8/11/23

PHYS 1000/33/38: C-DIAGONAL

Chapter 34: Wave & Particle Optics
Chapter 22: Electric Interactions

(Block 3, Week 4, 07 Aug)

WEEK 4 – Chapter 34: Wave & Particle Optics

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WEEK 4 – Chapter 22: Electric Interactions

CHAPTER 34
Wave & Particle Optics

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34.3
X-Ray Diffraction

34.3 Summary

• X-ray λs:
0.01nm to
10nm.

• X-ray λs → comparable to
distances between atoms in
solids.

• ∴ X-ray diffraction used to

study atomic arrangement in
solids.

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34.3 Summary
• Diffraction grating contains barriers of equally spaced slits or
grooves.

• Transmissive diffraction grating contains slits that transmit light.

• Reflective diffraction grating contains grooves that reflect light.

• For the 2 rays, the path

difference: 2d cos θ

• For constructive interference,

path difference must be
multiple of λ
→ 2d cos θ = mλ
(Bragg condition)

→ 2d cos θ = mλ
(Bragg condition)

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INCIDENT ANGLE, θ BRAGG ANGLE, α

θ α
α
θ

34.3 Summary
• Tilt crystal so angle of incident
x ray makes with its surface is
different from previous
orientation of the crystal.

• Now different set of planes

with different spacing can
produce constructive
interference.

• Crystal acts like

a 3D
transmissive
diffraction grating
for X-ray beam.

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34.3 Qu 16

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34.3 Qu 16

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34.4
Matter Waves

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34.4 Summary
• Electrons exhibit interference.

• Double-slit experiment with a beam of electrons produces an

interference pattern.

• Experiments show:
• Spacing of interference pattern changes if you vary speed of
electrons.
• → indicates that electron λ depends on speed.

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34.4 Summary
2-slit experiment with e- beam.
Screen shows e- arriving as bright spot.

# of e- is low - dots appear at

seemingly random locations

As more & more e- reach screen, the double-slit interference pattern

becomes evident → indicates wave-particle duality.

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34.4 Summary

• The wavelength of a particle, called the de Broglie wavelength, is

inversely proportional to the particle’s momentum:

l = h/p

• The proportionality constant h is called Planck’s constant:

h = 6.626 ´ 10 –34 J × s

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CHAPTER 22
Electric Interactions

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22.1
Static Electricity

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22.1 Summary
• Static electricity → imbalance of electric charges within or on surface of
material or between materials.

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22.1 Summary
• All of these interactions involve static electricity → examples of electric
interactions.

• Electric interaction → long-range interaction between objects that carry

surplus electrical charge. They do not have to be in physical contact.

• Objects that participate in electric interactions exert electric forces on

each other → referred to as electrostatic force (no motion).

• Columb’s Law: As the distance between the interacting objects

increases, the strength of the electric forces decreases.

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22.1 Checkpoint 22.1

Tape & battery attract one another

(independent of battery pole & fresh or spent)

Tape & wood attract one another

Tape & power cord attract one another

(with & without current)

No connection between electric interaction & electricity

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22.1 Qu 1

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22.2
Electrical Charge

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CHARGE

What is Electric Charge?

• Physical property of matter

• 2 types: positive & negative

• Atoms → protons (+),

neutrons (neutral)
& electrons (-)

• Excess electrons → ion

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22.2 Summary

• Attribute responsible for electric interaction is called electric

charge → “charge”.

• Any macroscopic object that carries an electrical charge is called a

charge carrier.

• When a charged object looses its ability to interact electrically, the

object is discharged.

• A discharged object behaves the same way as objects that carry no

charge → electrically neutral.

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22.2 Summary
• Rub 2 neutral objects together, some charge flows from one to other
• → Objects then have equal amounts of excess opposite charges.
• All neutral matter contains equal amounts of positive & negative
charge.
• Charged objects contain unequal amounts of positive & negative
charge.

Conservation of Charge
• The total charge in a closed system
never changes
• Charge is not created or destroyed; it
is merely transferred from one object
to another.

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22.2 Summary

Electrons from hair can

Electrons transfer from one piece
move to hat, making your
of tape to the other while they are
hair positively charged →
being pulled apart.
strands repel one another

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22.2 Checkpoint 22.10

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22.3
Mobility of Charge Carriers

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22.3 Summary

• Charge can be transferred from one object to another via contact.

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22.3 Summary
• Charge in rubber rod does not flow
from one end of the rod to the other
→ insulator → charge immobilized
INSULATOR

• Insulators: charge carriers cannot

flow easily.

• Any charge transferred to an

insulator remains near the spot at
which it was deposited.

• Conductors are materials

through which charge carriers
CONDUCTOR

can flow easily.

• Any charge transferred to a

conductor spreads out over the
conductor and over any other
conductor in contact with it.

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Insulators & Conductors

• Conductors – materials through which charges flow freely

• Insulators – materials through which charges do not move easily

• Earth is a good conductor.

• The process of connecting a charged, conducting object to the
Earth by a wire is called grounding.
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22.3 Summary
– Electrons surround the nucleus
& have a negative electrical
charge.

– All electrical charge comes in

whole-number multiples of the
electrical charge on the
electron.

– The magnitude of the charge on

the electron is denoted by e,
and is called the elementary
charge.

• Symbol: “e”
• SI units: Coulomb, C

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22.3 Summary
• How strips of tape can acquire opposite charge →
When separated rapidly, small amounts of opposite
charge may be left behind on each material.

Atoms in adhesive form

bonds with atoms in
non-stick back by
transferring e-.

Rapid separation = break

in bonds, so some e-
remain on bottom strip.
∴ top: + & bottom: -

https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=BC3f6J6Juxw

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22.3 Checkpoint 22.11

(a) Charge build up on rod spreads evenly over the entire rod
(as it’s conducting, so charge moves easily). You are also
conducting → so charge is then transferred to you. In
comparison to rod, you are fairly large → continually keep
transferring charge to yourself.

(b) Rubber is an insulator so charge build up does not move

easily. The charge buildup on the rod that is not in contact with
you, remains on the rod.

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22.4
Charge Polarisation

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22.4 Summary
• Polarization → separation of charge carriers in an object,
allows neutral objects to interact electrically.

• Interaction between a
charged rubber rod and
neutral electroscope.
CONDUCTOR

• Neg. charge on rod repels

the e- on conducting parts
of the electroscope, causing
a separation of charge.
e- move far away
as possible
from - rod • Separation of charge
carriers in an object is called
charge polarization.

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22.4 Summary

Electron cloud and nucleus

shift away from one another
→ atom becomes polarized.
INSULATOR

E.g.: Charged comb and

neutral paper

• Insulators can be polarized, even though e- are not free to move.

• Basic reason for polarization of insulators is due to the
polarization of the neutral atoms.

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CHARGING NEUTRAL OBJECTS = INDUCTION 22.4 Summary

• Exploiting polarization to
charge neutral conducting
objects
= charging by induction.

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22.4 Qu 19

No – the stream of water is neutral.

However, the water undergoes charge polarization

→ whereby positive ions in the water move closer to the
negatively charged balloon.

https://www.whio.com/weath
er/bending-water-lesson-
about-static-
electricity/BL7CHMF4JFGEND4
4F32WTFMCC4/

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22.5
Columb’s Law

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22.5 Summary
• Coulomb’s law: shows that the electric force obeys an inverse square
law analogous to Newton’s law of gravity.
• If 2 charged particles, q1 & q2, are separated by a distance r12, then the
magnitude of the force between them is given by:

q1 q2
F12E = k
r122

• In S I units, the proportionality constant (constant of interaction) k is:

k = 9.0 ´ 109 N × m2 /C2

1 1 𝑞% 𝑞$
𝑘= = 8.988×10# 𝑁. 𝑚$ /𝐶 $ 𝐹= $
4𝜋𝜖 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟%$
permittivity of medium - ability for substance to store electrical energy
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22.5 Summary
• Coulomb established that, the electric force is:
- Proportional to 1/r2
1
𝐹∝
𝑟$
- Proportional to each charge (q1 & q2),
∴ proportional to their product
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞% 𝑞$

• The magnitude of the charge of an electron is

e = 1/ 6.24 ´ 1018 C = 1.60 ´ 10 -19 C

• The charge on any object exists as a whole-number multiple of e:

q = ne, n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3,!.
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22.5 Summary

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22.5 Qu 34

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22.6
Force due to Distribution of Charges

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22.6 Summary

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22.6 Qu 57

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Mistake!
+
We took this into
account when
drawing the
forces acting on +
particle 4.

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6.34°
9
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Triboelectric Series
Ranks materials according to
tendency to gain/ lose e-

It is the work function of a

material that determines
its position

Work function: min. work

needed to remove e- from
solid to point just outside
solid surface.

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