o ood, the to ie e ein rounded o er. Fragments of bedframes similar to Plate 37 were discovered
Each member is rebated to hold the centre board which eisner at erma in u ia. rom the man ra ments
is inlaid ith a flo er and eather rosette desi n the our it has een ossi le to re onstru t the om le ointin
se tions o rame ork are nall mortised and tenoned o these ed rames. i ure 1 sho s one o the t i al
and then se ured do els. bedframes of this period as constructed from the many
ra ments e a ated. One o the most strikin thin s
with these bedframes is that they are much larger than
8. model Bedframe (Plate 37) an other ed rame e ha e e amined. he le s o this
12th nast , a ara. ed, unlike that in Plate 37, are ashioned in the orm o
Petrie Museum, ni ersit olle e, London. the ront A and hind B le s o an o . hese ha e een
1613 . are ull ar ed and man that ere dis o ered sho ne
Len th 0 mm, idth 237 mm. modellin o the mus les and eins ound in o le s. Both
Petrie 1 12 l. Petrie 1 37 no. 211. the front (A) and hind (B) legs of this bedframe were stub
3. Bedframes 41
Figure 14. Bedframe. Kerma
mortised and tenoned into the underside of the side rails o hold the oot oard in osition t o an le
. hese oints ere do elled at a1, a2, a3 alon the ra kets ere em lo ed. Ea h ra ket seems to ha e een
ed e o side rail . he er ide head and oot made rom t o arts L1, L2 and do elled at h1, h2, h3.
(E) rails were jointed at the side rails (C) by a double Both ra kets L1, L2 ere also do elled to the
mortise and tenon. hrou h the outer elements o ea h oot oard three airs o do els 1, 2, 3 and into
of the double mortise and tenon joints pass three dowels the side rails at k1, k2, k3. Both in onstru tion and
1, 2, 3 and 1, 2, 3, hile the inner elements are desi n this ed rame is o e e tional standard and er
held t o do els , 5 and , 5. similar to the royal and high quality bedframes found in
u ortin the le s A and B and atta hed to oth the E tian e in dom.
the rails E and are t o le su orts and ,
ea h ith a dou le el o . Le su ort is do elled
to le s A at d1, d2 and le su ort is do elled to 10. Bedframe (Plate 38)
the hind le s B at e1, e2. Also oth le su orts e in dom, eir el Medina.
and ere do elled res e ti el ith ei ht do els arodo e Mu eum, arsa . 13 06 M .
to rails and E at 2, 1, 2, 3, , 5, 6, 2 and Len th 1700 mm, idth 750 mm, hei ht 300 mm.
2, 1, 2, 3, , 5, 6, 1. Le su ort is also tied
to rail (D) by a leather thong through a hole in the centre e ha e re iousl seen that the t e o ed rame
of the underside of rail (D), see (sectional side elevation dis o ered at arkhan as still ein manu a tured,
and . although greatly improved in the techniques employed,
he e in holes are neatl drilled out throu h rails durin the e in dom. his onstru tion, a art rom
and oth rails and E . A ross oth side rails the royal and high quality bedframes, was by no means
are t o stret hers and mortised and tenoned into the onl o ular desi n a aila le. rom the 11th nast
rails (C), but not dowelled, instead they were tied by the through to the New Kingdom a new style evolved, very
e in o the ed rame. modest and simply designed, but nevertheless beautifully
un tional. Preser ed in the arodo e Mu eum, arsa , Both side rails are prominently curved and between
is a er ne e am le o this ne st le o ed rame Plate them are two equally sweeping stretchers below the
3 . he le s o this ed rame are lain and strai ht, the ed rame s e in . he e in is made rom si linen
top of each being rounded while the foot is left squared ords hi h ass throu h holes 30 mm a art and 26 mm
o . he side and ends rails o this ed rame are rou hl rom the inside ed e o the side rail. hese ords are then
elliptical in section, the ends rails are jointed to the legs woven in a diagonal weave, and the ends of each cord are
by a through mortise and tenon with a similar joint for neatl tied and on ealed eneath the side rails. he entire
the side rail elo . ith all t es o sim le urniture the ed rame and e in as nall nished ith esso.
joinery is very crude and it is customary for wedges to be
dri en into the oint to stren then it. Bet een the ront and
a k le s are t o stret hers hi h are stu mortised and 12. royal Bedframe (Plate 40)
tenoned to the inside o the le s. Mu h o the ed rame s om o utankhamun.
webbing remains, it was made by winding rush and reed E tian Museum, airo. E 62016. arter o. 7.
cord around the rails of the bedframe and then weaving Len th 1 0 mm, idth 01 mm, hei ht 7 mm.
it a ross the o en s a e. arter 1 23 1 3, l. L AB Baker 1 66 103 10 ,
i s. 13 135 eton illiams 1 0 A . 126
Beinli h and aleh 1 20.
Bedframes discovered in the Tomb of
Tutankhamun his A ri an Bla k ood ed rame is similar in desi n
A great wealth of furniture was discovered in the tomb of and onstru tion to the re ious e am le e e amined,
utankhamun, and in luded e ed rames o ne ualit althou h o etter ualit . he lion s la s and drums o
and te hni al merit. hese a tors also o ur in e er this bedframe are sheathed with silver foil, while parts from
ate or o urniture dis o ered in the tom . in e a the ut out ures in the oot oard are sheathed ith old
ide ran e is o ered these ed rames, ha e omitted and inlaid ith i or . he oot oard sho s the od Bes
any description of the three bedframes from the tomb of dressed in a small ilded skirt and earin a lotus flo er
uia and huiu, . 1 00 B. . or the are er similar in head ornament, as are the two rearing lions which support
desi n and onstru tion to the rst ed rame e are to Bes on either side. his rou o ures is la ed in three
e amine rom the utankhamun olle tion or details o identical panels in the footboard, each panel being separated
the uia and huiu urniture, see ui ell 1 0 . a a rus a ed ilded mouldin . Ea h o the nel
ar ed A ri an Bla k ood ures is stu tenoned into
the mortises in the to and ottom rails o the oot oard.
11. royal Bedframe (Plate 39) Around the top and two end rails of this footboard is incised
om o utankhamun. a series o ins ri tions lled ith ello i ment Beinli h
E tian Museum, airo. E 62017. arter o. 0. and aleh 1 20 . he to rail a o e the ins ri tion is
Len th 1 15 mm, idth 6 0 mm, hei ht o erall also o ered ith thin old sheet, as are oth an le ra kets
631 mm. se urin the oot oard to the side rails o the ed rame.
arter 1 72 Baker 1 66 105, .13 . Many of the dowels used on this bedframe are decorated
with precious metal caps to add a favourable effect of light
his t e o ed rame onstru tion ould ha e een metal a ainst dark ood. Beneath the linen ord e in
the most modest in the hi her ualit ran e rodu ed. are two very strongly sweeping stretchers which give
t is similar in onstru tion to the ed rames dis o ered su ort to the ed rame s side rails.
at erma ha in sli ht modi ations to the eet and
oot oard. he eet o this ed rame are ashioned in the
orm o lion s le s hi h are set on drums en ased ith 13. royal Bedframe (Plate 41)
ron e. om o utankhamun.
Bet een the ront and a k le s are t o stret hers, E tian Museum, airo. E 6201 . arter o. 66.
above these and connecting the legs to the end rails Len th 1750 mm, idth 35 mm, hei ht 6 0 mm.
do els are t o dou le el o an le ra kets. he arter 1 33 110, l. B. . Baker 1 66 102
footboard, which is made from a rectangular frame and 103, s. 132 133 arter 1 72 1 7 1 .
lled ith erti al anels, is ed to the side rails o
this ed rame an le ra kets. Like the lassi erma his ne ed rame is o the hi hest ualit and is er ell
bedframes, each being made in two parts, the vertical preserved, although slightly warped, for it was discovered
and hori ontal elements o ea h ra ket are onne ted on its side. he entire rame is o ered ith old sheet
a ridle oint and then se ured three do els. As 3.5 mm to .0 mm in thi kness, ein orked o er the
a decorative form the face of the vertical element of the rame and se ured to it either small old domed ta ks
an le ra ket rolls o er the to rail o the oot oard. or adhesi e on the esso nished ore.
3. Bedframes 43
Figure 15. Folding bedframe. Tomb of Tutankhamun, Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62018.
he e in o this ed rame is also made rom linen his arti ular t e o oldin ed rame, Plate 2, as
strin o en in an ei ht strand dia onal ea e. Beneath not uncommon in Egypt during the New Kingdom, in the
this are two curved stretchers to bear the weight of the body Metro olitan Museum o Art, e ork, is a small model
i the e in sla kened. O reat interest is the oot oard, oldin ed rame ith round le s MMA 20.2.13 a. . he
Plate 1, also en ased ith thi k old, and atta hed an le folding bedframe seems to have developed from the need
ra kets in the usual manner to the ed rame s side rails. to have portable bedframes for convenient handling when
Again the footboard is divided into three panels by papyrus- tra ellin around the ountr . n a all aintin in the tom
a ed mouldin s. Ea h anel is neatl ar ed ith a floral o amose 50 e see a ran e o urniture ein arried
design on the wooden core; the outer panels are of slightly to the de eased s tom this s ene is illustrated on the ront
etter ualit . he old sheetin hi h o ers these anels o er o olume . A t i al lon , ri id ed rame is sho n
an e seen to e nel im ressed o er the ar ed relie ein arried a o e the heads o t o orters. B oldin
atterns and are ull urnished. his e e tional detail to the rame it ould make its arria e a reat deal easier.
polishing the gold sheeting of the bedframe has given it a he side rails A o the oldin ed rame i ure 15
er e tl lastin lustre. are divided almost equally into three sections, the foot (B)
he ourth ed rame not illustrated rom utankhamun s and head (C) rails are stub mortised and tenoned into the
tom is o similar desi n to the one e ha e e amined, side rails A . o an le ra kets E hold the oot oard
ha in ures o the od Bes and oddess a eret on the in osition se urin it ith e s to the side rails A .
oot oard. his ed rame is om letel o ered ith thin he oot oard is o sim le desi n, t o hori ontal rails
gold foil over the gesso-based wooden core, which over the and hold thirteen erti al anels these are also
assa e o time has darkened and loosened rom the ore. onne ted to the hori ontal rails stu mortises and tenons.
our airs o eline ormed le s set on ron e drums
support the three sections of the bedframe, those at the
14. royal folding Bedframe (Plates 42, 43 and head (J) and foot (K) of the bedframe are stub mortised
figures 15–17) and tenoned to the underside or side rails (A) and then
om o utankhamun. se ured do els. he interior t o airs o le s L and
E tian Museum, airo. E 6201 . arter o. 5 6. M are ositioned so as to su ort the ron e hin es
Len th 17 0 mm, idth 6 0 mm, hei ht 5 mm. hi h hold the three se tions o side rail A to ether.
arter 1 33 111, l. A o 1 51 l. 5 Baker n i ure 16 e see an e loded ortho ra hi ro e tion
1 66 10 , s. 136 137 arter 1 72 1 . o ho le L is stu mortise and tenoned into the ron e
Figure 16. Folding bedframe, detail of hinge. Tomb of Tutankhamun, Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62018.
hin e element . he hin e lates are made rom thi k overcome by the Egyptian craftsman, for leg (M) hinges
ron e sheetin ein neatl orked a out a ooden ore itself under the string webbing of the bedframe (Plate
and the hinges themselves are coiled over leaving a small 3 . his is also sho n in i ure 17 here le M hin es
hole or the ron e i ot to ass throu h. Bet een hin e under the webbing so allowing (P) to pivot under (Q)
element (N) and its opposite member (O) is a small mating so trapping leg (M) between both surfaces of the folded
piece which eliminates movement between the side rails e in . his hole hin in on e t is o e e tional
A hen the ed rame is un olded and read or use. quality and shows a comprehensive understanding of
he male mem er is on the inside a e o hin e element the materials used and the methods employed to solve
and the emale is in the o osite a e on late O . a di ult desi n ro lem.
in e element O i ots o er hen the ed rame is
folded, leg (L) remains braced in position so supporting
the e tra ei ht o the t o or ard elements hi h rest 15. the Bed CanoPy of Queen hetePheres i
u on it hen the ed rame is olded. (Plate 44 and figure 18)
Figure 17 illustrates the hinging arrangement of leg th nast , i a.
(M); it is obvious this time that the hinge which is on E tian Museum, airo, E 57711 ori inal .
the bottom surface of side rail (A) allows the hinge e rodu tion, Plate , made a inetmaker ose h
element P to i ot under . his ermits the ed rame erte, 1 6 1 67.
to fold in a double movement provided leg (M) could ano o ueen ete heres re rodu tion .
e desi ned not to inter ere. his meant that le M E tian, Old in dom, nast , rei n o ne ru to
would either have to be removed or in fact hinged away hu u, 2575 2551 B. .
rom under P and . his ro lem as su ess ull E t, i a, om 7000 ori inal .
3. Bedframes 45
Figure 17. Folding bedframe, detail of hinge. Tomb of Tutankhamun, Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62018.
ood, old, o er, sil er, leather, aien e, e on . be easily transported and assembled, all the load bearing
ei ht idth len th 221.5 25 . 313.7 m 7 and wearing areas of joints are clad in copper sheet
101 123 ½in. or rote tion. his as a hie ed in man la es
Museum o ine Arts, Boston. producing complicated developments which were bent
e artmental A ro riation. a out the oint and ta ked ith tin o er ins onto the
3 . 73. ooden ore o er the old sheet.
eisner and mith 1 55 23 25, s. 23a , 2 , 25, Basi all the ano is a o ith one o en side to
26, ls. 5a. ., 6a. ., 7a. ., a ., a ., 10a Baker allow access to the bedframe and other furniture which
1 66 3, s. 31, 33 3 . ma ha e een housed ithin the ano . he entran e
jambs (A) of the canopy have on both inside faces the titles
n the tom o ueen ete heres as also dis o ered and names o ne eru, ueen ete heres hus and. One
the ra mented remains o a old ed ano . t as of the most interesting joints is the three way connection
designed to give the Queen privacy and to protect her of the jamb (A) lintel (B) and top side beam (C) (Figure
a ainst inse ts and the hill o the ni ht air. his as 1 .1 . he side eam slots onto a tenon on the rear
achieved by placing around the frame and over the roof, o the am A , hile the lintel B ts into the am A
linen sheets and urtains, su orted on hooks dri en into notice the use of protective copper sheet on all those areas
the to rails o the rame. hi h are e osed to ear. he ase o the am A is
he onstru tion o the ano is er sim le i ure onne ted to the side floor rail a sim le mortise
1 ea h element as made o ood and de orated and tenon i ure 1 .2 . he ottom ed es o the floor
with a sharp mat pattern, before heavy gold sheet was rails (D) and (E) are also protected with copper sheeting
a lied to the ooden ore. Be ause the ano had to and are ta ked into osition.
Figure 18. Bed canopy. (Queen Hetepheres I, Giza, 4th Dynasty), Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 57711.
Both floor rails and E are onne ted a sim le circular sectioned wood and covered with a long thin sheet
la oint ith a hori ontal mortise and tenon added to i e o old. he ere onne ted to the lintel B and eam
e tra ri idit i ure 1 .3 . orner su orts and M do etail oints i ure 1 .5 en ased in o er.
are erti all mortised and tenoned into the floor rails and Again the side poles (P) were rolled in a continuous
the faces which are in contact are cut with a dovetail lap gold sheet and the bulbous terminals were covered with
oint. Bolts are used at the to , entre and ottom o the a separate sheet which overlapped the pole and pinned
orner su orts and to se ure them to ether. he into osition. he to in and so ket ere o ered ith
eetle head olt asses throu h a slot in oth elements, o er i ure 1 . 6 , as as the errule and so ket o
a washer (J) is placed over the bolt and a tapered pin (K), the floor rail oint i ure 1 .7 .
is wedged through the bolt, pulling and tightening the bolt, n Plate it ma e seen that oints ere also held
lam in to ether the orner osts. together by leather ties which passed through heavy
he to oints o the orner osts and to the to o er sta les either side o a oint. hese sta les ere
eams and are illustrated in i ure 1 . , hi h is tted into the ooden elements a ter the old sheet as
similar to the re ious ointin solution, ith the e lusion beaten around the core, small areas of gold sheet were
o the hori ontal tenon in element . remo ed, the sta le tted, and at hes o old re la ed
Both roo linen and urtainin ere held hooks around the ture.
and supported on roof poles (N); these were made from
Plate 2 . Bed rame ole ith e in . Man hester ni ersit Museum. 5 65. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 25. Bed rame ole ith e in . Man hester ni ersit Museum. 5 65. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 26. Bed rame t es. arkhan. 1st nast . Petrie Museum o E tian Ar haeolo . © Petrie Museum of Egyptian
Archaeology, UCL.
Plate 27. Bed rame. arkhan. 1st nast . Ashmolean Museum, O ord. A 1 12.617. Photographic credit:
Plate 2 . Bed rame. arkhan. 1st nast . Ashmolean Museum, O ord. A 1 12.617. Photographic credit:
Plate 2 . Bed rame. arkhan. 1st nast . Ashmolean Museum, O ord. A 1 12.617. Photographic credit:
Plate 30. Bed rame. Medelha smuseet, to kholm. MM 10.232. © Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm.
Plate 31. Bed rame. arkhan. 1st nast . Man hester ni ersit Museum. 5 2 . Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 3 . Bed rame. arkhan. 1st nast . Man hester ni ersit Museum. 5 2 . Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 35. Bed rame. e in dom. unsthistoris hes Museum, ienna. 612 . KHM-Museumsverband.
Plate 36. Bed rame e rodu tion . Ori inal rom the tom o ueen ete heres , i a. e rodu tion in the Museum o
ine Arts, Boston. 2 .1 5 . © 2017 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Plate 37. Model Bed rame. 12th nast . om o itrennut. Petrie Museum o E tian Ar haeolo . 1613 . © Petrie
Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UCL.
Plate 3 . Bed rame. e in dom. eir el Medina. arodo e Mu eum, arsa . 13 06 M . Narodowe
Muzeum, Warsaw.
Plate 3 . Bed rame. om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 62017, arter o. 0. Burton Photo ra h 0067.
© riffith nstitute ni ersity of ford.
Plate 0. Bed rame. om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 62016, arter o. 7. Burton Photo ra h 0063.
Plate 1. Bed rame. om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 6201 , arter o. 66. Burton Photo ra h 12 6.
Plate 2. oldin ed rame. om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 6201 , arter o. 5 6. Burton Photo ra h 12 7.
pposite Plate 3. oldin ed rame. om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 6201 , arter o. 5 6. Burton
Photo ra h 1 7 a. © riffith nstitute ni ersity of ford.
Plate . Bed ano e rodu tion . Ori inal rom the tom o ueen ete heres , i a. e rodu tion in the Museum o
ine Arts, Boston. 3 . 73. © 2017 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Chapter 4
Stools
he de elo ment o the stool is a om le eld o stud een er rou hl nished, ro a l rom the ad e onl .
here di erent st les mer e into ne t es and some B the e innin o the Earl nasti Period ar enters
st les o erla others man enturies. tools ere the ere a le to onstru t er asi stools desi ned ith
most ommon ie e o urniture used in an ient E t, se eral elements ein sim l ointed to ether.
and are ar the est re resented o all urniture t es
no reser ed in u li and ri ate olle tions a out the
orld. Be ause o these a tors a strai ht or ard anal sis 2. SimPle Wooden Stool (Plate 47)
ro es to e di ult. Earl nasti Period.
o al Ontario Museum, oronto, anada. 10.37.1 .
Predynastic Stools
rom the er earliest eriods eo le sat on sim le he n As ith the se ond t e o ed rame onstru tion e
lo ks o stone or e en tim er trunks and su h e am les e amined rom arkhan, this lar e ooden stool has oth
o urniture, rom later eriods, do e ist. o note orth side and end oles onne ted ross hal in oints ith
e am les are no reser ed in the ni ersit olle e the le tenon assin throu h a mortise in the entre o
Museum, London. One is a uni ue three le ed stool, the ross hal in . he rails are o ir ular ross se tion
16532, hile the other is in a lain lo k orm, ein sli htl ta ered at the ends, the nishin is enerall
16530 oth stools are ut rom stone. O reater interest ood and there is some de ree o olishin . Around the
are sim le ooden stools, ut er e remain. inside o these rails are ut the hara teristi e in
slots or the leather stra in some an ient ra ments o
leather remain tra ed ti htl in these slots. he le s o
1. Crude Wooden Stool (PlateS 45, 46) this stool are lain and are sli htl ta ered and the ed es
12th nast , ahun. are e elled, sho in learl the ad e marks. Onl one
ni ersit Museum, Man hester. 261. re tan ular hole at the to o ea h le , hi h as ro a l
Len th 0 mm, idth 165 mm, hei ht 270 mm. ut a mortise hisel, ena les the leather thon to ass
throu h the hole to tie the le and rails to ether. t has
Althou h this stool is dated as Middle in dom, it is an een su ested that the lon ta ered ends o the side rails
e tremel ood e am le o a sim l desi ned stool ein are in a t handles used hen arr in the stool, similar
ut rom a sin le lo k o o lon sha ed tim er. he seat to the ed rame in the Metro olitan Museum, e ork
ed e is flat, the entre sli htl dished. Ea h le is o a MMA 10.162 . he hei ht o this stool is similar to those
rou h ir ular ross se tion the ront and a k le s run ed rames o this eriod it ould there ore ro a l e
into the ottom sur a e o the seat. Bet een the a k used kneelin or sittin u on in a ross le ed ashion.
le s and ront le s is a ti ht ar h onne tin them to the e ha e all relie s and aintin s hi h sho stools
seat Plate 6 . he eet o this stool rest une enl on the ein used in this manner a ies 1 3 l. .
round or the oints o onta t are ust the ed e o ea h rom the 2nd nast emeter at el an are man
oot. his stool, as resuma l most rimiti e stools, has stelae hi h illustrate ull le ed stools, similar in
Figure 19. Stool. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Hesyra, Saqqara, Figure 20. Stool. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Hesyra, Saqqara,
3rd Dynasty). 3rd Dynasty).
onstru tion to the ed rame re iousl e amined and sho s those ne desi n eatures hi h remained art o
reser ed in the Man hester ni ersit Museum Plates the anon o stool desi n until the oman Period. Ea h
31 3 , i ure 6 . he stools illustrated at el an are element o the seat rame is ut rom the ood atten,
taller than ed rames, and ro ide a on entional seated oth ross rails are mortised into the ends o the side rails
osture aad 1 57 . a o e the le oint. he le s are ashioned in the orm o
a lion s le , set on a su ortin drum. Ea h le is ell
ar ed and the la s and drums are nel modelled
3. Stool diagramS from the tomb of heSyra rom the solid. he le s are also ra ed our s uare
(figureS 19, 20) se tioned stret hers a ain mortised and tenoned to the
3rd nast , a ara. inside a es o the le .
ui ell 1 13 l. Baker 1 66 3 37, . 27. his stool, as ith man rom this eriod, is nished
ith a la er o esso a lied o er the ooden rame.
rom the all aintin s in the tom o es ra t o t es his te hni ue ould ha e een used or se eral reasons.
o stool are illustrated. he rst is similar to the ull moothin and olishin lar e areas o ood at this time
le ed ed rames o the Earl nasti Period i ure ould ha e een a time onsumin ro ess. Mu h o the
1 . A ain e see that the side oles are ashioned ith ood used ould ha e een o oor ualit ith man
a rus flo er terminals and the seat is made rom a de e ts. Plasterin the nished stool ould ha e allo ed
a ri or leather sheet atta hed to the side and ross oles an oor ar in and de e ts in the ood to e hidden.
a series o leather ties. he se ond stool i ure 20
sho s a er sim le re tan ular rame, ith an ar hed
ra e eneath, su ortin oth le s and side seat rail. his 5. Stool With lion ShaPed legS (Plate 50)
t e o onstru tion as o ular durin the 3rd nast om o ha.
or e nd man statues o di nitaries seated u on su h E tian Museum, urin. 61 .
stools. A ood e am le is reser ed in the British Museum Len th 36 mm, idth 36 mm, hei ht 330 mm.
EA171 , sho in Ankh a, a shi uilder, seated u on a hia arelli 1 27 115 ., . 6 Baker 1 66 117,
lain stool ith ar hed ra es Plate . . 15 .
urin the 1 06 e a ations hia arelli at the he an

4. Stool With lion ShaPed legS (Plate 49) ne ro olis the tom o ha as dis o ered. ha
Middle in dom. as an ar hite t and O erseer o orks durin the
Museum usta ianum, sala ni ersit . B 2. rei ns o Amenhote , hutmose and Amenhote
Len th 35 mm, idth 30 mm, hei ht 375 mm. . ha ould ha e een an im ortant o ial and ould
ha e li ed in a om orta le house at eir el Medina. is
B the Middle in dom animal le ed stools had tom , ith his i e Mer t, ontained a lar e olle tion
han ed in desi n and onstru tion. his stool, Plate , o ersonal urniture and urnishin s, no reser ed
4. Stools 61
in the E tian Museum, urin. ha s urniture makes 1 0 .527.2 and 1 0 .527.2 a. Both are ithout seats
it ossi le to understand the ran e o urniture t es and are dated as 17th nast the ame rom the
a aila le to amilies o some so ial standin . A art urneh e a ations. Another stool is reser ed in the
rom t o ed rames ith oot oards, stools re resent Metro olitan Museum o Art, e ork, MMA 1 .10.3,
the most ommon t e o urniture ound in the tom . is dated as 12th to earl 1 th nast , rom el Asasi ,
A ide ariet o st le and ualit are dis la ed one he es. his stool as a i t to the museum the Earl o
o arti ular interest is the lion le ed stool illustrated arnar on in 1 1 , and is er similar to our Ashmolean
in Plate 50. Museum e am le, ha in a rush seat, the strands ein
he seat is onstru ted o our ur ed rails ith holes ra ed around the seat rails and o en a ross to orm
ored throu h the inside ed e to retain the o en seat. he the seat.
le s, hi h are set on drums, are mortised and tenoned
into the ends o the side seat rails o this stool. Ea h oint
is astened ith a do el that an e seen at ea h end o 7. SimPle Stool With ShaPed legS (Plate 54)
the stool s side seat rails. Both ront and a k le s are Earl 1 th nast .
tensioned t o stret hers onne ted at the knee osition ational Museums o otland, Edin ur h. 1 56.110.
o the le . he ar in o this stool is not as ne as the Len th 305 mm, idth 305 mm, hei ht 127 mm.
re ious e am le, ut a ain, the entire rame as oated
ith esso, some o hi h, arti ularl around the lion s his is ar the est reser ed o all these stools. he
a s, has hi ed a a sho in the ood used or this le s are ell ormed and olished. At the le s aist are
stools manu a ture as o oor ualit . three hiselled ands o de oration. he throu h mortise
and tenon oints are neatl ed ed. he oint a e o the
le s ha e een trimmed and urnished smooth, an de e ts
6. SimPle Stool With ShaPed legS hi h remained in the oint a ter leanin ere lled ith
(PlateS 51–53) a . he seat o this stool has een restored, and is o an
th 12th nast , Beni asan. identi al ea e to the e hi it in the Metro olitan Museum
Ashmolean Museum, O ord. A 1 6 1 0 E. 162. o Art, e ork, MMA 1 .10.3 a o e.
urin the Middle in dom a ne stool t e emer ed 8. folding Stool (Plate 55)
hi h as sim le in desi n and onstru tion, ut ro ed Middle or e in dom, i a.
to e o ular, and dire tl influen ed the desi n o those Metro olitan Museum o Art, e ork. MMA
round le ed stools and ed rames manu a tured durin 12.1 2.5 .
the 1 th nast . hese stools Plate 51 ere made rom ei ht 357 mm, idth 315 mm, de th 377 mm.
ei ht elements, our le s and our seat rails. he le s Baker 1 66 137, . 1 is her 1 6 . n.53.
are ta ered on all our sides to a small s uare se tioned
aist, hi h is o ten de orated ith in ised lines, a out his oldin stool is sim le in onstru tion ein desi ned
one third o the total le hei ht rom the ase. rom the to e li ht and easil stored, ut ri id hen used. his
aist the eet flare do n ith a shar ur e to a lar e e am le, as all su h stools, is onstru ted o t o rames.
s uare oot hi h is set on a e elled ad, est seen in Ea h rame has t o hori ontal rails onne ted t o
Plate 52. he to o the le s Plate 53 are rounded o er erti al onne tin s indles. he ase rail is o a ir ular
and elo are t o s uare mortises ut throu h the le , ross se tion, ha in t o ro e tions on the to sur a e
the to mortise runs a o e and a ross the lo er mortise. hi h allo a ra e ul ur e to run et een the oint o
he side rails o this t e o stool are re tan ular in the ase and onne tin s indle. his also is a un tional
se tion, the lon ed es o hi h are sli htl rounded to desi n, or it ermits a lon tenon on the end o the
sto ear on the rush seat. he rails are ut ith a throu h onne tin s indle to enetrate dee l into the ase rail,
tenon ith t o shoulders. he resultin ross se tion o this oint ein se ured ith a do el.
the tenon is s uare and is sli htl smaller than the mortise he onne tin s indles o one rame ass ithin
it is desi ned to t. he resultin a et een the tenon the other lar er rame and at the rossin oint t o
and mortise as se ured ith ooden ed es that ould ron e i ots onne t oth rames. he seat rails are o
ha e een dri en throu h the ront o the oint. er little a re tan ular se tion a ain, the onne tin s indles are
in the a o nishin as used on these stools and man ointed here ith mortises and tenons. rom the i otin
are le t strai ht rom the ad e and hisel hile a e are oint to the oint ith the seat rails, the erti al s indles
sand stoned smooth. ta er out ards, so the seat rails are su orted the t o
e eral o these stools e ist in u li olle tions er ide shoulders o the s indles tenon. he fle i le
a out the orld. n the ational Museums o otland, seat is made from a leather sheet which is wrapped over
Edin ur h, are t o ne stools onstru ted o edar, the seat rails and lued.
Figure 21. Folding stool. British Museum, London. EA 29284.
9. folding Stool (Plate 56) o onne tin s indles is uni ue. he seat s i ots and
Middle in dom. t o o the onne tin s indles are modern restorations.
o al Ontario Museum, oronto, anada. 10.37.17.
ei ht u er ross arms 70 mm, len th ottom
ross arms 50 mm, len th onne tin s indles 10. folding Stool (PlateS 57–60 and
2 mm. figure 21)

om o Ani.
his is a er unusual t e o oldin stool or it has our British Museum, London. EA 2 2 .
onne tin s indles in ea h rame, o iousl desi ned ei ht 3 0 mm, idth 350 mm, len th 50 mm.
to i e the stool e tra ri idit . he ase rails rest on t o Baker 1 66 135, s. 1 7 1 .
elli ti al ads ut rom the lindri al ar. Ea h o the
ads has t o ro e tions into hi h ass the hole o the B the e in dom the oldin stool had e ome a
ottom se tion o the onne tin s indles. he seat rails, ashiona le ie e o urniture. e nd them in man
hi h are hidden in Plate 56 the modern leather seat, aintin s and all relie s o this eriod in he an tom s
are elli ti al in ross se tion. n onstru tion this stool is e. . a ies 1 05 l. a ies 1 25 l. a ies
er sta le. he method o rossin and innin the airs 1 27 ls. , a ies 1 30 ls. ,
4. Stools 63
a ies 1 63 l. . here seems to e a eneral his oldin stool is ossi l a little later than the British
standardisation o this desi n the 1 th nast . he Museum e am le e ha e re iousl e amined. But a ain
most ommon desi n eature o all these stools is that the it sho s the eneral st le or this t e o stool, ha in
nials on the ends o the onne tin s indles and rails are ell ormed du k head nials inlaid ith reasona l
ar ed ith du k heads Plate 5 . he seat rails are made thi k i or . he ood used in the onstru tion o this
rom re tan ular se tioned ood and ormed ith a sli ht ie e is A ri an Bla k ood hi h ould e lain the hi h
de ressed ur e. he onne tin s indles ha e shoulders standard o reser ation. Both onne tin s indles, ron e
ut at an an le the tenon on ea h s indle asses throu h i ots and ashers are ori inal unlike those ound on the
a mortise in the seat rail and is ed ed Plate 5 . B re ious e am le. he seat onstru tion o this stool is
dri in a ed e in here the ar enter ould a hie e a interestin as ea h seat rail is onne ted to its s indles
er om a t and hard earin oint, or the main or es, a ridle oint astened a sin le do el. Alon the entre
hen the stool is in use are taken throu h the ed e and o ea h seat rail are drilled nineteen holes, 20 mm a art,
the erti al sto on the onne tin s indle. t an also e to re ei e the re seat hi h is no lost.
seen that a do el, ro a l or lo ation, is dri en throu h
oth elements Plate 5 .
he i otin oint o this stool is a ro imatel at the 12. folding Stool (PlateS 62, 63)
entre the i ot is a ron e ri et, hi h has een sim l 1 th nast .
urnished o er to sto it rom t istin out Plate 60 . ni ersit Museum, Man hester. 22 .
A o e the i ot the onne tin s indles ere o ered ei ht 260 mm, idth 250 mm.
ith leather, or small tra es still remain. he seat ould
ha e also een made o leather, a re tan ular ie e lued E aminin ra mented urniture o ten leads to ertain
at the ed es to the seat rails. emains o an ient leather dis o eries o ho the rodu t as onstru ted. his
ma e ound on oth seat rails. oldin stool is su h an e am le. n eneral terms it is
Belo the i ot the onne tin s indles are ell a oor ie e o ar entr and a lied de oration, ha in
inished and de orated ith i or inla . Ea h inial no eathers o i or inla . o e er, it is interestin
re resents a du k head, the ill o hi h ras s ti htl e ause e are a le to see the lon ton ue tenon hi h
the stool s ase rail. he ill a ts as the ur ed shoulders as em lo ed on oldin stools o this t e. t ill e
to a tenon hi h asses throu h a mortise in the ase noti ed that the tenon s rin s rom the heart o the ood
rail. ust elo the i ot is the du k s ne k hi h has and is in itsel o ood sound dimensions, and ould easil
e isos eles trian les o 1.5 mm thi k i or , inlaid into ithstand the or es la ed u on it. A o e this is the e e
the s indle to imitate the ird s eathers. Belo these are Plate 63 hi h is not o inlaid i or , ut a solid do el o
our neatl ar ed in ised ands. rom the ne k to the i or , hi h asses om letel throu h the du k s head,
du k s head the ross se tion han es rom ir ular to hi h is no adl hi ed.
elli ti al, the minor a is o hi h is the same diameter At the rossin oint o the onne tin s indles is set a
as ound at the ne k, and the ma or a is is reater. he ron e ri et ith a om ined asher. ashers ere used
head is inlaid ith three i or eathers, elo hi h are to sto the ear aused the rou h urnished ed es o
the du k s e es hi h are o an annular desi n. he outer the lain ri et.
ir le is o i or inla , hile the inner is o darker ood,
ossi l A ri an Bla k ood.
he ase rail is ut rom the solid and is orked 13. imitation folding Stool (Plate 64)
to a ir ular ross se tion, a art rom the ends. ere om o utankhamun.
the ar enter has eauti ull om leted the ie e E tian Museum, airo. E 62035. arter o. 3.
ra e ull rollin the ne k o the du k so the head oints ei ht 3 2 mm, len th 70 mm, idth 317 mm.
to ards the oint o the onne tin s indle. A ain this arter 1 23 21 , l. L B esro hes o le ourt
head is de orated ith i or eathers, man o hi h 1 63 1 , l. 117 Baker 1 66 7, . 102 Eaton
are missin , and the e es are similar to that ound on the rauss 200 116 11 , s. 2 7, ls. L L .
heads o the onne tin s indle.
here ere three oldin stools ound in the tom o
utankhamun, ea h ein er similar in onstru tion.
11. folding Stool (Plate 61) n eneral the are similar in onstru tion to other 1 th
1 th or 1 th nast . nast oldin stools, onl more ornate, om inin in
o al Ontario Museum, oronto, anada. 1 .2.1. them not onl i or and A ri an Bla k ood ut also old
otal len th o sides 610 mm, idth 632 mm, hei ht oil. o o these stools ha e leather seats, E 62036 and
30 mm. E 62037 Eaton rauss 200 112 116, ls. L L,
one o la k the other red. As ith the reat ma orit
Figure 22. Low stool. British Museum, London. EA 46705.
o these stools the leather has de a ed and onl a e o this has allen a a . hese stools ould not ha e een
ra ments remain adherin to the side rails. used to sit u on in a on entional manner. t is unlikel ,
he third stool Plate 6 initiall a ears to ha e a due to the e ed seat, that the ere used as a ootstool.
er e t animal skin seat. his is not the ase, or this here ore the ere more likel used either s uattin
stool annot e olded, e ause the seat is ri id, ein or kneelin u on them. Other ise the ma erha s ha e
made rom slats o ent ood and inlaid ith i or so een used as a hild s stool.
imitatin the markin s normall ound on an animal skin. rom i ure 22 e ma see that the side rails A are
A entre stri o red oloured ood is la ed on the seat ut in an L se tion alon the inner ed es are thirteen
to re resent the s ine o the animal. As an e tension at holes, 20 mm rom the inner ed e and 2 mm a art.
one end a urther ie e o ood has een in luded, and On the inside a es at ea h end o this element are ut
ut out like a tail, and han s rom the s ine. A reat man a stu mortise to take the tenon on the end o rail B ,
o these stools are illustrated in the he an tom s, and, hi h is a re tan ular mem er. hrou h the inner ed e
as ith this e am le, the ha e animal skin or imitation o this are drilled 15 holes, 20 mm rom the inner ed e
skin seats. and 2 mm a art. he oint o rails A and B is held
a sin le do el a , this also holds ith do els ,
, d , a dou le el o ra e made o t o arts 1
14. loW Stool (PlateS 65, 66 and figure 22) and 2 to the underside o rail B and to the inside
1 th nast . o the le s .
British Museum, London. EA 6705. A mortise and tenon holds the le s to the rails A
Len th 30 mm, idth 360 mm, hei ht 110 mm. and this is held t o do els e and . hrou h the
Baker 1 66 135, .1 . holes in the inner ed e o the seat rails is o en a sim le
dou le raid rush e in hi h is in er ne ondition,
his arti ular stool is in ood reser ation oth the the ends o all the strands are are ull knotted elo the
ood and rush e in as ori inall essoed, ut mu h holes and hidden rom si ht Plate 66 .
4. Stools 65
15. loW Stool (Plate 67) o those stools dis o ered ere o a sim le re tan ular
ate un ertain. onstru tion ith rush and reed seats. u h stools are
Medelha smuseet, to kholm. MM 1 .671. e amined in the ne t se tion o this ha ter . o three
Len th 3 7 mm, idth 2 6 mm, hei ht 70 mm. le ed stools ere dis o ered at eir el Medina, one
ein er rude, ith a thi k flat seat, ith three sli htl
his stool is smaller than the British Museum e am le ur ed le s assin throu h mortises in the seat. Ea h
EA 6705. he end rails and le s are ut rom the same oint as ed ed to make it se ure, and hen ei ht as
ie e o ood. As ith the re ious stool the side rails a lied to the seat the an le o the mortises and tenons
are ointed to the end rails mortises and tenons, ut throu h the seat ould add to the ri idit o the stool.
are not se ured do els. his is unusual, or the dou le his onstru tion is t i al o all three le ed stools. he
raid e in a ts as the onl a to tie oth elements se ond stool dis o ered in the emeter at eir el Medina
to ether. hen the e in de a s, the end rails e ome is similar to this e am le reser ed in the British Museum.
loose rom the side rails. his three le ed stool Plate 6 has a solid seat ar ed
rom a lank o oarse rain tim er hi h has man knots
in it. he ront ed e is strai ht hile the a k is ashioned
16. three legged Stool (Plate 68) in a rounded orm. he seat, hi h is dee l dished,
1st nast , arkhan, tom 15. has three s uare mortise holes ho ed throu h it into
ni ersit olle e, London. 17173. hi h ass the tenons o the le s. he tenons are hea il
ei ht 305 mm, idth 610 mm. ed ed and one o the holes sho s tra es o an ient lue.
nderneath the ur ed seat are three ads hi h ro e t
he introdu tion o the three le ed stool made rom rom the mortises, to se urel hold the shoulders o the
ooden elements seems to ha e o urred durin the latter tenons. he le s, hi h are ur ed, ma ha e een ent
art o the Middle in dom. A er ne limestone stool to sha e, as it is ossi le to distin uish arts o the rain
ith three le s and datin rom the Middle in dom flo in around the ur e. rom the tenon the le s flare
is no reser ed in the Petrie Museum o ni ersit do n ards to lar e round ads on hi h the stool sits.
olle e, London. 16532. Also in that olle tion is
this stool ith three le s hi h as dis o ered at arkhan
in ra e 15 on to o a o n and has een dated as 18. three legged Stool (Plate 70)
1st nast . he stool, hi h had een artl eaten 1 th or 1 th nast .
hite ants and as also harred in the de artment re in ational Museums o otland, Edin ur h. 1 56.107.
Mar h 1 56, has one le no artl missin . he stool ei ht 223 mm, idth 3 3 mm.
has een ut rom a on enientl ran hin tree or e en
a tree root. his earl e am le as no dou t ommonl he seat o this stool is o semi ir ular sha e and is er
manu a tured, and stron l influen ed the desi n o thi k the to sur a e is sli htl dished. nderneath are
three le ed stools manu a tured in the Middle and e solid ooden ads into hi h the le s are ointed at an
in doms. an le. he thi k se tion here eliminates the to o the le
tenon omin throu h the u er sur a e o the seat. he
seat is o oor ualit ood at the entre ma e seen a
17. three legged Stool With diShed Seat heart shake ith at least one radial shake, e osed the
(Plate 69) earin o the esso. he le s, hi h are o etter ualit
1 th nast . ood, are not essoed, ut ha e se eral a e knots in the
British Museum, London. EA 2 1. e elled flared mem ers. One le sho s arti ularl oor
Len th 2 5 mm, idth 360 mm, hei ht 32 mm. ad e ork here the ra tsman has under ut the le hen
rou hin it to sha e.
B the e in dom ra tsmen ere e erien in a
reater a fluen e re iousl the had s uatted, like most
o the o ulation, on the round. his is dramati all 19. royal three legged Stool (Plate 71)
illustrated in the eauti ul, 11th nast 2060 B. . om o utankhamun.
model o a ar enter s sho dis o ered in the tom o E tian Museum, airo. E 620 3. arter o. 12.
Meketra, 2 0, E tian Museum, airo, E 6722, ei ht 2 0 mm, idth 31 mm.
inlo k 1 55 . o e er, the e in dom there arter 1 33 11 , l. L A Baker 1 66 0, .
are man aintin s and relie s o ar enters sittin on 105 a, , Eaton rauss 200 122 125, ls. L
di erent t es o stool. L .
An outstandin olle tion o orkmen s stools as
ound at the e in dom illa e emeter at eir el his is an e tremel ne stool. he seat is ier ed and
Medina Bru re 1 3 , . 21 . he reat ro ortion nel ar ed on oth a es to re resent t o lions ound
head to tail their eet. he ed in to the seat is o a o ur ed oards, the seat rails are ider than the le s and
s iral attern in a a e ormation. Beneath the sli htl not onl ointed to the le s ut to ea h other sim le
dished seat are three ro e tions into hi h ass the tenons lain mitres. hree slats orm the seat and are ointed to
o the le s. One o these tenons ma e seen hen lookin the inside o the seat rails.
at the to sur a e o the seat. he le s are held in la e his t e o desi n is art o the de elo mental han e
an o en ork ra e, it annot e esta lished hether the to ards the introdu tion o the latti e stool, hi h as
mem ers or this element are ut or ormed endin used idel in e in dom E t.
into this sha e, due to the esso hi h as a lied to the
stool. Bet een the ra e and the seat is a hara teristi
o en ork moti re resentin the union o er and Lattice Stools
Lo er E t. he le s o this stool are nel moulded, B ar the most o ular and idel used stool in E t
in a anine or eline orm ar ed in the round in ludin durin the e in dom as the latti e stool. he
under the a s, hi h are in onta t ith the round. de elo ment o this t e o onstru tion seems to ha e
een made durin the e in dom. his stool as used
throu hout E tian so iet rom the Pharaoh and his
20. Stool (Plate 72) ourt throu h to the ra tsman and artisan lass. A nota le
e in dom. olle tion o su h stools ma e ound in all aintin s
ational Museum o otland. Edin ur h. 1 56.111. rom im ortant tom s at he es a ies 1 07 ls. ,
Len th 356 mm, idth 356 mm, hei ht 305 mm. a ies 1 23 ls. , a ies 1 25 ls. ,
a ies 1 30 l. L a ies 1 33 l.
he se ond t e o stool dis o ered at the e in dom a ies 1 33A ls. , , L a ies 1 1
orkmen s emeter at eir el Medina is similar to ls. , a ies 1 3 ls. ,L a ies
this e am le, and is re resentati e o a t e o ualit , 1 63 ls. , .
desi n and onstru tion seen in ed rames e. . ational his st le o urniture de elo ed naturall rom the
Museum, arsa , 13 06 M , and other urniture sim le strai ht le ed stools used ra tsmen o the
rom the e in dom hi h ori inates rom eir e ond ntermediate Period and the earl e in dom.
el Medina. his stool has our strai ht le s, the to s he latti e stool is made rom our strai ht le s o s uare
are rounded and the eet s uared o . he seat rails are se tioned ood ith stret hers holdin the ottom o the
onne ted to ea h le a throu h mortise and tenon le s rm, hile the seat rails are mortised and tenoned
re iousl seen in those stools ith sha ed le s rom Beni into the to o the le s. Bet een the stret hers and the
asan 56 Ashmolean Museum, O ord A 1 6 1 0 seat rails is a latti e o ra es on all our sides.
E. 162 , here the tenon on one seat rail asses a o e t has een su ested that the latti es i e e tra
or elo the other seat rail tenon and at ri ht an les to su ort to urniture, hether the e stools, hairs or ase
it. Belo the seat rame are stret hers, onne ted to the stands. he are im ortant to the o erall stru ture ut not
le s are a ed mortises and tenons. he ood used in undamental to the load earin a a ilities o this t e
the manu a ture o these stools seems to e reasona l o urniture, on some ie es the latti es are sim l utt
ood a art rom some ed e knots one ma e seen on ointed to their o osin mem er and not e en lued, ust
the ront stret her . he seat is also t i al o this t e ed ed. his ma indi ate that these ie es o urniture
o stool, ein o en o reed and rush re and ra ed ere desi ned as tom urniture and not intended or
ti htl a out the seat rails. domesti use.
21. Stool With ConCave Seat (Plate 73) 22. lattiCe Stool (Plate 74)
e in dom. 1 th nast .
ardo e Mu eum, arsa . 1 33 M on loan Brookl n Museum, e ork. 37. 5E.
rom the Lou re Museum, Paris. E.3 5 . Pro enan e unkno n.
Len th 3 0 mm, idth 370mm, hei ht 300 mm. Len th 267 mm, idth 22 mm, hei ht 2 3 mm.
ndou tedl this stool desi n ould ha e een influen ed his is a er small stool and similar to stools used
the re ious e am le. t has our strai ht le s, s uared ra tsmen o the a e. he le s are ut rom ood ualit
o at the eet and rounded at the to . he t i al a o e ood 17 mm s uare. he to o the le s are sli htl
and elo mortise and tenon oints o the seat rails to ider 25 mm and are ur ed to run into the main od
le s are ound in this ie e. Also t i al are the stret hers o the le , and the seat rail. he le and seat rail oint is
elo the seat, ointed to the le s are a ed mortises a sim le mortise and tenon, ut the stret her 15 mm
and tenons. he mortise or one o these oints is learl 7 mm and le oint is ormed a are a e mortise and
sho n on the a k le . he seat o this stool is onstru ted tenon. his t e o oint is ound on modern as ell as
4. Stools 67
an ient urniture here the rail is thinner than the erti al 25. lattiCe Stool (Plate 77)
mem er. he seat rails are sli htl dished, resultin in a om o utankhamun.
dou le o e seat, a ommon desi n eature on these stools. E tian Museum, airo. E 620 1. arter o. 1.
he thi kness o the seat rails ar rom 1 mm at their ei ht 305 mm, idth 275 mm, de th 320 mm.
entre to 35 mm at the ends here the mortise or the le arter 1 23 115, l. L A Aldred 1 5 6 5, 701,
oint is housed. e en anels o sha ed ood orm the l. 25B Baker 1 66 6 7, . 101 ans her 1 6
seat the t o outer anels also a t as the side rails and are 12 13, illus. arth 1 6, illus., re rodu in
6 mm ide, as a ainst 31 mm or the e inner anels, ans her s dra in Eaton rauss 200 106 10 ,
ith a a o a ro imatel 6 mm et een ea h mem er. . 23, l. L .
Beneath the side rails and en losed the le s and
stret hers is the latti e ra in . he u ri hts are 1 5 mm o latti e stools ere dis o ered in the tom o
in len th, and the dia onal struts are 160 mm in len th. utankhamun. One as a sim le latti e stool ith a
Ea h is ut rom ood ualit ood 7.5 mm 5 mm in dou le o e anelled seat that had een li htl essoed,
se tion. he are then ull ointed in elo the seat and E 620 0, Eaton rauss 200 10 110, l. L . he
into the stret hers. other stool Plate 77 is o etter ualit usin e ensi e
ood in its onstru tion. he rame o this stool is made
rom a tim er su h as edar the seat is o a dou le o e
23. lattiCe Stool (Plate 75) desi n and is onstru ted o e anels. hree o these
ate un ertain. anels are made rom A ri an Bla k ood the remainin
Medelha smuseet. to kholm. MM 1 .66 . t o are o i or . Bet een the anels are ands o oth
Len th 5mm, idth 5 mm, hei ht 65 mm. materials, used here, and on the a ks o hairs, as a
de orati e strin in . he utton sha ed do els, that are
his stool is almost t i e the si e o the re ious e am le used to se ure the oints o this rame, ha e a ore o
ut it still sho s the asi onstru tion o this t e o A ri an Bla k ood hi h is a ed ith i or .
stool. he ma or di eren e is that the seat is o en and
not anelled. oles are drilled throu h the seat rame to
hold the strin e in . 26. Stool (Plate 78)
om o utankhamun.
E tian Museum, airo. E 6203 . arter o. 67.
24. lattiCe StoolS (Plate 76) ei ht 50 mm, idth 50 mm, de th 31 mm.
om o ha. arter 1 33 11 and 21 , l. L B Baker 1 66
E tian Museum, urin, 512 and 511. 7, l. olour arth 1 2 illus. Eaton
Len th 1 mm, idth 330 mm oth stools . rauss 200 10 106, ls. L L .
Baker 1 66 116, . 15 a. .
his stool is o e e tional ualit , the le s, hi h are
our er ne latti e stools t o onl sho n here ere ar ed in the eline orm and li htl essoed, are set u on
dis o ered in ha s tom at he es. he are, as e ha e drums hi h are lad in o er and shod ith thi k ron e
e ome to e e t, ne mem ered, lean lined, re ise late. he seat, hi h is also essoed, is onstru ted o
ointed ith sin le and dou le o e, strin or anelled seat ur ed anels to orm a dou le o e the oints hi h
stools. he ere ori inall li htl essoed ut mu h o onne t the outer anel are mortised and tenoned to ether
this has allen a a e osin the ooden rame. and are inned ith old a ed do els, as are the le
hese e am les sho another ommon ra in to seat oints. Beneath the seat is the de orati e flo er
te hni ue em lo ed the an ient ar enter, ho as arran ement hi h re resents the union o er and
this time e tremel ro ient in his trade, ein a le Lo er E t. his has een nel ar ed and ith the
to make t o identi al stools. he sin le u ri ht strut stret hers, has een om letel o ered in thin old sheet
et een the seat rail and stret her is lar er in se tion o er the ooden ores.
than the t o dia onal struts. hese dia onal mem ers
are utt ointed a ainst the orner o the stret her and
le hile at the other end a ainst the erti al strut and Round legged Stools
the seat rail. aturall the stret her and le oint has to rom the im ortant ri ate tom s at he es are dis la ed
e se ured ith a do el not done on the re ious t o a reat num er o hat are ommonl kno n as round
e am les as is the erti al strut and seat rail oint, or the le ed stools. t is durin the e in dom and in
dire tion o or es in the dia onal struts are taken dire tl arti ular the 1 th nast that e see the de elo ment
throu h oth oints to the floor. o this ne t e o stool. ithout mu h dou t the
de elo ed in onstru tional orm rom stools ith aist
eneral orm o this le is that o a linder, art o hi h

has a narro aist, ut the oot retains the diameter o the
main od o the le . n the main od are t o re tan ular
mortise holes, hile the le s aist is de orated ith man
in ised ands. he to o this le has s uared shoulders
rom hi h an unusual s ike o ood ro e ts.
On a lose e amination o this le there are no isi le
uttin marks hi h ould e ositi el identi ed as ein
made rom a stationar utter as the ood as s un in
ront o it. he shoulder o this le an learl e seen
to e hi her on one side than the other. his ould not
e e e ted i the shoulder had een a ed on a lathe.
urin the oman Period le s o stools hi h an e
ositi el identi ed as ein turned had er e tl s uare
shoulders. E en the method o artin to rodu e s uared
shoulders on the main od o the le as used idel
as a de orati e e e t.
he s ike, hi h a ts as art o the oint to the seat,
and e tends rom the shoulders, is not rounded or turned
as man oman e am les are, ut is hand ut ith a
hisel Plate 0 . this le had een turned it ould
seem natural that this s ike ould ha e een em lo ed
as a i ot. so, art o the oint ould ha e een urnt
durin turnin , due to ri tion. o e er, there is no tra e
o urnt re ood on an art o the s ike. Also on the
underside o the oot there is no i ot hole, hi h ould
e e e ted i this le had een turned.
he le s aist i es the reatest indi ation o turnin ,
numerous ne lines are in ised in ands a out this area.
As an e seen rom Plate 1, the do in a t run in
er e t ands around the le . he roundin o ooden
elements hand is not a di ult ro ess and as ell
ra tised ar enters o the Earl nasti Period, ut
Figure 23. Round legged stool. British Museum, London. EA 2472. ith the introdu tion o the narro aist on these le s the
te hni ue o uttin them seems to e ome more di ult.
n Plate 7 the aist o this le seems to e er e tl
sha ed le s, earlier dis ussed, hi h ori inated rom the s mmetri al ho e er, uttin a s mmetri al ur e
Middle in dom. e in dom re resentations. a ies hand is di ult. our an les o the le Plate 7 sho
1 25 ls. , a ies 1 27 l. a ies that this has een a hie ed ell, ut the hoto ra h on ar
1 30 l. a ies 1 33A ls. , a ies le t hand side o the set sho s a distin t lum , etter seen
1 3 l. L . in Plate 1. his ul e on onl art o the oot illustrates
One o the reatest ro lems that ha e on ronted that this area ould not ha e een turned, e en thou h the
te hnolo ists o er the last t o enturies is ho these in ised ands ould tr to dis ro e this.
round le s ere manu a tured. here are t o s hools o o ould su h ne ands e ut onto these le s he
thou ht, hether the le s ere turned on a rimiti e lathe E tian ra tsman, o that a e, had the asi kno led e
or hand ar ed then led e ore ein nall sandstoned. on ernin the rin i les o turnin materials. e hni ues
or uttin the entre rom stone essels and turnin la
ots ere uni ersall used, as as the o drill or uttin
27. round Stool leg (PlateS 79–81) holes in ood and other materials. t has een su ested
1 th nast . that lines ommonl ound on round le s ere made
ni ersit Museum, Man hester. 5 2. the ord o a o drill hi h had een im re nated ith
ei ht 330 mm, diameter 50 mm. an a rasi e o der. his ould seem to e a easi le
solution the s ike on the le ould ha e een la ed in
his le is t i al o the eriod. he hoto ra h on Plate a hole to sto the le rom rotatin as the o ord o
7 sho s the le rotated throu h one re olution . he the o as sa n around the aist.
4. Stools 6
28. fine round legged Stool. (PlateS 82, 83, his ele ant stool has ne ir ular le s hose aists are
and figure 23) de orated ith rou s o our ar ed ands. n ea h le
1 th nast . is a dee roo e indi ati e o turnin and the ir ular
British Museum, London. EA 2 72. sectioned stretchers of this stool are mortised and tenoned
Len th 60 mm, idth 60 mm, hei ht 360 mm. into the le s. he seat rails are also mortised and tenoned
Baker 1 66 135, . 1 3. to the le s, and a leather sheet as la ed a ross the seat
and lued to oth the u er and lo er sur a es o the seat
his is a er ne round le ed stool the le s are o a rails. he le to seat rail oint is hidden ullin this
lindri al orm, ith a series o une en and irre ular leather sheet around the to o the le .
dee l in ised ands in the aist. Around the to o the le in e the u li ation o the rst edition o this olume
a se tion o ood has een remo ed sa in and lin in 1 0, this stool has under one an e tensi e resear h
or hisellin Plate 3 . nto this area has een inlaid an ro ramme to esta lish the ood, date, te hni ues and
i or desi n the to and re resents a series o thin lil te hnolo used in its manu a ture illen 1 7 1 1 ,
etals ointin do n ards, the lo er is o teardro sha ed s. . he ood has een identi ed as ein idder
inla . he inla s are a ro imatel 2 mm in thi kness. i hus s ina hristi and radio ar on datin 1
En losin the de oration are three ands o thinner i or ro ides a date that the tim er rom hi h this stool as
inla , 0.5 mm in thi kness. manu a tured as elled et een 1 0 B. . and 1510
he seat is o a dou le o e orm, the oints o the le B. . ith a 5. on den e. here ore, ith the 1510
to the seat rails are hea il lastered Plate 3 as are the B. . date the stool ould ha e een manu a tured durin
seat rails. Ori inall ith man o these stools a leather seat the earl art o the 1 th nast .
ould ha e een lued a ross and under the seat rame, so Measurements o ea h le ere taken a ross oth the
hidin the lastered oint o the le . On the seat rails onl ma or and minor a es onsistentl do n ea h a e o
a e small tra es o rittle and ra ked leather remain. e er le illen 1 7 ta le 1 . n ross se tion these
he stret hers eneath the seat are mortised and le s dis la a sur risin ir ularit onsiderin the a e o
tenoned into the le s. he tenon does not ull ome the ood. hese ross se tional results ould e re arded
throu h the le , ut i it did a small la ue o i or as su ortin the turnin h othesis. he le as also
en losed in an i or rame ould o er the mortise. On hoto ra hed usin ma ni ation rin flash ima in .
one oint the small i or la ue ith one side o its rame Both ull a e and ro le ima es sho marks onsistent
is missin , Plate 3. he inside a e o the stret her and to lathe turnin marks learl isi le in the roo es o
le oint is are ull dis uised an i or errule, in the these le s, the are thin, shar , arallel in isions on the
sha e o a a rus flo er, hi h ts snu l around the sur a e o the roo ed art o ea h le illen 1 7 s.
inside a e o the le . Behind this are our ands o inlaid and 10 . hese marks are 3 mm ide ein onsistent
i or ar in in idth. he ra es, hi h are onl or a ith a sa or thin hisel ein eased into the s innin
de orati e e e t, are made o ir ular rods o i or hi h le to lean u the sur a e o the roo e. the le as
are mortised and tenoned into the stret her ut unite in a stationar or ein rotated slo l these marks ould ha e
sin le hole elo the seat rail and are o ered ith laster. een tan ential to the roo e s sur a e.
here ore, e ha e to a e t that E tian ar enters
ere e erimentin ith di erent a s o astin
29. round legged Stool. (Plate 84) ood in ludin turnin , e en in its most rimiti e orm.
17th or 1 th nast , rah a u l a a, he es. Additional resear h that dis usses the de elo ment o
Metro olitan Museum o Art, e ork. MMA 1 .10. . turnin in an ient E t is u lished in a a er or the
ei ht 3 2 mm, idth 05 mm, len th 15 mm. E eriment and E erien e s m osium held at ansea
Baker 1 66 13 , . 207 sho in stool ithout ni ersit , Ma 2010 illen 2015 1 111 .
restored seat illen 1 7 1 17, s. , ta le 1.
Plate 5. rude ooden stool.
ahun. 12th nast . Man hester
ni ersit Museum. 261.
Photographic credit:
Plate 6. rude ooden stool.

ahun. 12th nast . Man hester
ni ersit Museum. 261.
Photographic credit:
Plate 7. im le ooden stool. Earl nasti Period. o al Ontario Museum, oronto. 10.37.1 . © Royal Ontario Museum.
Plate . tatue o Ankh a. 3rd nast , a ara, British Museum, London. EA 171. British Museum.
Plate . tool ith lion sha ed le s. Middle in dom. Museum usta ianum, sala ni ersit . B 2. Museum
Gustavianum, Uppsala University.
Plate 50. tool ith lion sha ed le s. om o ha. e in dom. E tian Museum, urin. 61 . Egyptian Museum, Turin.
Plate 51. im le stool ith sha ed le s. Beni asan. th 12th nast . Ashmolean Museum, O ord. A 1 6 1 0 E. 162.
Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen
Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 5 le t . im le stool ith sha ed le s. 1 th nast . ational Museums o otland, Edin ur h. 1 56.110. © National
Museums Scotland.
Plate 55 ri ht . oldin stool. Metro olitan Museum o Art, e ork. MMA 12.1 2.5 . © Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Rogers Fund, 1912 (12.182.58).
Plate 56. oldin stool. Middle in dom. o al Ontario Museum, oronto. 10.37.17. © Royal Ontario Museum.
Plate 57 le t . oldin stool. om o Ani. e in dom. British Museum, London. EA 2 2 . Photographic credit:
Plate 5 ri ht . oldin stool. om o Ani. e in dom. British Museum, London. EA 2 2 . Photographic credit:
Plate 5 . oldin stool. om o Ani. e in dom. British Museum, London. EA 2 2 . Photographic credit:
Plate 60. oldin stool. om o Ani. e
in dom. British Museum, London. EA
2 2 . Photographic credit: Lorraine
March-Killen.
Plate 61. oldin stool. 1 th or 1 th nast . o al Ontario Museum, oronto. 1 .2.1. © Royal Ontario Museum.
Plate 62. oldin stool. 1 th nast .
Man hester ni ersit Museum. 22 .
Photographic credit: Lorraine
March-Killen.
Plate 63. oldin stool. 1 th nast . Man hester ni ersit Museum. 22 . Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 6 . tool. om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 62035, arter o. 3. Burton Photo ra h 0353.
Plate 65. Lo stool. 1 th nast . British Museum, London. EA 6705. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 66. Lo stool. 1 th nast . British Museum, London. EA 6705. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 67. Lo stool. Medelha smuseet, to kholm. MM 1 .671. Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm.

Plate 6 . hree le ed stool. arkhan, 1st nast . 17173. Petrie Museum o E tian Ar haeolo . © Petrie Museum
of Egyptian Archaeology, UCL.
Plate 6 . hree le ed stool ith dished seat. British Museum, London. EA 2 1. British Museum.
Plate 70. hree le ed stool. 1 th or 1 th nast . ational Museums o otland, Edin ur h. 1 56.107. © National Museums
Scotland.
Plate 71. hree le ed stool. om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 620 3, arter o. 12. Burton Photo ra h
1670. © riffith nstitute ni ersity of ford.
Plate 72. tool. e in dom. ational Museums o otland, Edin ur h. 1 56.111. © National Museums Scotland.
Plate 73. tool ith on a e seat. arodo e Mu eum, arsa . 1 33 M on loan rom Lou re Museum, Paris E 3 5 .
© Narodowe Muzeum, Warsaw.
Plate 7 . Latti e stool. 1 th nast . Brookl n Museum, e ork. 37. 5E. Brooklyn Museum, New York.
Plate 75. Latti e stool. Medelha smuseet, to kholm. MM 1 .66 . Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm.
Plate 76. Latti e stools. om o ha. e in dom. E tian Museum, urin. 512 and 511. Egyptian Museum, Turin.
Plate 77. Latti e stool. om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 620 1, arter o. 1. Burton Photo ra h 0352.
Plate 7 . tool. om o utankhamun.
E tian Museum, airo. E 6203 , arter
o. 67. Burton Photo ra h 12 5.
Plate 7 . ound stool le . 1 th nast .

Man hester ni ersit Museum. 5 2.
March-Killen.
0 1
Plates 0 1. ound stool le . 1 th nast . Man hester ni ersit Museum. 5 2. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plates 2 3. ound le ed stool. 1 th nast . British
Museum, London. EA 2 72. Photographic credit: Lorraine
March-Killen.
Plate . ound le ed stool. 17th or 1 th nast . Metro olitan Museum o Art, e ork. MMA 1 .10. . © Metropolitan
Museum of Art, Gift of the Earl of Carnarvon, 1914 (14.10.4).
Chapter 5
Chairs
Second Dynasty Chairs to the legs. The back support of this chair seems again
The chair developed from the stool during the 2nd to have been an addition as is the case with the second
Dynasty, c. 2890–2686 B.C. Two stelae from the hair, i ure 27. his hair is mu h lo er than the rst,
2nd nast emeter at el an sho ne e am les o and has legs carved in a bovine form, attached to the seat
sim le strai ht a k hairs aad 1 57 10, s. 5, rails by simple mortises and tenons which are tied together
l. . irst is the stele o Prin e isuhe et om 6 by leather thongs (Quibell 1913: pl. XVIII).
, i ure 2 , sho in him seated on a hair ith a
high back which is constructed from plain sawn boards.
The chair is elevated on a platform in front of which is a Middle Kingdom Chairs
table that the prince touches with his right hand. Another From the vast collection of chairs which are illustrated
hair hi h is similar to the re ious e am le sho s on Middle Kingdom stelae, c. 2055–1650 B.C., and now
Lady Menkhetka seated, but this stele is in a very poor reser ed in the E tian Museum, airo, e ma see
ondition. he nal e am le o a 2nd nast hair is further developments in chair design and construction.
illustrated on a eauti ul stele o ehe ner om 21 6E, Straight leg chairs with cushioned backs were still being
Saqqara: see Quibell 1923: pls. XXVI–XXVII). Sehefner manufactured (Figure 28.1) as were animal leg chairs with
is shown, Figure 25, seated on a high back chair, with plain vertical back supports (Figure 28.2) which are also
straight plain legs which are held together by seat rails and upholstered. One of the most evident features of chairs
made rigid by the stretchers beneath. The back of this chair from this period is that they are more styled, and the old
is not as high as Prince Nisuheqet’s chair; the top rail of bovine shaped legs are giving way to the more slender
the back support is level to the middle of the Sehefner’s lines of gazelle legs (Figure 28.3) and lion legs. Another
back. This must have been slightly uncomfortable, so the interesting feature is that none of the chairs seem to have
ushion on hi h ehe ner sits e tends u rom the seat been jointed and tied with leather; almost certainly joints
and over the top rail of the chair’s back. were being glued and dowelled.
It is noticeable that both chairs are elevated on The back supports of chairs were also becoming more
platforms, none of the bovine legged stools illustrated naturally designed to take the shape and weight of the
in the Helwan stelae are shown placed on platforms. It human a k i ure 2 . this no eliminated the need
would seem that the earliest chairs were used in a more to cushion the back support. Originally such back supports
formal setting. would have been carved from the solid block of wood,
but it must have become evident during the 2nd or 3rd
Dynasties that the curved qualities of such supports could
Chairs from the Tomb of Hesyra be achieved by the careful arrangement of angled battens
The chairs which are illustrated in the wall paintings from from the seat to the top back rail. This approach was used
the tomb of Hesyra, 3rd Dynasty, c. 2660 B.C., are similar widely during the Middle Kingdom and onwards, and can
in design to the two types of stools also discovered there. e de ned enerall as an o en a k hair onstru tion.
he rst, i ure 26, sho s the ront ele ation o a strai ht From the stelae of the Middle Kingdom several
leg chair which has curved braces connecting the seat rail e am les o o en a k hair are sho n. A ne animal
Figure 24. Chair. (Stele of Prince Nisuheqet, Tomb 964 H8,
Helwan, 2nd Dynasty).
Figure 25. Chair. (Stele of Sehefner, Tomb 2146E, Saqqara, 2nd

Dynasty).
Figure 26. Chair. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Hesyra, Saqqara, Figure 27. Chair. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Hesyra, Saqqara,
3rd Dynasty) 3rd Dynasty)
Figure 28. Middle Kingdom chair designs.
Ancient Egyptian Furniture: 4000–1300 B.C.
legged chair is elevated on a small platform (Figure 28.5) tenoned into the top and bottom rails of the back support
which still indicates the formal use these chairs were frame. The bottom of the frame is again mortised and
given. Another chair (Figure 28.6) has a back support tenoned into the side rails of the seat, and is additionally
which is deeply recessed and has a centre supporting secured with two brackets which are dowelled into both
strut. The supporting uprights are all jointed into a curved elements.
top rail. Patterns on this chair well may indicate inlay
or paintwork simulating animal skin. Open chair back
su orts ere not on ned to animal le hairs e ause 2. Chair with OPen BaCk (Plate 86 and
two straight leg chairs are also illustrated (Figures 28.7 Figure 29)
and 28.8). 18th Dynasty.
British Museum, London. EA 2 7 .
ei ht 730 mm, de th 0 mm, idth 10 mm.
New Kingdom Chairs Baker 1 66 132, . 1 7.
his is a er ne o en a k hair and is similar in

1. Chair (Plate 85) onstru tion to the Middle in dom e am les e ha e
18th Dynasty. Nag el-Deir. Cemetery 3500, Tomb re iousl e amined. he hair is onstru ted rom a li ht
37 6, it ham er . coloured soft wood, both the front legs (A) are square
Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology, University section, the tops being rounded over, while beneath are
of California, Berkeley. 6-2062. the mortise holes which are at right angles to each other,
ei ht 6 0 mm, idth 15 mm, de th 20 mm. into these engage the tenons of the seat rails (B) and (C).
These joints are heavily wedged. The front and back (D)
rom the e a ations undertaken Ma e, under the le s are also held a art stret hers E hi h are ointed
direction of Reisner, during a 16 month period, December into the legs by bareface mortises and tenons.
1901–March 1903 at Nag el-Deir, were discovered the he a k le s o the hair e tend to the to rail o
fragmented parts of a chair. Originally dated as being the back support (G) which is slightly curved and has the
either 2nd or 3rd nast , a rea raisal o the e a ation characteristic moulded edge. The lower surface of rail (G)
data indicates the chair came from an 18th Dynasty is cut with two angles to allow the joints of the vertical
onte t is her 1 6 1 , n. 6 . he hair remained in back legs (D), centre strut (H) and the inclined supports
a fragmented form until 1966, when it was reconstructed of the back to enter this single element. The inclined
or a ma or e hi ition. recessed back support is held in position by two outer
This chair has legs constructed of square sectioned rails (J) which are mortised and tenoned into the front of
ood, the stand on flat ads and the to o ea h le is rail (G) and the side seat rails (B). Between elements (J)
rounded over. Below are the mortise holes through which is placed a curved brace (K), which supports the small of
the seat rails are connected to the legs. Both pairs of the human back. This element is mortised, tenoned and
front and back legs are also held by stretchers (Plate 85). dowelled into the inclined outer supports. A further four
As with the bedframe from Deir el-Medina, (Narodowe slats (L) are placed in the back support to hold the middle
Museum, Warsaw, 139068 MNW, Plate 38), the side rail of the owners back.
tenons pass through the top of each leg at right angles The seat of the chair is made of plaited reed and rush
to each other on two separate levels. These joints would strands which pass through holes drilled in the seat rails
have been wedged to give the frame rigidity. Along the and are then woven across to form a string seat, a common
inside of the seat rails are drilled holes through which arrangement used in the New Kingdom.
the webbing of string passes. The seat has now decayed
leaving only small strands of string trapped in the holes
of the seat frame. 3. OPen BaCk Chair (Plate 87)
From each of the back legs of the chair spring two 18th Dynasty.
vertical supports which are connected to the legs by a type Brookl n Museum, e ork. 37. 0 E.
of vertical bridle joint. Although many chairs do have a ei ht 00 mm, idth 56 mm, de th 73 mm.
separate back support, others have this upright cut from Baker 1 66 12 , s. 173 17 .
one ie e o ood. n this e am le the a k su ort is an
addition, almost as i the ar enter had desi ned rstl a Another ne o en a k hair is no reser ed in the
stool before adding the chair back. Brooklyn Museum. It beautifully illustrates the second
The top rail of the back support is held in position by type of chair, that is, with animal leg supports. The
these u ri ht e tensions. Belo this is the rame o the ualit o this hair is etter than the re ious e am le.
back support which is stub mortised and tenoned together, ere the le s are nel ar ed, re resentin those o a
which encloses three vertical panels stub mortised and lion, and are set on drums; they are mortised, tenoned
5. Chairs 95
Figure 29. Chair. British Museum, London. EA 2479.

Figure 30. Chair. British Museum,

London. EA 2480.
and dowelled into the plain side seat rails. Both side rails hair arts reser ed in the Ashmolean Museum, O ord,
have the front and back seat rails jointed into them; and AN1890.859 (see No. 5 below).
a double elbowed brace is dowelled into the underside of Both the top rail and side rails of the back support are
the front and back seat rail and the inside of the chairs inlaid ith dis s o i or , another ommon eature on ne
legs. The back support of this chair is constructed as chairs from the 18th Dynasty. The seat, now lost, would
the re ious e am le EA 2 7 . A ma or di eren e in have been woven of string, which would have passed
onstru tion is that the a k le s are not e tended, ut through drilled holes in the seat rails.
an additional vertical element is included and jointed
into the seat above the back legs. Both the inclined
and vertical outer members of the back support are 4. lOw Straight BaCk Chair (Plate 88 and
additionally secured by single elbow braces dowelled Figure 30)

into position. 18th Dynasty.
This chair’s back panel is constructed of seven inclined British Museum, London. EA 2 0.
boards; between each are thinner stringing strips of ei ht 620 mm, len th 20 mm, idth 0 mm.
alternatively coloured woods. The outer strips are mitred Baker 1 66 132, . 1 .
in the corners and the panel is framed by horizontal
strips of wood. Decoration of the back supports of chairs Chairs with plain straight backs were also being constructed
commonly followed this stringing pattern during the 18th durin the e in dom, and man e am les are
Dynasty and a more detailed analysis of such construction preserved in collections. They are usually small with low
is more easil understood e aminin the ra mentar seats which make them unlikely to have been used for
5. Chairs 97
sittin u on in a on entional manner. his ne e am le seat passes is also drilled through this joint and would
is onstru ted in a hard ood hi h has een ell nished have acted to strengthen the seat frame when the entire
and is roughly polished. The legs (A) are set on drums seat was woven.
and are well carved and attached to the side rails (B) by This chair’s back panel is attached to the seat by a
mortises and tenons; each joint is secured by two dowels mortise and tenon on each end frame (Plate 91) and a
of a slightly darker wood. Both the front (C) and back bracket which is either steam bent or grown to that shape.
(D) rails of the seat are mortised and tenoned to the inner This bracket is attached to both elements by pairs of small
edges of the side rails (B) and each joint is again secured dowels, some of which are still in place in the bracket
by two darker wood dowels. Double elbow braces are although slightly raised in their holes. Finally the back
employed on the front and back leg assemblies with the panel and seat is connected by a series of large dowels
seat rails (E) and (F); each brace is made of two parts and which pass through the outer edge of the back seat rail
butt jointed underneath the seat rails. These braces are into the lower frame of the back panel (Plate 91).
held in position by dowels which pass completely through This chair’s back panel is constructed of a frame into
the front and back seat rails and only partly into the legs. which are placed vertical panels of wood. The outer frame
The straight back support is constructed of a frame of is mortised and tenoned together. The bottom rail of the
light coloured wood (G) (H) (I) (J) into which are placed frame is jointed horizontally with the vertical side rail
vertical panels (L) and strips (M) of alternating coloured Plate 2 , hile the side rail is ointed ith a erti al
woods. This central panel is edged with horizontal and mortise and tenon to the top rail of the back support (Plate
vertical strips (N) (O) of similar coloured woods and 93). Along the inner surfaces of the top and bottom rails of
are mitred in the corners to produce a decorative frame. the back support frame are cut mortises into which engage
The vertical panels (L) and not the strips (M) are set in the tenons of the vertical panels. The tenons are far too
mortises by long tenons into both the top (G) and bottom long to fully engage into the mortises, for strips of dark
(J) rails of the outer frame. wood possibly (African Blackwood, as these elements
The back support is held to the seat by a pin joint and are in much better condition than the rest of the wood),
a single elbowed bracket (P) which is made of a light are employed as a decorative feature. Through each strip
oloured ood ith dark eneers, ut to t the sha e and are deli atel ut ne slots hi h dire tl o ose the
glued onto both sides. This is then attached by dowels to mortises in the frame. Even with two strips in position
both the side rails of the seat and back support. the shoulder of the tenon fails to sit squarely and tightly
on the u ermost stri o A ri an Bla k ood Plate 2 .
t ould seem as in the British Museum hair, EA 2 0,
5. Chair Fragments, straight BaCk that two further strips of material, possibly ivory or a
(Plates 89–93) li hter oloured ood ould ha e een used to ll the
18th Dynasty. Lahun. Tomb of Maket. laminated space.
Ashmolean Museum, O ord. A 1 0. 5 .
ei ht 600 mm, len th 70 mm, idth 570 mm.
Petrie 1 1 5, l. . Plates 94–95
A chair of similar construction to that in the Ashmolean
This particular chair was discovered by Petrie at Lahun in Museum, O ord, A 1 0. 5 , is no reser ed in the
the Tomb of Maket. When discovered it was without its Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. (Rogers Fund
front legs. It was taken to pieces for transportation and has 1 12. MMA 12.1 2.2 , Plate . t has een dated as
never been reconstructed. However, this must have been a 18th Dynasty and was discovered at Drah abu’l Negga,
arti ularl ne e am le and er similar in onstru tion he es Baker 1 66 132, . 1 3 . he desi n and
to the re ious hair e amined, EA 2 0 . rom this hair onstru tional a roa h is almost identi al to the O ord
we are able to learn more about the basic construction e am le. Another hair also in the Metro olitan Museum
of all 18th Dynasty straight back chairs, particularly in o Art, o ers und 1 36, MMA 36.3.152 and dated
e aminin the method hi h the a k su ort as 18th Dynasty is also from Thebes. It is constructed of
manufactured. The following photographic record is of o ood and a a ia the seat is su orted the ront
value in assessing the chair’s basic construction. This and rear legs of a lion set on drums. The back of this chair
low chair has lion fashioned legs set on drums (Plate has the now characteristic design of opposing coloured
0 . Both ront and rear le s are mortised and tenoned wood panels and strips. Above this in another frame of
into the side seat rails; the mortises are clean and well cut wooden strips are placed the carved symbols “tyet” and
which indicates a very sharp mortise chisel. Each joint is “djed in the entre o hi h is a ure o the od Bes. A
glued, although much decayed, and held by two dowels. ne tyet” knot from a piece of furniture showing clearly
The front and back seat rails are mortised, tenoned and the tenons hi h the ure en a es in the slots o
dowelled by a single dowel to the side seat rail (Plate the frame is now preserved in the Fitzwilliam Museum,
91). One of the holes through which the string for the am rid e E. A. 565.1 3 .
Another chair with a straight back is preserved in the 95–96; Beinlich and Saleh 1989: 32–34; Svarth 1998:
National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh (1956.106), 81 (illus.); James 2000: 296 (colour illustration); Eaton-
Plate 95. This chair’s back panel is very similar to the rauss 200 57 67, s. 7 , ls. .
Metropolitan Museum of Art example (MMA 12.182.28,
above) but the seat is supported by four plain legs with This carved chair, Plate 97, is of similar construction
rounded tops, through which the seat rails pass at right and design to the previous example (JE 62032) being
angles to each other. See British Museum chair EA. 2479 made probably of cedar, but not gessoed. The feline legs
for an analysis of this type of seat and leg construction, are placed on drums which are covered with gold sheet
above, No. 2. and set upon thick bronze pads; the claws are inlaid with
ivory. The legs are mortised and tenoned into the seat
rails and pinned with three gold-capped dowels to each
6. Royal ChaiR (Plate 96) joint. Beneath the seat and supported by the stretchers
Tomb of Tutankhamun. as ori inall la ed the flo er ornament si ni in the
Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62032. Carter No. 349. uni ation o er and Lo er E t, ut this has een
Height 730 mm, depth 390 mm, width 345 mm. torn away by some ancient robber.
Carter 1933: 113–114, pls. XXXIV, LXVIII; Baker The seat is of double cove form, constructed of seven
1 66 3 , s. 7 Beinli h and aleh 1 curved slats each jointed into the side rails of the chair.
171–172; Svarth 1998: 80 (illus.); Eaton-Krauss 2008: From the back rail of the seat of this chair run the three
6 7 , s. 10 12, ls. . supports which hold in position the inclined backrest. The
top rail of this frame is decorated with a gold covered solar
Many fine chairs were discovered in the tomb of winged emblem and on either side are two cartouches
Tutankhamun. One of the less well known is this child’s bearing the praenomen and nomen of the king. Below this
painted chair (Plate 96). Like most chairs, it is supported is a secondary curved rail which is mortised, tenoned and
on lion’s legs fashioned in wood, the drums of which are secured by gold-capped dowels into the vertical side rails
covered in bronze plate beaten around the wooden core, of the back support. It may be seen by the arrangement
and the entire frame is lightly gessoed. Enclosed between of the gold dowel caps that the jointing construction is
the legs, seat rails and stretchers on all four sides of the similar to the Oxford example, our No. 5 above.
seat is a decorative lattice arrangement of intertwined The openwork carving of this chair, like the previous
u er E tian lil and a rus flo ers hi h indi ates example (JE 62032), is made from three carved panels
the uni ation o er and Lo er E t under one ointed into oth to and ottom rails. he main ure on
crown. This theme originates in furniture as early as the the inner panel is the god “Heh” who supports on his right
4th Dynasty, 2613 B.C., where it may be seen on the arm the “ankh” sign and holds in each hand palm stems,
diorite-gneiss seated statue of Khafra, carved on side while he kneels upon a “nub” sign. Both outer panels
panels of the throne on which he is seated (Egyptian of the openwork show the Horus falcon, solar disc and
Museum, Cairo, JE 10062). cobras facing a cartouche which bears either the nomen
The seat of this chair, Plate 96, is formed in a deep or praenomen of the king.
double cove, made of seven curved panels which are Brackets connect the seat and back support of this
mortised and tenoned into the curved side rails under chair, wrought in gold with spiral patterns embossed upon
which the legs are jointed and dowelled. In this chair the them. Six of the centres of these spirals, on each bracket,
back rest is again supported by three vertical members, one are false, as they are heads of the dowels which connect
in the centre, the remaining two projecting above each leg. both elements.
An openwork panel is incorporated into the back
support; it is made of three panels each mortised and
tenoned into the top and bottom rails of the frame. The 8. Royal aRmChaiR (Plate 98 and FiguRe 31)
design shows a hawk with wings partly open, and each 4th Dynasty, Giza.
wing supports a cartouche with the praenomen and nomen Egyptian Museum, Cairo, JE 53263 (original).
of the king. The bird’s claws each hold a “shen” symbol, Reproduction, Plate 98, made by Cabinetmaker: Joseph
below the tail is the “nub” symbol, and beneath its wings Gerte, 1886–1967.
“ankh” and “was” symbols. Armchair of Queen Hetepheres I (reproduction).
Egyptian, Old Kingdom, Dynasty 4, reign of Snefru to
Khufu, 2575-2528 B.C.
7. CaRved Royal ChaiR (Plate 97) Egypt, Giza, Tomb G 7000 X (original).
Tomb of Tutankhamun. Wood, gold, copper, silver, leather, faience, ebony.
Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62029. Carter No 87. ei ht idth de th 7 .5 70.7 66 m 31
Height 960 mm, width 475 mm, depth 510mm. × 27 ¾ × 26 in.)
arter 1 23 20 , ls. L L Baker 1 66 3, s. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
5. Chairs 99
Figure 31. Royal Armchair. (Queen

Hetepheres I, Giza, 4th Dynasty),
Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 53263.
Gift of Mrs Charles Gaston Smith and Group of than the back legs (B) which are 258 mm in height. This
friends). would mean that the back legs would have to be slightly
38.957. raised in order to keep the seat horizontal. The legs are
eisner and mith 1 55 2 32, . 32, ls. 15 16 mortised, tenoned and dowelled into the seat rails (C).
Baker 1 66 3 and 1, . 2 . Both side (C) and cross (D) rails of the seat frame are
re ated, allo in a lain oard E to dro into the seat
The armchair of Queen Hetepheres, as with all the frame on which could have been placed a thick cushion.
furniture from her tomb, had to be laboriously restored, (see section Y–Y).
for the wood had decayed to leave only the gold shells. This armchair’s back panel is a gold covered frame, the
From this it was only possible to reconstruct one of the top rail (F) and the vertical rails (G) are connected by a
two armchairs which were originally deposited in the mitred cross halving joint. The board of the back panel (H)
tomb. The second armchair had so badly decayed that seems to ha e een tted ushin it do n et een the
it ro ed too di ult to re onstru t, as the use o old vertical rails (G) which are rebated with a dovetail before
sheet was limited on this armchair to the arm panels and the top rail was pressed into position (see section Z–Z).
back support. Both arm panels are designed with three papyrus
As with the bedframe the reconstructed armchair had flo ers ound to ether, ar ed in ood and o erlaid ith
legs shaped in the fashion of the front and hind legs of gold sheet (J). These are then tenoned into mortises in the
a lion A and B . Ea h le as set on a drum and the seat rail (C), arm rest (K), arm rest support (L) and the
whole element covered with gold, apart from the base of vertical elements of the back panel (G). The front and
the drum which was shod in copper. The front legs (A) back mortises and tenons of the arm rest (K) are secured
of this chair are 280 mm in height and are slightly taller by leather ties which pass diagonally through the joint
and are covered by the gold sheet, with small pieces of ith i or and atta hed do els o A ri an Bla k ood
gilt over the entrance holes. to the upright frame of the arm rests.
From the 4th Dynasty, armchairs were popularly used hree erti al rails su ort the in lined a k rest,
as royal furniture. No other example exists, but we may one over each of the rear legs the other in the centre
estimate their use from wall paintings and reliefs of that o the seat s a k rail. hese are onne ted to the seat
eriod. A ne th nast , . 2500 B. ., arm hair rom the mortises and tenons, ith small A ri an Bla k ood
tom o Meresankh at i a, 7530 0, in or orates brackets veneered with ivory.
a lion into the arm anels Baker 1 66 3, . 32 . o he to rail and art o the side rails o the a k su ort
nota le relie s rom the 5th nast , . 2 23 5 B. ., are decorated with diamond parquetry work, while the
show Seshemnefer and Rashepses seated upon similar interior onsists o anels o i or and A ri an Bla k ood
arm hairs mith 1 6 2 1, . 1 1 Le sius 1 00 l. surrounded by frames and stringing of both materials.
61 .
10. CeremoniAl ChAir (PlAtes 100, 101)

9. Child’s ArmChAir. (PlAte 99) om o utankhamun.
om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 62030. arter o. 351.
E tian Museum, airo. E 62033. arter o. 3 . ei ht 1020 mm, idth 5 0 mm, de th mm.
ei ht 710 mm, de th 3 1 mm, idth 370 mm. arter 1 33 111 113, l. o 1 51 l. 60
arter 1 23 203, l. L Baker 1 66 , . Baker 1 66 2, s. 1 2 il erman 1 7 60 61
il erman 1 7 30 31 ee es 1 0 1 6 ans her 1 0 6 , illus. 2 , 31, 33, 35, 37, 3 , 1,
ames 2000 2 7 olour illus. Eaton rauss 200 3 Beinli h and aleh 1 172 175 arth 1 7
3 6, s. 17 1 , ls. . illus. ames 2000 2 5 olour illus. Eaton rauss
200 75 1, s. 13 16, ls. .
his er ne solid A ri an Bla k ood arm hair is
very small which may indicate that it was made for he desi n o this hair is er similar to the oldin stools
utankhamun hen a o , and indeed it ears none o his o the 1 th nast . o e er this hair is ri id, ein
ro al titles. he lion ashioned le s are er nel ar ed unable to be closed since the back rest is held rigid by
and are la ed on tall metal shod drums. he la s o the t o lon rails. he lo er art is o ered ith ilt and the
lion’s feet are delicately inlaid with triangles of ivory. Each u er art is o A ri an Bla k ood, in ised and ainted
leg is mortised and tenoned into the curved side seat rails ith the titles and names o the kin Beinli h and aleh
and pinned with either copper or bronze dowels which 1 172 175 . hese lon rails are mortised and tenoned
are a ed ith old. he stret hers hi h in rease the into the floor ross rails. Both the onne tin s indles are
rigidity of the construction are made of circular sectioned ar ed in A ri an Bla k ood, and are nished to re resent
A ri an Bla k ood elements. hese are a ed ith i or the head and ill o a du k. he ill ras s the floor ross
errules hi h t ti htl around the le here the tenon rails ut also dis reetl hides the oint. Both du k heads
o the stret her en a es into the mortise o the le . he are inlaid with large pieces of ivory, and the stretchers
ferrules are used to conceal the joint and are carved to which hold both legs rigid are partly covered with gold
re resent a rus flo ers. Bet een the stret hers and the sheet, as are the centres of both connecting spindles.
seat rails is la ed a sim le latti e o A ri an Bla k ood Beneath the seat is a de oration o flo ers, ilt o er ood,
strips. some of which has been ripped away and stolen.
he seat is o a dou le o e orm, o ularl used Again the seat is very deeply dished, and is constructed
durin the e in dom. t is onstru ted o a rame of boards which are inlaid with ivory to represent the
made from the curved seat rails into the centre of which irregular motley markings of an animal skin. In the centre
are la ed e ur ed slats hi h orm the seat. he are of the seat are inlaid small panels which also imitate
mortised and tenoned into the seat frame and fastened with animal skin markings. From the corners hang wooden
bronze and copper pins capped with gold. elements which are designed to simulate the legs of the
he arm anels o this arm hair are arti ularl ne hide. hese are nel ra ed a out the onne tin
as they are carved on both inner and outer panels and spindles, underneath the seat. Red leather upon a layer
o erlaid ith ilt ressed into osition. Both outer anels o esso, no artl de a ed, as ed to the underside
show an ibex, seated, with its head looking back over its o the seat. he a k anel Plate 101 is eauti ull
shoulder at a desert lant in the orner o the anel the decorated with gold, inlaid faience, coloured glass,
hole anel is en losed a s iral desi n. he inner al ite and arnelian. he to rail is de orated ith the
panels of the arm rests are also enclosed by a border but Aten solar dis and artou hes elo , on oth sides o
the ilt o erla s a desi n o lants and flo ers. he arm hi h are uraeus o ras ith the solar dis . Belo is the
panels are attached to the seat by dowels, and also by vulture goddess Nekhbet holding in her claw the “shen”
small A ri an Bla k ood ra kets hi h are eneered symbol and inlaid ostrich feathers. At the tips of each
5. Chairs 101
Figure 32. Gold throne. Tomb of Tutankhamun, 18th Dynasty, Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62028.
wing are cartouches bearing the praenomen and nomen The legs of the throne are fashioned in the form of
of the king. Both edge rails are exquisitely inlaid with the front and rear legs of a lion, the claws inlaid with
stone set in gold bezels in a circular and chevron pattern. turqouise-coloured glass. Beneath the seat the decorative
The centre panel of the back support is made of vertical gilded Lower Egyptian papyrus and Upper Egyptian lily
panels of ivory and African Blackwood which are inlaid flo er ornament has een torn a a , lea in ust the sma
with the king’s names. si n de i ted as a human tra hea that stood or uni ation.
The reverse side of the back support is gessoed and Both front legs have capitals in the form of lion heads, a
gilded with a large Nekhbet vulture with wings partly prominent design feature found on 18th Dynasty thrones
open. Again she holds the “shen” symbol. This design is a ille 1 0 l. a e der er h 1 57 l. .A
framed within a continuous spiral pattern. single sheet of gold has been beaten and worked around the
wooden core, and the eyes have been inlaid. It would seem
from close examination of this throne that each element was
11. Gold Throne (PlaTe 102 and FiGure 32) individually wrapped in a single gold sheet regardless of
Tomb of Tutankhamun. size and complexity.
Egyptian Museum, Cairo. JE 62028. Carter No. 91. he seat, hi h is onstru ted o a flat oard o ered
Height 1040 mm, depth 645 mm, width 530mm. in gold, is inlaid with two thousand one hundred squares
Carter 1933: 206–208, pls. LXII-LXIV; Fox 1951: pls. of gold, calcite and light and dark blue faience. Both
la Baker 1 66 77 0, s. 0 eton illiams the outer faces of the arm panels are inlaid with faience,
1 0 l.122 Beinli h and aleh 1 35 36 ee es to resemble a winged uraeus-cobra wearing the crown
1990: 184–185 (illus.); James 2000: 288–289 (colour of Upper and Lower Egypt and supporting a cartouche
illus.); Eaton-Krauss 2008: 25–56, figs. 2–6, pls. bearing the names and titles of the king.
III–VIII. Probably the most splendid area is the throne’s back
support, which is beautifully inlaid. It shows the young
This is one of the most beautiful pieces of furniture made pharaoh seated, in a relaxed “Amarna” style, on a simple
for Tutankhamun. In construction it is not unlike many upholstered open back chair made in faience. His wife,
18th Dynasty chairs, except it has no double cove seat Ankhesenamun, is anointing him. Their skins have been
and is completely covered with thick gold sheet; apart chiselled and polished from red glass and their wigs are of
from the drum pads, which are shod in bronze, and part delicately cut light blue faience. The robes that both wear
of the double crown of Egypt, which is of silver sheet are made of silver sheet embellished with calcite, faience
over wood. and coloured glass.
Plate 85. Chair. Nag el-Deir. 18th Dynasty. Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.
6-2062. © Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology and the Regents of the University of California.
Plate 6. hair. 1 th nast . British Museum, London. EA 2 7 . Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 7. hair. 1 th nast . Brookl n Museum, e ork. 37. 0E. Brooklyn Museum, New York.
Plate . hair. 1 th nast . British Museum, London. EA 2 0. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate . hair ra ments. 1 th nast . om o Maket. Ashmolean Museum, O ord. A 1 0. 5 . Photographic credit:
Plate 0. hair ra ments. 1 th nast . om o Maket. Ashmolean Museum, O ord. A 1 0. 5 . Photographic credit:
Plate 93. Chair fragments. 18th
Dynasty. Tomb of Maket. Ashmolean
Museum, O ord. A 1 0. 5 .
March-Killen.
Plate . hair. 1 th nast .

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
ork. MMA 12.1 2.2 . Metropolitan
Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1912.
Plate 5. hair. 1 th nast . ational Museums o otland, Edin ur h. 1 56.106. © National Museums Scotland.
Plate 6. hair. om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 62032, arter o. 3 . Burton Photo ra h 12 3.
Plate 97. Chair. Tomb of Tutankhamun.
E tian Museum, airo. E 6202 ,
arter o. 7. Burton Photo ra h 01 .
Plate 98. Armchair (Reproduction).

Original in the tomb of Queen
Hetepheres I, Giza. Reproduction in the
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 38.957.
© 2017 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Plate . hair. om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 62033, arter o. 3 . Burton Photo ra h 01 3.
Plate 100. eremonial hair. om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 62030, arter o. 351. Burton Photo ra h
p1290. © riffith nstitute ni ersity of ford.
Plate 101. eremonial hair. om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 62030, arter o. 351. Burton Photo ra h
p1291. © riffith nstitute ni ersity of ford.
Plate 102. old throne. om o utankhamun. E tian Museum, airo. E 6202 , arter o. 1. Burton Photo ra h 015 .
Chapter 6
Tables
From the earliest periods the table seems to have played his ta le is not unlike the O ord e am le a o e
a si ni ant role in E tian reli ious ra ti e. e ha e in desi n, ut it is o mu h etter ualit . he underside
no e iden e to su est that an ient E tians sat at ta les has our se arate le s hi h ha e een ar ed rom the
to eat their use as to resent o erin s o ood to the solid lo k Plate 106 . One end o this ta le has een
ods. A 2nd nast stele at el an, or e am le, sho ur osel ur ed or some reason.
the o u ant seated o osite an o erin ta le hi h sed to su ort ases, or to kee ood a o e the dust
has ood la ed u on it aad 1 57 . A ne e am le o floor, the small lo ta le must ha e een ommon. mall
an ala aster o erin ta le is reser ed in the ational stone ta les ere also o ular, and t o ere dis o ered
Museet, o enha en, 7 6, and is dated as either 1st or at arkhan, one in ra e 1 2 and the other in ra e 136.
2nd nast diameter 3 5 mm, hei ht 0 mm . Both in desi n are similar to the ooden ta les.
he earliest ood ta les date a k to the 1st nast . he small ta le o iousl remained a o ular ie e
One nota le e am le is no in the tis hes Museen, o urniture throu hout the nasti eriod. A ra ment
Berlin, M 10772. he t o ta les des ri ed elo ere o a similar small ta le rom erma has een dated to
dis o ered Petrie at arkhan durin the 1 11 1 12 the E tian e ond ntermediate Period eisner 1 23
season o e a ation. 22 , l. 21 . A later e am le is illustrated in the tom
o ekhmira 100 , 1 th nast , he es a ies
1 3 l. L .
1. Low TabLe (PLaTes 103, 104) B the 5th nast the manu a ture o ointed urniture
1st nast . arkhan, ra e 527. made rom a uratel sa n oards e ame ossi le
Ashmolean Museum, O ord. A 1 12.603. ith the introdu tion o the ullsa . n the tis hes
ei ht 56 mm, len th 50 mm, idth 2 0 mm. Museen, Berlin, is a small 5th nast ta le, M 16 36.
t is er nel made, ein a sim le rame desi n that is
his ta le is ut rom a sin le oard o ood, hi h mortised and tenoned to ether that ro ides a lo ta le
has no adl ra ked and is e innin to de a . he hei ht o 177 mm.
underside o this arti ular e am le is interestin or the he 6th nast ainted relie s on the alls o the thirt
eet are ut as t o rid es rom the solid lo k, one at t o room masta a tom o Mereruka, at a ara, . 2350
ea h end Plate 10 . his ta le as dis o ered in ra e B. ., sho an enormous olle tion o hi hl de elo ed
527 ith nine ars hi h ontained ash. urniture, hi h in ludes ta les and lar e arr in hests
Mereruka as i ier to eti see uell 1 3 passim .
he ta les illustrated in this tom sho us se eral
2. Low TabLe (PLaTes 105, 106 and Figure 33) im ortant ne st les and de elo ments hi h had
1st nast . arkhan, ra e 136. o urred the 6th nast . Most noti ea le is that lar e
Man hester ni ersit Museum, Man hester. 5 56. lain re tan ular ta les ere ein manu a tured, and
ei ht 60 mm, len th 0 mm, idth 27 mm. some o the illustrations sho ra tsmen orkin u on
Petrie 1 13 25, ls. 23 7. them, usin them as ork en hes. his is the rst e am le
here e an see ta les ein used or a se ular ur ose.
Figure 33. Table. Manchester University Museum, 1st Dynasty, 5456.
Figure 34. Table (Tomb of Perpaut). British Museum, London. EA 2469.

6. Tables 11
t is likel that su h ta les ere e innin to e 5. TabLe (PLaTe 109).

rodu ed durin the 3rd nast . n the tom o es ra, 1 th nast .
. 2660 B. . is a s ene o hat ould e inter reted as the he Brookl n Museum, e ork. 37. 1 E.
end ele ation o a lain ta le. t sho s learl the le s, to ei ht 320 mm, len th 521 mm, idth 255 mm.
rail, and stret her o a ta le, or ossi l a ed hate er Baker 1 66 152, . 236.
the ase, it ro es that the te hnolo as a aila le durin
the 3rd nast to manu a ture su h urniture. his se ond ta le hi h is sli htl later is o a solid
onstru tion and is in er ood ondition. he ta le
rails and stret hers are mortised, tenoned and se ured
The 18th Dynasty do els to the sli htl s la ed le s. he thi k ta le to ,
ith its a etto orni e mouldin , is onne ted to the
rame a torus eadin hi h is a uratel mitred at
3. TabLe (PLaTe 107) the orners o the ta le and held in osition do els
om o ha. la ed at re ular inter als.
E tian Museum, urin. 25 .
ei ht 76 mm, len th 7 mm, idth 3 1 mm.
hia arelli 1 27 11 , . 100, ri ht Baker 1 66 6. TabLe (PLaTe 110)
152, . 233, ri ht. om o ha.
E tian Museum, urin. 32.
rom the tom o the ar hite t ha, . 1375 B. . ere Len th 7 7 mm, idth 53 mm, hei ht 2 mm.
dis o ered t o almost identi al ta les, similar to those hia arelli 1 27 11 120, . 103 Baker 1 66 11 ,
illustrated in the masta a o Mereruka, see a o e . he . 165.
one illustrated Plate 107 is onstru ted rom lain sa n
tim er o re tan ular se tion. he stret hers are mortised his ta le is o unusual desi n and onstru tion, ut
and tenoned then se ured do els to the le s. he ta le s undou tedl st led rom the ta les ith the a etto
ork sur a e is onstru ted o oards and as ori inall orni e mouldin re iousl des ri ed. One ill noti e
li htl essoed, at ea h end is an ins ri tion ritten in la k that althou h the rame o this ta le is made rom oles
aint set et een airs o la k arallel lines. Both ta les the mortised element o the oint is ossed to allo the
dis o ered in the tom ere laid ith o erin s o ood. shoulders o the tenon to sit s uarel u on them. he
n the tom masta a o Mereruka are illustrations o orkmanshi o this arti ular ta le is ood, and the
ta les o a more ele ant desi n, ha in a a etto orni e material has een ell nished.
mouldin a lied to the ed es o the ta le to . o er
ne e am les o this t e are des ri ed elo .
7. Three Legged TabLe (PLaTes 111–113 and
Figure 34)
4. TabLe (PLaTe 108) 1 th nast .
17th or 1 th nast . El Asasi . British Museum, London. EA 2 6 .
Metro olitan Museum o Art, e ork. MMA Len th 6 6 mm, idth 60 mm, hei ht 5 0 mm.
1 .10.5. Baker 1 66 153, . 237.
ei ht 50 mm, len th 635 mm, idth 311 mm.
i t o the Earl o arnar on, 1 1 . he three le ed ta le as not idel used in an ient
Baker 1 66 152, . 235. E t until ellenisti times althou h a e e am les
are illustrated in the ri ate 1 th nast om s at
he ta le ith the a etto orni e and torus mouldin he es a ies 1 30 ls. L L a ies 1 3 l. L
hi h ed e the to seem to ha e een o ular durin a e der er h 1 57 l. . un tionall it has the
the 17th and 1 th nasties ein used or reli ious ad anta e o er on entional our le ed ta les ein
o erin s. his arti ular e am le is er ne. he ta le a le to rest rml on an t e o floor. he ta le to o
to is eneered, as is most o the su ortin rame the this e am le is onstru ted rom three sa n oards, ea h
eneer is er thi k and o ers the eneral onstru tion. held in osition t o ross mem ers, one at ea h end,
At the le t orner oint elo the mouldin a lar e hi h are se ured to ether do els or ositions o
ro ortion o the eneer has roken a a , re ealin the do els see i ure 3 . he le s, hi h are ur ed, are
hea onstru tion o the rame ith t o stout do els. ut rom ood the ad e s sli in marks ma e learl
Bet een the mouldin rail and the le s is an an le el o seen. A mortise is ut in the ta le to and ross mem er
ra ket, hi h is en ased stri s o li hter oloured elo or the re tan ular tenon o the le to ass throu h.
ood, ossi l arti iall ent, and do elled to the At one end is a sin le le hile at the other end are t o
underside o the mouldin rail and inside o the le s. le s situated lose to the orners. Ea h oint is hea il
ed ed rom the to to make the union solid Plate 112 . t is there ore not sur risin that e see durin the
he ta le as om letel essoed and ainted, mu h o 17th and 1 th nasties the a earan e o reed and rush
hi h has flaked rom the ooden sur a e. t as ainted urniture. here is a nota le toilet hest hi h is housed
as a i ture Plate 113 en losed in a rame o three in the tis hes Museen, Berlin, M 1177, hi h
ands o olour. n a red asket is la ed a o ra, hi h dates to e ond ntermediate Period . 1700 B. . t as
is deli ht ull ainted in ello old, re resentin the dis o ered at estern he es ein art o the unerar
oddess enenutet. n ront o her is an o erin ta le on oods la ed ith the urial o ueen Mentuhote , i e
hi h is la ed ood or the sa e o a e o the de eased, o haraoh ehuti.
ho is seen to e Per aut, rom a lon erti al ins ri tion. eed and rush hen dried are e ellent materials to
onstru t sim le ta les Plate 11 . ere it ma e seen
that the le s are made rom our er stout stems o
8. reed and rush TabLe (PLaTe 114) reed, ra ed ith a latti e on the sides, and eneath the
om o ha. ta le ith sli htl thinner mem ers hi h are rml tied
E tian Museum, urin. 3 3. to ether ith lon fle i le strands o rush. his stru ture
Len th 7 7 mm, idth 53 mm, hei ht 2 mm. as a le to take su stantial ei ht, or hen it as
hia arelli 1 27 11 , . 101, to Baker 1 66 117, dis o ered it as a ain laid ith an o erin o read.
. 162 . he ta le to is made la in stri s o rush side
side and onne tin them to the end rame o the ta le
n ri ate and u li olle tions around the orld there are three stri s o rush, one in the entre and one at ea h
er e e am les o an ient E tian ta les. im er as end. hese stri s ere ound around the rush to and
so e ensi e that er e lar e ta les ere manu a tured, se ured elo around the side reed stem o the rame,
a art rom unerar urniture, or hi h rankin E tians. e ore ein astened a out the ne t len th o sti rush.
ur risin l , no lar e ta les ere dis o ered in either
utankhamun s tom or that o uia and huiu.
Plate 103. a le. arkhan. 1st nast . Ashmolean Museum, O ord. A 1 12.603. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 10 . a le. arkhan. 1st nast . Ashmolean Museum, O ord. A 1 12.603. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 105. a le. arkhan. 1st nast . Man hester ni ersit Museum, Man hester. 5 56. Photographic credit:
Plate 106. a le. arkhan. 1st nast . Man hester ni ersit Museum, Man hester. 5 56. Photographic credit:
Plate 107. a le. om o ha. e in dom. E tian Museum, urin. 25 . Egyptian Museum, Turin.
Plate 10 . a le. 17th or 1 th nast . Metro olitan Museum o Art, e ork. MMA 1 .10.5. © Metropolitan Museum of
Art, Gift of the Earl of Carnarvon, 1914.
Plate 10 . a le. 1 th nast . Brookl n Museum, e ork. 37. 1E. Brooklyn Museum, New York.
Plate 110. a le. om o ha. e in dom. E tian Museum, urin. 32. Egyptian Museum, Turin.
Plate 111. hree le ed ta le. British Museum, London. EA 2 6 . Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 11 . eed and rush ta le. om o ha. e in dom. E tian Museum, urin. 3 3. Egyptian Museum, Turin.
Chapter 7
Vase Stands
Old Kingdom 18th Dynasty

From the tomb of Mereruka, which dates to the 6th
Dynasty, we may see two methods by which vessels
were displayed or stored during the Old Kingdom. The 2. Vase stand (plates 116, 117 and Figure 37)
rst i ure 35 sho s a lo lain re tan ular ta le, 1 th nast .
the simple elements of which are mortised and tenoned British Museum, London. EA 2 70.
together. The top would have been made from a single ei ht 6 0 mm, len th 65 mm, idth 70 mm.
oard. A er ne e am le o su h a ase stand is no Baker 1 66 153, . 2 0.
in the tis hes Museen, Berlin. M 16 36 . Another
e am le rom the Old in dom sho s the dis la o ith the in rease o im orted tim er into E t the
lar e flat ottomed essels. he onstru tion o this stand Middle Kingdom, the tall elevated vase stand, which uses
i ure 36 , is similar to the re ious ta le, ut ith the very little wood, became a popular piece of furniture and
top removed and battens placed across the stretchers to is widely illustrated on stelae and in private tomb scenes
support the vases. Such stands are also commonly found in o the Middle and e in doms. A ne e am le is
the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom reliefs at Thebes. de i ted in the tom o harue , 1 2 at he es,
A ood set is illustrated in the tom o ekhmira, where a procession of Princesses who are making an
100 at he es, hi h has t o small ooden stands ith offering walk past eight vase stands, each supporting a
splayed legs, similar to the taller type of vase stand; in ase Baker 1 66 153, . 2 3 . u h stands, ith sli htl
ea h stand is radled a sin le lar e round essel a ies s la ed le s, are no reser ed in the E tian Museum,
1 3 l. . ith the manu a ture o round airo E 35207A, E35207B and E35207 . o e er,
bottomed vases it became necessary to support them. this e am le, in the British Museum is o e e tional
This was most commonly achieved by stone, alabaster desi n and ualit i ure 37 .
or pottery vase stands, although wooden supports were As ith older e am les, the rime desi n element
used from an early stage. is the method by which the round bottomed vase is
held in osition on the ase stand. n this e am le it is
achieved by an open tapered collar which is attached
1. Vase support (plate 115) to a board of wood which is part of the vase support.
Old Kingdom. Atta hed to ea h side o this are t o smaller and thinner
Mus e des Beau Arts de Limo es. E. 5 . elements which together with the centre plank and collar
Height 114 mm. makes a square vase table surface. These three elements
are connected to the side rails of the vase stand by
This early wooden vase support is designed to support a horizontally penetrating dowels. These are covered by
round ottomed essel in a nel ar ed ooden dish, a thick layer of gesso.
which is suspended by three well worked legs. The cutting The general construction of this vase stand is very
marks on them from adze and chisel are clearly shown. simple; the four splayed legs are held apart by rails and
Figure 35. Vase stand. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Mereruka, Figure 36. Vase stand. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Mereruka,
Saqqara, 6th Dynasty). Saqqara, 6th Dynasty).
Figure 37. Vase stand. British Museum, London. EA 2470.

7. Vase Stands 12
Figure 38. Vase stand. British Museum, London. EA 2471.
stret hers, and these are mortised and tenoned ith a in ei ht 3 2 mm, idth at ase 252 mm.
do el Plate 117 . he latti e mem ers o the ase stand Baker 1 66 153, . 2 1.
offer little bracing to the structure, for they are simply
wedged and butt jointed into position; there are still small This vase stand is designed to hold a small vase by
traces of a dark brown matter, which possibly could be su ortin it et een the oints o si ur ed u ri hts.
glue, on some areas of the stretchers. hese u ri hts are nel sa n, and ea h element is made
The complete vase stand is gessoed, especially the from at least two pieces carefully butt jointed together.
collar and vase support on which the gesso has been These joints occur in different places on most of the legs,
applied heavily, and is not decorated in any way. On the and are heavily gessoed to disguise this joint. The most
main structure a yellow base colour has been applied over interesting feature in the construction of this particular
the gesso, onto which have been painted small dark green, vase stand is the method by which the three connecting
light green and red rectangles of decoration. stret hers are ointed to ether. Ea h stret her is mortised
and tenoned with a securing dowel into the curved upright.
The three members all cross each other at one place in
3. small Vase stand (plate 118 and Figure 38) a very complicated joint, which can be considered as a
1 th nast . triple cross halving where the angle between opposing
British Museum, London. EA 2 71. mem ers is 60 . As ith ta les it is likel that ase stands
ere onstru ted rom reed and rush. n the tom o display precious or valuable objects. This is very much
Mer re at Amarna, . 1360 B. ., are de i ted a num er like the stand which is inlaid on the back support of the
fragile stands with vessels upon them which are being old hrone o utankhamun Plate 102 . his sho s a
arried ser ants. rom the tom o ha, . 1375 B. ., green stand, which possibly resembles a reed and rush
as also dis o ered a reed and rush stand. Althou h in construction, on which is arranged a collar of marvellous
general it appears to be a vase stand, it had no facility for colour. Unfortunately the Kha stand was lost during the
holdin a round ottomed ase. t ma ha e een used to 1 3 1 5 ar.
Plate 115. ase su ort. Old in dom. Mus e des Beau Arts de Limo es. E 5 . © Musée des Beaux-Arts de Limoges.
Plate 116. ase stand. 1 th nast . British Museum, London. EA 2 70. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 117. ase stand. 1 th nast . British Museum, London. EA 2 70. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Plate 11 . ase stand. 1 th nast . British Museum, London. EA 2 71. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.
Catalogue of Museum Collections
AUSTRIA: KUNSTHISTORISCHES MUSEUM, VIENNA

Inventory Description Material Date Size in mm Plate Figure
number
910 Armchair Light soft wood N.K. h. 277; w. 135
fragment
918 Armchair Light soft wood N.K. h.272; w. 110
fragment
6048 Footstool Light hard N.K. l. 290; w. 78 V.II. 69
fragment wood
6128 Bed Dark hard wood N.K. l. 1,190; w. 560; V.I. 35
h. 180
8565 Lion’s head Light soft wood N.K. h. 310; w. 220;
from a bed d. 170
6047 Bed leg in lion Light hard N.K. h. 365; w. 117
form wood
BELGIUM: ROYAL MUSEUMS, CINQUANTENAIRE MUSEUM, BRUSSELS

number
8137 Box omore l. 606; w. 310;
h. 370
1838 Box omore l. 660; w. 450;
h. 570
4178 Leg Ivory 2nd Dynasty l. 150; w. 35
4179 Leg Ivory l. 165; w. 37
2411 Lattice stool Wood 18th Dynasty l. 440; w. 405; V.III. 36
seat d. 102
2416 Round leg Wood 18th Dynasty l. 287; dia. 37
2409 Legs of stool Wood 18th Dynasty l. 350; w. 445;
h. 350
2415 Round leg Wood N.K. l. 180; dia. 50
7667 Small box Wood and ivory 18th Dynasty l. 60; w. 52;
h. 56
156 Leg Wood and ivory 1st Dynasty h. 68; w. 38;
d. 20
2405 Stool frame Wood 18th Dynasty
4503 Bed from Wood 1st Dynasty l. 1,920, w. 860;
Tarkhan h. 350
4504 Bed from Wood 1st Dynasty l. 1,171; w. 640;
Tarkhan h. 360
CANADA: ROYAL ONTARIO MUSEUM, TORONTO

number
910.37.1 Wooden leg Wood O.K. h. 295
from a chair or
stool
910.37.2 Wooden leg Wood h. 337
from a chair or
stool

number
from a chair or
stool
910.37.4 Wooden leg Wood O.K. h. 266
from a chair or
stool
from a chair or
stool
910.37.6 Wooden leg Wood N.K. h. 292
from a chair or
stool
from a chair or
stool
from a chair or
stool
910.37.9 A Painted piece of Wood R.P. A: h. 324
and B furniture B: h. 330
910.37.10 Section Leather E.D.P. w. 57; l. 133
of woven
leatherwork
910.37.11 Painted wooden Wood h. 70; w. 635;
lion’s head d. 855
910.37.14 Wooden stool Wood E.D.P. w. 482; l. 826; V.I. 47
h. 260
910.37.15 Base of a Wood N.K. h. 285; w. 610;
painted chair d. 432
910.37.16 Four legged Wood N.K. h. 171; w. 375;
stool d. 368
914.2.1 Folding stool Wood 18th or 19th l. 610 V.I. 61
Dynasty
910.37.17 Folding stool Wood M.K. h. 470; w. 482; V.I. 56
l. 508
DENMARK: ANTIKSAMLINGEN, NATIONAL MUSEET, COPENHAGEN

number
7496 Alabaster table Alabaster 1st or 2nd dia. 345; h. 90
Dynasty
12133 Leg in the shape Wood N.K. h. 198
of a lion’s leg
EGYPT: EGYPTIAN MUSEUM, CAIRO

number
JE 2029 Lattice stool Wood N.K. h. 350
JE 2030 Three legged Wood N.K. h. 320; l. 360
stool
JE 3318 Shrine shaped Wood N.K. h. 70; l. 85
box
JE 3332 Four legged Wood and reed N.K. h. 140
stool
JE 14034 Three legged Wood N.K. h. 200
stool
JE 26608 Stool Wood h. 185; l. 300;
w. 390
JE 26609 Low dished Wood h. 85; l. 360;
table w. 390
JE 26610 Low table Wood h. 115; l. 460;
w. 378
JE 26677 Low dished Wood h. 100; l. 380;
table w. 280
JE 27215 Box Wood h. 140; l. 240;
w. 250
JE 27255 A Round legged Wood 19th Dynasty h. 248; d. 370; V.III. 18
stool, Sennedjem w. 356
JE 27255 B Round legged Wood 19th Dynasty h. 320; d. 360;
stool, Sennedjem w. 365
JE 27256 Chair, Painted wood 19th Dynasty h. 870; d. 470;
Sennedjem w. 390
JE 27257 Table, Wood 19th Dynasty l. 590; h. 330; V.III. 26
Sennedjem d. 490
JE 27288 Folding stool, Wood 19th Dynasty h. 300; l. 670;
Sennedjem w. 300
JE 27289 Low stool with Wood 19th Dynasty h. 125; l. 300;
animal legs, w. 340
Sennedjem
JE 27290 Lattice stool, Wood 19th Dynasty h. 320; w. 390
Mosi
JE 27291 Lattice stool, Wood 19th Dynasty h. 340; l. 480; V.III. 20
Sennedjem w. 300
JE 27271 Box, Iyneferti Wood 19th Dynasty l. 280; w. 207;
h. 130
JE 29266 Chair Painted wood N.K. h. 800
JE 29270 Low stool with Wood h. 120; l. 340
plain legs
JE 29275 Folding stool Wood N.K. h. 380
JE 30008 Three legged Wood N.K. l. 750; w. 480
stool
JE 30009 Round legged Wood N.K.
stool
JE 30010 Three legged Wood N.K. h. 210; l. 360;
stool w. 400

number
JE 32849 Box Wood l. 225
JE 35207A Vase stand Wood N.K.
JE 35207B Vase stand Wood N.K.
JE 35207C Vase stand Wood N.K.
JE 41307 Three legged Wood h. 200
stool
JE 43164 Chair Wood N.K. h. 680
JE 28989 Stool Reed and rush N.K. h. 450; l. 440
JE 62057 Offering table, Wood N.K. l. 362; w. 253; V.III. 27
Tutankhamun h. 244
JE 43165 Stool with Wood h. 160; l. 380;
animal legs w. 340
JE 46578 Table Wood h. 150; l. 310;
w. 170
JE 47590 Table Wood 1st Dynasty h. 36; l. 236
Tarkhan
JE 47607 Leg of bed Wood, turned R.P. h. 830; dia. 180
JE 72030 Curtain Wood, gold foil 4th Dynasty l. 1,575; w. 215; V.II. 3 V.II. 8
box, Queen and faience h. 185
Hetepheres I
JE 53261 Bed, Queen Wood and gold 4th Dynasty h. 436; l. 1,770; V.I. 36 V.I. 11–12
Hetepheres I foil w. 975
JE 53263 Arm chair, Wood and gold 4th Dynasty h. 795; w. 707; V.I. 98 V.I. 31
Queen foil d. 660
Hetepheres I
JE 53265 Bracelet Wood and gold 4th Dynasty l. 419; h. 218; V.II. 4
box, Queen foil w. 337
Hetepheres I
JE 57711 Bed canopy, Wood and gold 4th Dynasty h. 2,215; V.I. 44 V.I. 18
Queen foil l. 3,137;
Hetepheres I w. 2,588
JE 53723 Small round Wood N.K.
legged stool
JE 55816 Furniture leg Wood l. 140
JE 55817 Couch leg Wood R.P. l. 570
JE 55818 Couch leg Wood, turned R.P. l. 790
JE 55819 Table leg Wood, turned Late 2nd l. 509
century A.D.
JE 55820 Thin leg Wood, turned Late 3rd century l. 740
A.D.
JE 56353 Latrine seat Wood, painted
white
JE 57332 Bo ith ne Ivory 18th Dynasty h. 75; l. 193
inlay
JE 61444 Box, Wood, painted 18th Dynasty l. 2,700; w. 520
Carter No. 261 Tutankhamun gilt
JE 61445 Box, Wood with 18th Dynasty h. 635; w. 605; V.II. 43 V.II. 60
Carter No. 32 Tutankhamun ebony and ivory l. 830 V.II. 61
inlay

number
JE 61446 Box, Wood and gilt 18th Dynasty h. 700; w. 435; V.II. 67
Carter No. 403 Tutankhamun d. 400
JE 61447 Box, Wood 18th Dynasty w. 435; d. 400;
Carter No. 388 Tutankhamun h. 680
JE 61448 Box, Wood and ivory 18th Dynasty h. 450; w. 270; V.II. 52 V.II. 66
JE 61449 Box, Ivory and gold 18th Dynasty h. 132; l. 156; V.II. 54 V.II. 68
Carter No. Tutankhamun w. 122
54ddd
JE 61450 Box, Wood 18th Dynasty l. 650; w. 575;
JE 61452 Box, Wood with 18th Dynasty h. 390; l. 555; V.II. 73
Carter No. 54 Tutankhamun panels painted w. 390
red
JE 61453 Box, Wood, lid 18th Dynasty l. 705; w. 500;
Carter No. 330 Tutankhamun painted white h. 460
JE 61454 Box, Wood, painted 18th Dynasty h. 490; l. 1,360; V.II. 45 V.II. 71
Carter No. 50 Tutankhamun white, with w. 360
ebony
JE 61455 Box, Wood, painted 18th Dynasty h. 242; d. 240; V.II. 56 V.II. 70
Carter No. 68 Tutankhamun white w. 300
JE 61494 Box, Wood 18th Dynasty l. 522; w. 270; V.II. 50 V.II. 64
JE 61456 Box, Wood 18th Dynasty h. 275; l. 652; V.II. 72
Carter No. 585 Tutankhamun w. 334
JE 61457 Wig box, Wood and 18th Dynasty h. 500; d. 400; V.II. 63
Carter Nos Tutankhamun faience w. 400
Lid 615
Box 547
JE 61458 Box, Wood with 18th Dynasty h. 424; l. 487; V.II. 55 V.II. 69
Carter No. 271 Tutankhamun ivory inlay w. 450
JE 61461 Box, Wood, ivory 18th Dynasty h. 220; l. 262; V.II. 53
Carter No. 268 Tutankhamun and ebony w. 228
JE 61462 Box, Redwood, ivory 18th Dynasty h. 288; l. 454; V.II. 51
Carter No. 267 Tutankhamun and ebony w. 298
JE 61463 Box, Wood, ivory 18th Dynasty l. 209
Carter Nos: Tutankhamun and ebony
Lid: 270b
Box 269a
JE 61464 Box, Wood, ivory 18th Dynasty l. 125; w. 80;
Carter No. 453 Tutankhamun and ebony d. 55
JE 61465 Box, Wood, ivory 18th Dynasty l. 110, w. 83; V.II. 78
Carter No. 14a Tutankhamun and ebony h. 68
JE 61466 Box, Alabaster 18th Dynasty h. 240; w. 170; V.II. 48–49 V.II. 63
Carter No. 40 Tutankhamun l. 330
JE 61467 Box, Painted wood 18th Dynasty h. 440; l. 610; V.II 44–45

number
JE 61468 Box, Wood, ebony 18th Dynasty l. 900; w. 630; V.II. 46 V.II. 62
Carter No. 101 Tutankhamun and paint h. 770
JE 61471 Box, Wood, painted 18th Dynasty l. 514; w. 256; V.II. 65
Carter No. 270 Tutankhamun white h. 456
JE 61472 Box, Wood 18th Dynasty l. 680; h. 510;
JE 61474 Box, Wood, painted 18th Dynasty h. 500; l. 605; V.II. 60
Carter No. 316 Tutankhamun yellow w. 423
JE 61475 Box, Wood, painted 18th Dynasty l. 610; w. 425;
Carter No. 317 Tutankhamun yellow h. 500
JE 61476 Box, Wood 18th Dynasty h. 326; l. 488; V.II. 59 V.II. 75
JE 61477 Box, Wood and ivory 18th Dynasty l. 720; w. 455; V.II. 57–58 V.II. 74
Carter Nos Tutankhamun h. 555
Box 551
Lid 540
JE 61478 Box, Wood, ivory 18th Dynasty l. 290; w. 260;
Carter Nos Tutankhamun and ebony h. 165
Box 594
Lid 575
JE 61479 Box, Wood, ivory 18th Dynasty h. 165; l. 283;
Carter Nos Tutankhamun and ebony w. 252
Box 493
Lid 494
JE 61480 Box, Wood, ivory 18th Dynasty l. 330; w. 295; V.II. 76
Carter No. 43 Tutankhamun and ebony h. 170
JE 61496 Perfume box, Wood, silver 18th Dynasty h. 160; d. 43; V.II. 64
Carter No. Tutankhamun and glass w. 88
241bis
JE 61497 Box cover, Gold and glass 18th Dynasty
Carter No. 267c Tutankhamun
JE 61498 Box cover, Wood and glass 18th Dynasty l. 100; w. 70
Carter No. 54hh Tutankhamun
JE 61500a.b Box cover, Wood 18th Dynasty l. 580; w. 35
Carter No. 1k Tutankhamun
JE 61502 Bowcase, Wood 18th Dynasty
Carter No. 335 Tutankhamun
JE 62014 Bed, Wood and gold 18th Dynasty h. 690; l. 1,750; V.I. 41
Carter No. 466 Tutankhamun sheet w. 835
JE 62015 Bed, Wood and gold 18th Dynasty h. 711; l. 1,805;
Carter No. 377 Tutankhamun sheet w. 795
JE 62016 Bed, African ebony 18th Dynasty h. 749; l. 1,840; V.I. 40
JE 62017 Bed, Wood, painted 18th Dynasty h. 631; l. 1,815; V.I. 39
Carter No. 80 Tutankhamun white w. 680

number
JE 62018 Bed (folding), Wood and 18th Dynasty h. 495; l. 1,790; V.I. 42–43 V.I. 15–17
Carter No. 586 Tutankhamun bronze w. 680
JE 62019 Bed support, Wood 18th Dynasty l. 1,112
JE 62028 Throne, Wood, gold 18th Dynasty h. 1,040; V.I. 102 V.I. 32
Carter No. 91 Tutankhamun sheet, glass and w. 530; d. 645
stone
JE 62029 Chair, Cedar 18th Dynasty h. 960; w. 475; V.I. 97
JE 62030 Chair, Wood and ivory 18th Dynasty h. 1,020; V.I. 100–101
Carter No. 351 Tutankhamun w. 580; d. 448
JE 62031 Chair, Ebony and 18th Dynasty h. 1,010;
Carter No. 82 Tutankhamun papyrus w. 500; d. 560
JE 62032 Chair, Painted wood 18th Dynasty h. 730; d. 390; V.I. 96
JE 62033 Chair (child’s), Wood, ivory 18th Dynasty h. 710; w. 370; V.I. 99
Carter No. 39 Tutankhamun and ebony d. 391
JE 62034 Chair fragment, Linen and 18th Dynasty
Carter No. 457 Tutankhamun papyrus
JE 62035 Imitation Ebony and 18th Dynasty h. 342; l. 470; V.I. 64
Carter No. 83 folding stool, ivory w. 317
Tutankhamun
JE 62036 Folding stool, Wood, ivory, 18th Dynasty
Carter No. 140 Tutankhamun ebony, gold and
leather
JE 62037 Folding stool, Wood, ivory, 18th Dynasty
Carter No. 139 Tutankhamun ebony, gold and
leather
JE 62038 Stool, Wood, painted 18th Dynasty h. 450; w. 450; V.I. 78
Carter No. 467 Tutankhamun white with gold d. 431
JE62039 Stool, Wood and ivory 18th Dynasty h. 345; d. 350;
JE 62040 Lattice stool, Wood, painted 18th Dynasty h. 230; w. 333
Carter No. 84 Tutankhamun white
JE 62041 Lattice stool, Wood, ebony 18th Dynasty h. 305; w. 275; V.I. 77
Carter No. 81 Tutankhamun and ivory d. 320
JE 62042 Stool, Wood 18th Dynasty h. 415
JE 62043 Three Wood, painted 18th Dynasty h. 290; w. 431 V.I. 71
Carter No. 412 legged stool, white
Tutankhamun
JE 62044 Footstool/box, Wood and gold 18th Dynasty h. 205; l. 342 V.II. 10
Carter No. 511 Tutankhamun foil
JE 62045 Footstool, Wood, ivory 18th Dynasty h. 77; l. 587; V.II. 71
Carter No. 378 Tutankhamun and ebony inlay w. 320
JE 62047 Footstool, Wood, gesso 18th Dynasty l. 523; w. 290; V.II. 70
Carter No. 30 Tutankhamun and glass inlay h. 106
JE 64048 Footstool, Wood 18th Dynasty l. 510; w. 282; V.II. 85

number
JE 62049 Footstool, Wood, gesso 18th Dynasty l. 337; w. 181;
Carter No. 442b Tutankhamun and faience h. 44
JE 62050 Footstool, Wood 18th Dynasty l. 345; w. 200;
JE 62051 Footstool, Wood and ivory 18th Dynasty l. 353; w. 190;
Carter No. 67a Tutankhamun h. 67
JE 62046 Footstool, Wood 18th Dynasty l. 635; w. 370;
JE 62052 Footstool, Wood, ebony 18th Dynasty l. 369; w. 216; V.II. 72 V.II. 86
Carter No. 92 Tutankhamun and ivory h. 57
JE 62053 Footstool, Wood, ebony 18th Dynasty l. 357; w. 205;
Carter No. 442e Tutankhamun and ivory h. 33
JE 62054 Footstool, Wood 18th Dynasty l. 305
JE 62055 Footstool, Wood 18th Dynasty h. 430; w. 250;
JE 69066 Bed, Yuia and Painted wood 18th Dynasty h. 580; l. 1,714;
GC 51108 Thuiu w. 690
JE 69067 Bed, Yuia and Wood and 18th Dynasty h. 610; l. 1.760;
GC 51109 Thuiu silver w. 700
JE 69068 Bed, Yuia and Wood and gilt 18th Dynasty h. 780; l. 1,780;
GC 51110 Thuiu w. 780
JE 69069 Chair, Yuia and Wood 18th Dynasty h. 595; l. 370;
GC 51111 Thuiu w. 400
JE 69071 Chair, Yuia and Wood 18th Dynasty h. 615; w. 380;
GC 51112 Thuiu d. 410
JE 69072 Chair, Yuia and Wood 18th Dynasty h. 770; w. 520;
GC 51113 Thuiu d. 540
JE 69073 Box, Yuia and Wood 18th Dynasty h. 150; l. 380; V.II. 59
GE 51114 Thuiu w. 300
JE 69074 Box, Yuia and Wood 18th Dynasty h. 330; l. 457;
GC 51115 Thuiu d. 340
JE 69075 Box, Yuia and Wood and 18th Dynasty h. 330; l. 500;
GC 51116 Thuiu plaster w. 340
JE 69077 Jewel box; Yuia Wood and 18th Dynasty h. 510; l. 530; V.II. 58
GC 51117 and Thuiu plaster d. 420
JE 69078 Jewel box, Yuia Wood and 18th Dynasty h. 410; l. 385; V.II. 57
GC 51118 and Thuiu plater d. 268
JE 86000 Wooden stool, omore P.P. h. 40; l. 97;
miniature w. 95
JE 86001 Stool, miniature omore P.P. h. 30; l. 98;
w. 50
JE 86002 Stool, miniature omore P.P.
JE 86003 Chair, miniature omore P.P. h. 112; l. 60;
w. 55
JE 86004 Table, miniature omore P.P. h. 45; l. 63;
w. 63

number
JE 92967 Box Wood M.K. h. 450; l. 1,350;
w. 85
JE 92968 Box Wood M.K. h. 490; l. 770;
w. 680
26 11 Chair Wood N.K.
26 6
JE 61490 Box (cartouche Wood 18th Dynasty l. 635; w. 302; V.II. 61

Carter No. 269 shape), h. 321
Tutankhamun
JE 61495 Box (curved Wood 18th Dynasty w. 371; d. 327; V.II. 62 V.II. 77
Carter Nos 79 sides), h. 280
(box) and 574 Tutankhamun
(lid)
FRANCE: BORELY MUSEUM, MARSEILLE

number
281 Box Wood 12th Dynasty h. 490; l. 440
287 Chair Wood 20th Dynasty l. 330; h. 440
288 Folding stool Wood 20th Dynasty h. 330; l. 450
462 Seat Wood h. 220; d. 120
FRANCE: MUSÉE DES BEAUX-ARTS DE LIMOGES, LIMOGES

number
E. 958 Vase stand Wood O.K. h. 114 V.I. 115
(three legged)
GERMANY: STAATLICHE MUSEEN ZU BERLIN, ÄGYPTISCHES MUSEUM

number
ÄM 9592 Bed frame Wood
ÄM 13888 Stool with Wood
turned legs
ÄM 14601 Small box Wood V.II. 1
ÄM 107772 Low table Wood 1st Dynasty l. 381; w. 298;
h. 88
ÄM 10748 Chair Wood 18th Dynasty h. 749
ÄM 12551 Stool (folding) Wood 18th Dynasty h. 250
ÄM 12553 Stool (round Wood 18th Dynasty h. 209; w. 374
legged)
ÄM 790 Stool (three- Wood 1200 B.C. h. 250; l. 396
legged)
ÄM 19359 Foot- or Wood 850 B.C. h. 89; l. 266;
bathstool
ÄM 791 Stool Wood 19th Dynasty h. 158; l. 342;
w. 371
ÄM 1177 Cosmetic box Reed and rush 17th Dynasty h. 427

number
ÄM 16436 Table for vases Wood 5th Dynasty h. 177
ÄM 1176 Cosmetic box Reed and rush 17th Dynasty h. 383; d. 187;
w. 240
ÄM 10195 Cosmetic box, Wood 19th Dynasty l. 260
Ra’mosi from
the tomb of
Sennedjem
ÄM 17555 Box Wood 19th Dynasty l. 270
ÄM 8265 Chair leg Wood h. 410
ÄM 19516 Chair leg Wood h. 400
ÄM 7638 Leg in shape of Wood N.K. h. 410
lion
ÄM 8274 Leg in shape of Wood N.K. h. 385
horse
ÄM 9664 Round leg Wood N.K. h. 330
ÄM 10729 Folding stool Wood N.K. h. 465
(two parts)
ÄM 10741 Stool (animal Wood N.K. h. 185; w. 340;
legs) l. 410
ÄM 12550 Stool (animal Wood N.K. h. 100; w. 275;
legs) l. 295
ÄM 12552 Stool (folding) Wood N.K. h. 390; w. 372;
l. 535
ÄM 14337 Stool Wood N.K.
ÄM 14756 Stool with Wood and N.K.
leather seat leather
HOLLAND: RIJKSMUSEUM, LEIDEN

number
AH 52 Chair Wood 1400 B.C. h. 774; w. 457;
H 549 d. 501
AH 111 Round leg of Wood N.K. h. 470; dia. 46
H 553 stool
AH 111 Round leg of Wood N.K. h. 458; dia. 46
H 555 stool
AH 88 Lion shaped leg Wood R.P. h. 365; w. 115;
H 556 of mummy bier d. 120
AH 88 Lion shaped leg Wood R.P. h. 410; w. 113;
H 557 of mummy bier d. 100
AD 53 Stool (round Wood 18th Dynasty h. 450; w. 465;
H 550 legged) d. 465
AH 126 Folding stool Wood N.K. h. 482; w. 32;
F 551 fragment d. 42

number
A 1112 Bes shaped bed Wood R.P.? h. 290; w. 95;
leg d. 70
F 1955/2/1 Leg of a chair Green glazed h. 330; w. 70;
or bed faience d. 70
F 1964/1/3 Bes shaped bed Wood R.P. h. 655; w. 155; V.III. 43
leg d. 65
F 1964/1/4 Bes shaped bed Wood R.P. h. 655; w. 150; V.III. 42
leg d. 67
HOLLAND: ALLARD PIERSON MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM

number
B. 9083 Bed leg Wood P.P. h. 260; w. 70
ITALY: EGYPTIAN MUSEUM, TURIN

number
8511 Stool (lattice), Wood 18th Dynasty l. 419; w. 330 V.I. 76
Kha
8512 Stool (lattice), Wood 18th Dynasty l. 419; w. 330 V.I. 76
Kha
8510 Stool (lattice), Wood 18th Dynasty h. 381; l. 393;
Kha w. 330
8468 Stool (lattice), Wood 18th Dynasty h. 368; l. 381;
Kha w. 342
8509 Stool (folding), Wood 18th Dynasty h. 533; l. 596
Kha
8507 Stool (round Wood 18th Dynasty h. 457; l. 495;
legged), Kha w. 495
8614 Stool (animal Wood 18th Dynasty h. 330; l. 368; V.I. 50
legged), Kha w. 368
8505 Stool (three Wood 18th Dynasty h. 355; l. 393;
legged) Kha w. 298
8506 Stool, three Wood 18th Dynasty h. 317; l. 469;
legged) Kha w. 393
8333 Chair, Kha Wood 18th Dynasty h. 908; w. 393;
d. 552
8257 Table, Kha Wood 18th Dynasty h. 469; l. 698;
w. 381
8617 Box, Kha Wood 18th Dynasty h. 381; l. 483; V.II. 41
w. 355
8213 Box, Kha Wood 18th Dynasty h. 356; l. 483; V.II. 42
w. 381
8493 Wig box, Kha Wood 18th Dynasty h. 1,155; l. 482;
w. 482
8327 Bed, Kha Wood 18th Dynasty h. 698; l. 1,931;
w. 850
8629 Bed, Kha Wood 18th Dynasty h. 660; l. 1,742;
w. 763

number
8258 Table, Kha Reed 18th Dynasty h. 476; l. 749; V.I. 107
w. 381
8342 Table, Kha Reed 18th Dynasty h. 381; l. 690;
w. 495
8343 Table, Kha Wood 18th Dynasty h. 298: l. 787; V.I. 114
w. 539
8432 Table, Kha Wood 18th Dynasty l. 787; w. 539 V.I. 110
8514 Box, Kha Painted wood 18th Dynasty h. 343; l. 470; V.II. 40
w. 305
POLAND: NARODOWE MUZEUM W WARSZAWIE

number
139068 MNW Bed, wooden Wood and reed 18th Dynasty l. 1,700; w. 750; V.I. 38
frame and legs h. 300
143344 MNW Stool with Wood N.K. l. 380, w. 370; V.I. 73
concave seat h. 300
(Louvre E.3858)
141432 MNW Lion shaped leg Wood N.K. h. 190
139932 MNW Animal shaped Wood N.K. h. 280
leg
SWEDEN: MEDELHAVSMUSEET, STOCKHOLM

number
MM 10.122 Stool Wood 1800 h. 130; w. 368;
d. 368
MM 10.232 Bedframe Wood l. 1,694 V.I. 30 V.I. 5
MM 10.350 Bull’s leg Wood h. 240
MM. 19.610 Lion’s leg Wood h. 328
MM 19.611 Lion’s leg Wood h. 316
MM 19.615 Gazelle’s leg Wood h. 337
MM 19.616 Bull’s leg h. 272
MM 19.617 Bull’s leg Wood h. 245
MM 19.618 Gazelle’s leg Wood h. 188
MM 19.635 Stool Wood h. 245; l. 335;
w. 310
MM 19.668 Stool (lattice) Wood h. 465; l. 495 V.I. 75
MM 19.671 Stool Wood h. 70; l. 347 V.I. 67
SWEDEN: MUSEUM GUSTAVIANUM, UPPSALA UNIVERSITY

number
B-2 Stool Wood M.K. l. 435 V.I. 49
VM 247 Chair leg Wood
VM 248 Chair leg Wood
UNITED KINGDOM: ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM, OXFORD

number
E. 1149 Part of a leg in Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 41; w. 38
shape of bull’s Merneith
leg
E. 1283 Leg in form of Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 155; w. 65
bull’s leg Semerkhet
E. 1317 Fragment of Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 39
foot in form of
bull’s leg
AN1912.603 Tray table Wood 1st Dynasty h. 56; l. 450; V.I. 103–104
w. 280
AN1912.606 Sandal tray Wood Predynastic h. 50; l. 340;
w. 235
AN1912.617 Bedframe Wood Predynastic l. 1,480; w. 840 V.I. 27–29
AN 1896–1908 Frame of a stool Wood 9th–12th h. 264; w. 460; V.I. 51–53
E. 4162 Dynasty d. 460
AN1890.859 Chair Wood 18th Dynasty h. 600; l. 470; V.I. 89–93
w. 570
AN1890.933 Leg of chair Wood N.K. h. 410
AN1921.1146 Chair leg in the Wood Amarna Period h. 90
form of lion’s
leg
AN1872.930 Leg of a bed or Wood R.P. h. 178
stool
AN1896–1908 Furniture Wood 1st Dynasty w. 57; l. 68 V.II. 2
E. 138–E. 1255 fragment Semerkhet
UNITED KINGDOM: BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON

number
EA 2475 Stool (turned Wood h. 272
legs)
EA 2479 Chair Wood 18th Dynasty h. 730; d. 490; V.I. 86 V.I. 29
w. 410
EA 2480 Chair Wood 18th Dynasty h. 620; l. 420; V.I. 88 V.I. 30
w. 480
EA 2469 Table (three Wood 18th Dynasty h. 540; l. 686; V.I. 111–113 V.I. 34
legged) w. 460
EA 2470 Vase stand Wood 18th Dynasty h. 680; l. 465; V.I 116–117 V.I. 37
w. 470
EA 2471 Vase stand Wood 18th Dynasty h. 382; w. 252 V.I. 118 V.I. 38
EA 2561 Box Reed and rush 18th Dynasty h. 350; l. 445; V.II. 16–17 V.II. 48
w. 260
EA 5897 Jewellery box Wood 18th Dynasty h. 121; l. 223; V.II. 18–20 V.II. 49–50
w. 196
EA 21574 Royal bed Wood 20th Dynasty h. 460; w. 790 V.I. 1
(fragments)
EA 2521 Leg of bed. Wood L.P. h. 402; w. 89

number
EA 2522 Leg of bed Wood L.P. h. 420; w. 89
EA 29433 Leg of bed Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 115; w. 50;
d. 27
EA 2484 Couch leg Wood R.P.? h. 241; d. 50
EA 2485 Stool leg Wood h. 230
EA 2494 Stool leg Wood h. 358
EA 2511 Lion claw foot Wood h. 64
from a furniture
leg
EA 2478 Two legs from Wood h. 430
folding stool
EA 2499 Leg from a Wood h. 190
folding stool
EA 2483 Chair leg Wood R.P.? h. 343
EA 2486 Chair leg Wood h. 256
EA 2488 Chair leg Wood R.P. h. 438
EA 2496 Lion claw foot Wood h. 110; w. 25 V.III. 30
from a furniture
leg
EA 2497 Chair leg Wood h. 93; d. 27
EA 49123 Chair leg Wood N.K. h. 340 V.III. 15, 34 V.III. 17
EA 49124 Chair leg Wood N.K. h. 352
EA 65256 Chair leg, Wood h. 285
Sennefer, TT 96
EA 2517 Stool seat Wood N.K. d. 430; w. 432 V.III. 21–22
EA 2501 Seat rail Wood h. 288
EA 2495 Seat rail Wood h. 122
EA 2509 Seat rail Wood l. 268
EA 2491 Chair rail Wood l. 478
(fragment)
EA 2492 Chair Wood l. 540
(fragment)
EA 2500 Chair Wood l. 185
(fragment)
EA 23173 Chair Wood N.K. l. 146
(fragment)

number
EA 35530 Leg from Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 76
casket, Djer
EA 2505 Furniture Wood l. 152
fragment
fragment
fragment
fragment
fragment
EA 2513 Chair leg Wood l. 60
fragment
EA 2516 Furniture Wood N.K. l. 90
fragment
fragment, Bes
ure
EA 18196 Bedframe Wood N.K. h. 307; l. 1,115;
w. 710
EA 46705 Stool Wood h. 110; l. 430; V.I. 65–66 V.I. 22
w. 360
EA 66652 Stool Wood Late N.K. h, 345; d. 355; V.III. 38–41 V.III. 21
w. 390
EA 2476 Stool (lattice) Wood N.K. h. 380; l. 370;
w. 320
EA 2482 Stool (three Wood N.K. h. 262; w. 455 V.III. 37
legged)
EA 2481 Stool (three Wood N.K. l. 285; w. 360; V.I. 69
legged) h. 328
EA 2477 Stool (folding) Wood N.K. h. 470; l. 550;
w. 490
EA 29284 Stool (folding), Wood 18th Dynasty h. 380; l. 450; V.I. 57–60 V.I. 21
Tomb of Ani w. 350
EA 37406 Stool (folding) Wood 18th Dynasty h. 470; w. 485 V.III. 31–32, 35
EA 2472 Stool (round Wood 18th Dynasty h. 360; l. 460; V.I. 82–83 V.I. 23
legged) w. 460
EA 2473 Stool Wood h. 265 V.III. 20
EA 2474 Stool (round Wood h. 320; l. 380; V.III. 23–24
legged) w. 380
EA 24708 Cosmetic box Wood 18th Dynasty l. 360; w. 348; V.II. 24–26 V.II. 52
h. 352
UNITED KINGDOM: FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM, CAMBRIDGE

number
E.GA.4564.1943 Stool Wood N.K. h. 180; l. 190;
w. 270

number
E.GA.3517.1943 Palm support Bronze N.K. h. 360
for a canopy
E.GA.2712.1943 Lion shaped leg Wood N.K. h. 175
E.GA.2700.1943 Furniture foot Wood N.K. h. 100
E.GA.3029.1943 Table Diorite N.K. h. 40; l. 96;
w. 65
E.GA.4565.1943 ‘Tyet’ knot Wood N.K. h. 210
from a piece of
furniture
E.GA.2880.1943 Hathor-head Wood N.K. h. 267
nial
E.47.1900 Stool leg, reign Wood 1st Dynasty h. 93
of Djer
E.46.1900 Stool leg, reign Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 78
of Djer
E.38.1900 Stool leg in Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 45
bovine form,
reign of Den
E.GA.121.1949 Furniture Wood P.P. d. 20; l. 273;
fragment w. 12
E.67.c.1937 Bes shaped Wood N.K. h. 114
furniture
ornament
UNITED KINGDOM: MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY MUSEUM

number
5466 Bracket from Wood 1st Dynasty l. 125
bed
4229 Legs of a Wood 18th Dynasty h. 260; w. 250 V.I. 62–63
folding stool
542 Round leg from Wood 18th Dynasty h. 330; dia. 50 V.I. 79–81
stool
540 Chair leg Wood 18th–19th h. 280 V.III. 10
Dynasty
541 Chair leg Wood 18th Dynasty h. 170
6228 Arm support Wood 21st Dynasty l. 158
from chair
4083a Leg from a Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 34; l. 23
casket
4083b Leg from a Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 26; l. 38
casket
4083c Leg from a Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 42; l. 21
casket
4083d Leg from a Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 43; l. 20
casket
6111 Seven fragments Wood 9th–10th w. 210
of wood from a Dynasty
casket

number
73 Box lid Wood 12th Dynasty l. 395; w. 207
74 Side of box Wood 12th Dynasty l. 167; w. 44
3722 Headrest Wood N.K., Gurob w. 294; d. 87; V.III. 1
h. 185
77 Circular lid Wood 12th Dynasty dia. 88
78 Box lid Wood 12th Dynasty dia. 132
260 Fragment of box Wood 12th Dynasty h. 270; l. 420
1887a Fragment of box Wood 12th Dynasty h. 30; l. 47
1887b Fragment of box Wood 12th Dynasty h. 21; l. 53
1887c Fragment of box Wood 12th Dynasty h. 5; l. 37; d. 3
1887d Fragment of box Wood 12th Dynasty h. 5; l. 37; d. 2
6956 Lid of a basket Reed 18th Dynasty h. 275; l. 446
6821 Wooden tablet Wood R.P. h. 68; l.94
6655 Fragment of Wood 12th Dynasty h. 96; l. 111
handle
5449 Furniture Wood 1st Dynasty l. 625; d. 142
fragment
4226 Furniture Wood h. 47; l. 85
fragment
3973 Furniture leg Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 195
7179 Furniture leg Ivory 19th Dynasty h. 186
6229 Furniture leg in Wood N.K. h. 104
shape of a lion
5429 Bedframe Wood 1st Dynasty h. 250; l. 1,760; V.I. 31–34 V.I. 6
w. 840
261 Stool Wood 12th Dynasty h. 270; l. 440; V.I. 45–46
w. 165
7206 Stool Limestone 12th Dynasty h. 135; l. 350;
w. 275
5456 Small table Wood 1st Dynasty h. 60; l. 480; V.I. 105–106 V.I. 33
w. 278
5457 Tray Wood 1st Dynasty l. 400; w. 216;
d. 50
5437 Tray Wood 1st Dynasty h. 30; w. 225;
d. 620
75 Box Wood 12th Dynasty l. 148; w. 83;
d. 40
76a Box Wood 12th Dynasty l. 110; w. 56;
d. 35
254 Box Wood 12th Dynasty l. 550; w. 410;
d. 220
255 Box Wood 12th Dynasty h. 250; l. 370;
w. 240
256a.b Box with lid Wod 12th Dynasty h. 156; l. 670;
w. 165
w. 250

number
259 Box Wood 12th Dynasty w. 240; l. 390;
h. 160
w. 110
7890 Box Wood 12th Dynasty h. 64
w. 105
188 Box Wood 12th Dynasty h. 155; w. 90
w. 105
6980 Casket Wood 18th Dynasty l. 110; w. 84;
h. 74
6931 Casket Wood 19th Dynasty
fragments
5685 Bed leg Wood 1st Dynasty l. 150; w. 42
5436 Side pole from Wood 1st Dynasty l. 679; w. 63
a small bed
5465 Bed pole Wood with 1st Dynasty l. 1,255; w. 245 V.I. 24–25
some webbing
UNITED KINGDOM: PETRIE MUSEUM, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON

number
UC 7919 Stool leg Wood 18th Dynasty l. 255
UC 7457 Base and rail of Wood 12th Dynasty l. 350; w. 410
a folding stool
UC 7115 Veneer from an Wood 12th Dynasty l. 125
angle bracket
UC 7112 Furniture Wood 12th Dynasty l. 144
bracket
UC 7113 Large furniture Wood 12th Dynasty l. 820; w. 205
bracket
UC 7114 Small furniture Wood 12th Dynasty l. 52
bracket
UC 7921 Small lid of box Wood 18th Dynasty
UC 7122 Turned lid Wood h. 12; dia. 78
UC 7123 Flat lid Wood 12th Dynasty dia. 50
UC 7124 Flat lid Wood 12th Dynasty dia. 50
UC 6911 Box Wood and 22nd Dynasty l. 130; w. 78;
papyrus h. 107
UC 7920 Leg from a Wood 18th Dynasty h. 555 V.III. 79
stand
UC 16139 Model bed Wood 12th Dynasty l. 490; w. 237 V.I. 37
UC 17012 Stool Alabaster 1st Dynasty, l. 450; w. 333
SD 81
UC 17173 Stool Wood 1st Dynasty, h. 305; w. 610 V.I. 68
SD 80

number
UC 16532 Stool (three- Limestone M.K. h. 180; w. 440;
legged) d. 265
UC 16530 Stool Limestone 12th Dynasty h. 145; l. 345;
w. 290
UC 7110 Stool Wood 12th Dynasty w. 255
h. 95
UC 17168 Bed leg Wood 1st Dynasty h. 340
UC 17165 Side pole of a Wood 1st Dynasty l. 1,230
bed
UC 17167 End pole of a Wood 1st Dynasty l. 560
bed
UC 17164 Bed pole Wood 1st Dynasty, l. 855
SD 81
UC 7918 Chair leg Wood 18th Dynasty h. 285 V.III. 11
UC 6909 Chair leg Wood R.P. h. 190
UC 7365 Chair leg Wood 12th Dynasty h. 222
UC 9294 Pole Wood Badarian
UC 7456 Stool leg Wood 11th or 12th h. 185
Dynasty
UC 7339 Stool leg Wood 12th Dynasty h. 165
UC 7111 Curved leg from Wood 12th Dynasty l. 350
a stool
UC 7532 Stool leg Wood 12th Dynasty h. 366
UC 27997 Toy bedframe Wood 3rd century l. 255
A.D.
UC 8934A Furniture leg Wood N.K. l. 143; w. 41
UC 8934B Furniture leg Wood N.K. l. 335; w. 22
UC 8934C Furniture leg Wood N.K. l. 305; w. 70
UC 16756 Folding headrest Wood N.K., Gurob h. 280 V.III. 2, 4–7
UC 58988 Stool leg, Type Wood N.K., Gurob h. 310; dia. 40 V.III. 8–9
Sm
UC 71984 Stool legs (4), Wood N.K. l. 420; dia. 40 V.III. 9, 25–26,
Type Sj 29
UC 36478 Chair leg Wood N.K. h. 470; w. 75; V.III. 13–14 V.III. 16
t. 60
UC 71985 Stool stretchers Wood N.K. l. 430 V.III. 27–29
(4)
UC 30579 Openwork panel Wood N.K. h. 300; w. 100 V.III. 80
from an offering
stand
UNITED KINGDOM: NATIONAL MUSEUM OF SCOTLAND, EDINBURGH

number
1909.527.22 Stool (with Wood and linen 17th Dynasty h. 256; w. 444;
woven linen l. 444
seat)

number
1956.107 Stool (three Wood coated 18th or 19th h. 223; w. 343 V.I. 70
legged) with gesso Dynasty
1956.106 Chair (low- Wood, woven 18th Dynasty h. 610; w. 458 V.I. 95
backed) seat d. 445
1909.527.29 Stool Cedar wood 17th Dynasty h. 102; l. 279;
w. 273
1909.527.29a Stool Cedar wood 17th Dynasty h. 153; l. 330;
w. 305
1956.110 Stool (low) Wood, woven Early 18th h. 127; l. 305; V.I. 54
seat Dynasty w. 305
1956.111 Stool (square Wood, woven N.K. h. 305; l. 356; V.I. 72
legs) seat w. 356
1956.109 Stool (round Wood, leather 18th Dynasty h. 229; l. 362;
legs) seat w. 330
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK

number
MMA 01.4.91. Leg Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 61; w. 40
MMA 06.1162.1 Leg Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 170; d. 58
MMA 26.7.1283 Leg Ivory 1st Dynasty h. 60
MMA 12.187.52 Bedframe Wood 1st Dynasty h. 288; l. 950;
w. 670
MMA 12.182.58 Stool (folding) Wood M.K. or N.K. h. 357; d. 377; V.I. 55
w. 315
MMA 14.10.3 Stool Wood 12th–18th h. 133; l. 311;
Dynasty w. 297
MMA 86.1.39 Bed Wood 1st Dynasty l. 1,610; h. 270
MMA 36.3.56 Box, Hatnefer Wood (painted) 18th Dynasty h. 440; w. 361;
a, b l. 698
MMA 36.5.A.B. Box Wood (painted) 18th Dynasty h. 483; l. 762
MMA 86.1.8 Box Wood 19th Dynasty h. 160; l. 330; V.II. 79
(gessoed), w. 330
Sennedjem
MMA 26.7.1438 Toilet box, Wood and 12th Dynasty h. 203; l. 283; V.II. 12 V.II. 46
Kemeni ebony, ivory, w. 177
veneet, silver
ttin
MMA 16.1.1 Jewel box, Wood with 12th Dynasty h. 370; l. 465; V.II. 11 V.II. 45
Sithathoriunet gold and silver w. 330
ttin s
MMA 14.10.5 Table Wood 17th or 18th h. 450; l. 635; V.I. 108
Dynasty w. 311
MMA 36.3.152 Chair, Hatnefer Hardwood 18th Dynasty h. 530; w. 500
MMA 12.182.28 Chair Wood 18th Dynasty h. 588; w. 433 V.I. 94
MMA 14.10.4 Stool (round Wood 18th Dynasty h. 392; w. 405 V.I. 84
legs)

number
MMA 90.6.254 Bier (model)
MMA 15.2.8 Model bed Limestone 18th Dynasty l. 172; w. 65
MMA 31.3.99 Model bed Pottery 18th Dynasty l. 140; w. 80
MMA 20.2.13 Model bed Wood 18th Dynasty l. 308; h. 130
a–c (folding)
MMA 15.3.1167 Box Wood 18th Dynasty h. 275; w. 435
a–b
MMA 22.1.679 Bed leg
MMA 22.1.681 Bed leg
MMA 86.1.7 Box (gessoed), 19th Dynasty l. 315; w. 315; V.II. 80
Sennedjem h. 150
MMA Box
12.187.53A–B
MMA Furniture
22.1.696–7 fragment
MMA 22.1.717 Rod from
a piece of
furniture
MMA 22.1.718 Half column
from a piece of
furniture
MMA Furniture
22.1.10056 fragments (two
discs)
MMA 28.3.21 Furniture
fragment
fragment
MMA Two uraeus
11.151.41–42
MMA 20.2.14a Model bed leg Wood 18th Dynasty h. 70
(turned)
MMA 20.2.14b Model bed leg Wood 18th Dynasty h. 73
(turned)
MMA 22.1.680 Leg and
A–B stretcher
MMA 22.1.688 Upper part of
uraeus
fragment
fragment
MMA 22.1.702 irdle tie ure
fragment
MMA Box with lid
31.3.18A–B
MMA Box
15.3.1166A–B

number
MMA Box Wood M.K. h. 290; w. 480;
15.3.1168a–b d. 245
MMA 16.1.2 Box, Wood 12th Dynasty h. 233; w. 362;
a.b. Sithathoriunet d. 253
MMA Box Wood 18th Dynasty l. 505; w. 298;
12.181.209a–b h. 202
MMA 16.10.317 Chair leg
MMA 36.3.55 Bo ith flat lid Wood 18th Dynasty l. 750; w. 465
a.b.
MMA Fragments of an Wood 18th Dynasty
25.3.308a–b inlaid chair
MMA 68.58 Chair Wood, ivory 18th Dynasty h. 862
(Reniseneb) and ebony
MMA 32.3.392 Peg Wood Ptolemaic
MMA Panels Wood 26th Dynasty
23.6.75A.B
MMA 26.7.1284 Furniture leg Ivory O.K.
MMA Furniture leg
11.151.640
MMA Upper part of Ivory M.K. h. 43
1970.184.4 column
MMA 15.3.1075 Furniture leg
MMA 15.3.1077 Leg fragment
MMA 36.3.236 Chair fragments Wood 18th Dynasty l. 298
a–g
MMA Two chair legs
36.3.237A–B
MMA 15.3.1104 Furniture, box
fragment
MMA 1970.53 Furniture Copper alloy 26th Dynasty h. 278
ornament,
openwork
MMA 26.7.1012 Foot of a throne Faience L.P. h. 110
MMA Inst. 69.7 Head of Hathor
MMA Disc ornaments R.P.
05.4.146–8
MMA Two furniture
26.4.125–126 handles
MMA Figure from
10.130.136 furniture
MMA 03.6.2 Furniture Bronze 6th century B.C. h. 114
attachment
ornament
fragment

number
MMA Two stands
31.1.108–109
MMA 12.182.57 Stool Wood M.K. h. 127; w. 390
MMA 16.10.280 Stool leg
MMA Stool
12.181.208
MMA Stool Wood 18th Dynasty
12.181.319
MMA 25.3.309 Stool fragments Wood 18th Dynasty
MMA Two fragments
28.3.20A–B of folding stool
MMA 35.3.1 Stool
MMA 12.182.49 Stool (folding) Wood 18th Dynasty h. 325; w. 405
MMA X 387 Duck’s head Wood 18th Dynasty h. 348
from folding
stool
MMA 15.3.1073 Stool fragment
MMA 25.3.307 Fragments of
inlaid table
MMA 22.3.39 Fragment of Wood 26th Dynasty h. 153; w. 18
throne foot
MMA 04.2.404 Model throne Bronze 27th Dynasty h. 72
MMA 23.6.26 Model throne Copper alloy P.P. h. 88
MMA 30.8.45 Panel from Wood 18th Dynasty h. 251
a–c throne
MMA 1977.170 Lion furniture Faience L.P. h. 345
leg
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: BROOKLYN MUSEUM, NEW YORK

number
36.290.2 Furniture leg Wood O.K. h. 226
36.290.3 Furniture leg Wood O.K. h. 191
36.290.4 Furniture leg Wood 1st Dynasty h. 145
37.40E Chair Wood 18th Dynasty h. 900; w. 456; V.I. 87
d. 473
37.42E Lion shaped leg Wood 25th Dynasty h. 353; w. 90;
d. 140
37.259E Arm of a chair Wood L.P. h. 360; w. 235
37.260E Arm of a chair Wood L.P. h. 405; w. 235
37.604E.a–b Cylindrical Wood 18th Dynasty? h. 153; dia. 76
cosmetic box
with cover
37.44E Folding stool, Wood 18th Dynasty l. 337; h. 294
seat missing
02.229 Cosmatic box Wood R.P. h. 53
16.77 Physician’s box Wood M.K. w. 53; l. 75

number
37.615E Bottom half of Wood 18th Dynasty h. 15; w. 44;
cosmetic box l. 142
37.617E Half of Wood Late Period h. 23; w. 54; l.
container 142
37.619E Container Ivory 18th Dynasty h. 16; w. 42;
l. 83
71.621E Part of cosmetic Ivory 18th Dynasty h. 38; l. 133;
box t. 10
49.55.a–b Cosmetic box Wood and ivory l. 124; h. 26
with separate
cover
37.261E Lion’s head Wood 27th Dynasty h. 127; w. 118;
from a piece of d. 119
furniture
37.41E Table Wood 18th Dynasty h. 320; l. 521; V.I. 109
w. 255
37.45E Stool (lattice) Wood 18th Dynasty h. 243; l. 267; V.I. 74
w. 229
02.230.a–b Cosmetic box Wood R.P. h. 72; dia. 63
with separate
cover
37.600.a–b Cosmetic box Wood 18th Dynasty h. 102; dia. 74
with swivel lid
37.601E Cosmetic box Wood 18th Dynasty l. 195; w. 64;
(recumbent h. 65
gazelle)
05.309 Lion shaped Wood 18th Dynasty l. 389; d. 42;
chair leg w. 31
36.290.1 Furniture leg Wood h. 271
53.81.a–b Cosmetic box Faience L.P. l. 70; w. 32;
h. 42
70.134.2 Six fragments Wood and P.P. w. 53; t. 4; l. 72
of a cosmetic ebony
box
74.45 Lid of cosmetic Wood 18th Dynasty h. 79; w. 63;
box d. 5
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY
number
6-1523 Furniture legs. Wood 2nd or 3rd h. 920; w. 50;
Nag el-Deir Dynasty t. 30
Cem. 3500
Tomb. 87
6-1517 Box fragments. Wood 2nd or 3rd
Nag el-Deir Dynasty
Cem. 3500
Tomb. 87

number
6-1677 Storage box Wood 2nd or 3rd l. 530; h. 215;
(fragments) Dynasty t. 23
Nag el-Deir
Cem. 3500
Tomb. 237
6-1705 Footstool, Wood N.K. l. 420; w. 235;
Nag el-Deir t. 70
Cem. 3500
Tomb. 246
6-1808 Twenty Wood 2nd or 3rd l. 280; w. 250;
furniture Dynasty t. 23
fragments.
Nag el-Deir
Cem. 3500
Tomb. 256
6-1809 Box lid. Wood 2nd or 3rd l. 280; w. 240
Nag el-Deir Dynasty
Cem. 3500
6-1824 Ten fragments Wood 2nd or 3rd
of chair, Dynasty
Nag el-Deir
Cem. 3500
Tomb. 256
6-1857 Chair Wood 2nd or 3rd l. 260
fragments, Dynasty
Nag el-Deir
Cem. 3500
Tomb. 274
6-2164 Storage box, Wood 2nd or 3rd l. 285; w. 270;
Cem. 3500
Tomb. 683
6-2246 Furniture Wood 2nd or 3rd
fragments, Dynasty
Nag el-Deir
Cem. 3500
Tomb. 901
6-2441 Furniture leg? Wood 18th Dynasty l. 180; d. 40
Nag el-Deir
Cem. 3500
Tomb. 1246
6-13935 Stool (tripod), Wood 6th to 12th d. 225
Nag el-Deir Dynasty
Cem. 100
Tomb. 471
6-15873 Box fragments, Wood 2nd or 3rd
Nag el-Deir Dynasty
6-16010 Box (no lid), Wood 8th to 12th l. 340; w. 240;
Nag el-Deir Dynasty h. 85
6-16011 Box (no lid), Wood 8th to 12th l. 330; w. 225;

number
6-16012 Box panel with Wood 8th to 12th l. 405; w. 325;
end strip. Dynasty t. 22
Nag el-Deir
6-17147 a.b. Box with lid, Wood 8th to 12th l. 410; w. 310;
Nag el-Deir Dynasty h. 180
6-2062 Chair, Wood 18th Dynasty h. 690; w. 415; V.I. 85
Nag el-Deir d. 420
Cem. 3500
Tomb. N3746
6-149-49 Stool leg, Wood
Nag el-Deir
Cem 9000
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON

number
13.3987 Casing for bed Gold 1700–1550 B.C. h. 145; w. 97;
leg t. 51
13.4001 Bed leg in the Wood 1700–1550 B.C. h. 350; w. 130;
shape of a bull’s t. 40
leg, Kerma
13.4002 Bed leg in the Wood 1700–1550 B.C. h. 390; w. 160;
shape of a bull’s t. 40
leg, Kerma
13.4003 Bed leg in the Wood 1700–1550 B.C. h. 300
shape of a bull’s
leg, Karma
13.4004 Bed leg in the Wood 1700–1550 B.C. h. 340
shape of a bull’s
leg, Kerma
20–1389 a.b.c. Bed legs, Wood 1700–1550 B.C. a: h. 430
Kerma b: h. 430
c: h. 430
20.1390 a.b. Bed legs, Wood 1700–1550 B.C. a: h. 331
Kerma b: h. 312
20.1391 a.b.c.d. Bed legs, Wood 1700–1550 B.C.
Kerma, damaged
by ants
21.2815 Leg in form of Bronze 698–690 B.C. h. 561; w. 365;
a duck t. 130
72.4263 Carved post Wood Coptic h. 660; w. 80;
for a piece of t. 50
furniture
72.4259 Stool Wood N.K. h. 320; w. 374
72.4265 Four round Wood N.K. h. 262; w. 368;
legs from a d. 372
stool with one
stretcher
23.152 Folding stool Wood Meroitic h. 395
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: ORIENTAL INSTITUTE, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

number
E.13694 Stool with Wood 1090–633 B.C. h. 495; w. 390;
feline legs d. 315
E.12169 Bedframe with Wood 1st Dynasty
bovine shaped
legs
E.418 Chair (turned Wood 26th Dynasty h. 426; w. 411
legs)
E.10550 Chair Wood 18th Dynasty h. 460; w. 445;
d. 455
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: THE KELSEY MUSEUM OF ANCIENT AND MEDIAEVAL

ARCHAEOLOGY, THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR
number
1884a Chair leg Wood 18th Dynasty l. 240; d. 41
(turned),
Sedment
Tomb 419
1884b Chair leg Wood 18th Dynasty l. 236; d. 41
(turned)
Sedment
Tomb 419
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: WALTERS ART GALLERY, BALTIMORE

number
71.520 Furniture leg Ivory O.K. h. 42; w. 13
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Quibell, J.E. 1908. Tomb of Yuaa and Thuiu. Cairo: IFAO.

Ancient Egyptian Furniture Volume I - 4000-1300 BC (PDFDrive)

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Ancient Egyptian Furniture Volume I - 4000-1300 BC (PDFDrive)

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ANCIENT EGYPTIAN FURNITURE

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN FURNITURE

Oxford & Philadelphia

and in the United States by

First edition published 1980

© Oxbow Books and Geoffrey Killen 2017

Hardcover Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-481-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016961071

Printed in Malta by Gutenberg Press Ltd

For a complete list of Oxbow titles, please contact:

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Oxbow Books is part of the Casemate Group

List of Figures vii

Chapter 1. Furniture Materials 1

Catalogue of Museum Collections 135

Figure 1. Scarf joint. 7

Figure 28. Middle Kingdom chair designs. 93

Museum Catalogue Abbreviations Museum and Society Inventory Abbreviations

1. Timber the furniture historian and technologist studying the timber

Hornbeam (Carpinus) Persea (Mimusops laurifolia)

een di ult to ut do n and sa into reasona l si ed 172.1 3 A ie e o o n ood, hi h as

Kew Gardens Collection Tamarix (species)

and heating glue comes from the 18th Dynasty tomb at

2. try Square (Plate 3) 4. adze blade (Plate 4, middle)

The necking of the adze blade continued to the point

Chisels urin the Middle in dom this t e o hisel as

This particular chisel would have been used for cutting

28. aWl (Plate 23) a ara man 1st nast a ls Emer 1 7, .

Plate 5. Ad e lade. British Museum, London. EA 22 1. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.

Plate 7. Ad e. British Museum, London. EA 2627 . Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.

Plate 1 . a . e in dom. British Museum, London. EA 60 6. Photographic credit: Lorraine March-Killen.

Predynastic Burials to orm mattin . A sin le small ed rame ole ra ment,

Figure 5. Bedframe construction. Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm. MM 10.232.

Figure 6. Bedframe. Manchester University Museum, 1st Dynasty, 5429.

2. Bedframe (Plate 30 and figure 5)

Figure 8. Bedframes. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Hesyra, Saqqara, 3rd Dynasty).

Figure 9. Bedframes. (Tomb painting, Tomb of Hesyra, Saqqara, 3rd Dynasty).

erte, 1 6 1 67. E edition.

Figure 14. Bedframe. Kerma

urin the 1 06 e a ations hia arelli at the he an

Figure 21. Folding stool. British Museum, London. EA 29284.

2 mm. figure 21)

Figure 22. Low stool. British Museum, London. EA 46705.

eneral orm o this le is that o a linder, art o hi h

Plate 6. rude ooden stool.

Plate 67. Lo stool. Medelha smuseet, to kholm. MM 1 .671. Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm.

Plate 7 . ound stool le . 1 th nast .

Figure 25. Chair. (Stele of Sehefner, Tomb 2146E, Saqqara, 2nd

his is a er ne o en a k hair and is similar in

Figure 29. Chair. British Museum, London. EA 2479.

Figure 30. Chair. British Museum,

additionally secured by single elbow braces dowelled Figure 30)

Figure 31. Royal Armchair. (Queen

10. CeremoniAl ChAir (PlAtes 100, 101)

Plate . hair. 1 th nast .

Plate 98. Armchair (Reproduction).

Figure 33. Table. Manchester University Museum, 1st Dynasty, 5456.

Figure 34. Table (Tomb of Perpaut). British Museum, London. EA 2469.

t is likel that su h ta les ere e innin to e 5. TabLe (PLaTe 109).

Old Kingdom 18th Dynasty

Figure 37. Vase stand. British Museum, London. EA 2470.

Figure 38. Vase stand. British Museum, London. EA 2471.

AUSTRIA: KUNSTHISTORISCHES MUSEUM, VIENNA