Mechanical Unit Operations

Professor Nanda Kishore

Department of Chemical Engineering.
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Lecture No. 19
Motion of Particle Through Fluids 2

Welcome to the MOOCs course mechanical unit operations, we are discussing motion of
particles through fluids since, this is a continuation of previous lecture we will have a
kind of recapitulation what we have studied under the fluid particle motion.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:44)

So, when fluid and particle moving together with a kind of related velocity or one face is
stationary or only other one is moving or both of them are moving. So, then there is a
kind of relative motion between this particle and then we have understand that under this
relative motion conditions, the force the fluid is going to exert a kind of force on a kind
of solid particle in a flow direction and that force we call it as a drag force, this drag force
is going to be a kind of very important parameter in designing of many solid fluid
contacting systems.

Then, we have seen you know different components of drag force that form drag and then
wall drag and then we have seen how to evaluate these components, or the expression for
these components and then add them together to get the total drag force acting on the
particle, then we have also discussed the draft coefficient which is nothing but 𝐶𝐷 =
𝐹𝐷
⁄𝐴𝑝
1 this is what we have. So, now, here this is again projected area Ap is a kind
𝜌𝑢2
2

projected area, projected area for different type of particles we have seen pears, cylinders,
cubes etc have seen, what should be the projected area for these particles. Then we have
also seen the motion of a single particle settling through a fluid or the motion of the
particles in a fluid by different external forces.

So, we started with in general expression of some kind of external force this can be a kind
of gravity, this can be centrifugal force or this can be a force or the motion causing
because of the electric field or the motion causing because of the magnetic field etc. But
we are considering only these two things, so under the gravity affect or gravity field or
the particle settling in a fluid because of the gravity then we have a developed the
mechanics, we have seen the mechanics of particle motion in a fluid due to the gravity.

We have also derived expression for terminal velocities, free setting velocities etcetera
for different flow regions coming to the spherical particles and then those I know how to
find out whether a particle settling in a Stokes regime and Newton’s regime that also we
have seen by defining a kind of K parameter which is independent of u. So, up to that
part, we have seen, now we have a kind of summarization of table of this equation,
because these equations one way or other way we are going to use in rest of the course in
coming five to six models, that is the reason again of recapitulation is very much essential
and important which would be useful in you know, this lecture as well as coming 10 to 15
lectures.
(Refer Slide Time: 3:59)

So, now let us summarize the equation that we have developed, summary of settling of
spherical particle in fluids by gravity, that is what we are going to see, we have
expression K criteria and then terminal velocity expression for different types of flow
regimes. So, one is independent of the flow regime, another one is for the Stokes flow
regime. So, here this K criteria that we have defined like this, this is generalized one. So,
if you do not know any flow regime like whether the particular is settling in a Stokes
flow regime or Newton's flow regime, if you do not know so, you could not know which
equation which settling velocity equation should we use.

So, there is a generalized equation a settling velocity which is valid for all flow regimes,
this terminal velocity ut expression it is valid for the entire range of Reynolds number
starting from the Stokes regime to the Newton's flow regime. So, but this equation you
can use only when you know this CD otherwise you cannot use this equation because
other things are you know 𝜌𝑝 , 𝜌, 𝐷𝑝 etcetera g etcetera known for a given system. The
size of the particle is known and then density of particle and fluid are also known in
general g is also known that is acceleration due to the gravity that is known value. So,
only thing that unknown here is that CD so, which also kind of you know function of
velocity, relative velocity between the fluid and particle.
So, in order to calculate the relative velocity you need to know CD, but CD you cannot
know without knowing the relative velocity. So, that is the reason in order to overcome
this difficulty, you know what we have defined? We have defined this K criteria, we have
developed a expression for K and then we have seen this expression is independent of the
velocity. So, here 𝜌𝑝 , 𝜌, 𝐷𝑝𝑔 etcetera these terms are only there, but there is no velocity
term, so these are the like you know fluid properties or the particle property size of the
particle in general known.

So, for a given system this K value can be known. So, if we know that K value then for a
flow regime then we can use this equation. So, for the Stokes flow regime, we have
already seen this one as 18𝑅𝑒𝑝 = 𝐾 3 this is what we have seen here. So, now, for Stokes
regime upper limit of Reynolds number is 1,so then corresponding in K value that is if
3
you substitute 𝑅𝑒𝑝 is equal to 1 here, so, then 18 = 𝐾 3 or𝐾 = √18 = 2.6.

So, upper limit for Stokes flow regime is 𝑅𝑒𝑝 is 1. So, in terms of K upper limit of K
value for Stokes regime is 2.6 that is if 𝑅𝑒𝑝 is less than 1 Stokes flow regime applicable.
So, in terms of K if K is less than 2.6 Stokes law is applicable, then you can use this
Stokes, then you can use free settling velocity for spherical particle in Stokes regime like
this one, this equation you can use, this also we have already developed derived that is ut
𝑔𝐷𝑝2 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)
is equals to 𝑢𝑡 = that you can get.
18𝜇

Similarly, for Newton’s flow regime we have seen that expression you know 𝑅𝑒𝑝 =
1.75𝐾 1.5 this is what we have derived and then lower limit of 𝑅𝑒𝑝 the Newton’s flow
regime is 103 so, that is in this equation if 𝑅𝑒𝑝 if you substitute 103and then calculate K
value then you will get K is equal to 68.9 similarly, upper limit of 𝑅𝑒𝑝 for Newton's flow
regime is 2 x 105. So, now here in place of 𝑅𝑒𝑝 is equal to, if you substitute 2 x 105 and
then simplify this equation for K value, then K you will get 2360. So, as we know in
terms of Reynolds number the Newton’s flow regime is applicable if Reynolds number is
in between 103 to 2 x 105 for spherical particles.
So, corresponding K value is you know that is 68.9 and 2360 that is if K value is in
between 68.9 and 2360, then Newton's flow regime is applicable and then corresponding
1.75𝑔𝐷𝑝2 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)
settling velocity equation one can use that is 𝑢𝑡 = . This is how we can
𝜌

remember these equations they are going to be very much essential for several kind of
problems that we are going to solve in incoming lectures. So, till now the advantage, till
now what we have learned for settling a spherical particles in a Newtonian fluid because,
because of the gravitational field, how to obtain a terminal velocity of a system without
knowing drag coefficients etcetera that is by through knowing this K etcetera .

K value etcetera we can know which flow regime it is and then corresponding terminal
velocity equations or free settling velocity equations we can use. If the K value is in
between of these two limits 2.6 and 68.9 then that is a kind of intermediate flow regime
where one has to go for this equation to use, generalized equation you have to use so, that
how to use and how to solve the problem that we are going to see by solving a few
problems here now.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:09)

So, example one is very simple one where the Dp, ρ, u etcetera everything is known so,
we are going to find out for that kind of system what is the drag force. So, the problem
statement is calculate drag force on a submerged sphere of 42mm diameter in an
airstream with following properties: Density of air is 1.137 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 or air viscosity is
1.9 x 10-5 Pa-s, the relative velocity between the sphere and the airstream is 23 m/s and
then Dp is given as 42mm. So, that is 42 x 10-3 m. So, here𝜌, 𝜇, 𝑢, 𝐷𝑝 are known so, then
you can calculate the Reynolds number, if the Reynolds number is known the
corresponding drag coefficient we can know and from the drag coefficient we can know
the drag force. So, FD we have to find out. So, 𝑅𝑒𝑝 if you substitute here
𝐷𝑝 𝜌𝑢𝑡
𝜇
then you will get Rep is 5.781 x 10-4, that is more than 103, 𝑅𝑒𝑝 is greater than 103

and less than 2 x 105

so, Newton's flow regime is applicable. So, under the Newton's flow regime, we have
already seen that the drag coefficient is constant between 0.44 to 0.45 very small
1
negligible variation. So, what we do? We take 0.44 then we know the 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 2 𝜌𝑢𝑡2 𝐴𝑝
𝐹𝐷
⁄𝐴𝑝
So, this, this we have already you know CD we have defined, 1 , this is what we have
𝜌𝑢2
2

seen already. So, from here if you rearrange you get expression for FD as this one. So,
now here if you substitute all these values CD 𝜌 Ap is nothing but for spherical particle is
𝜋𝐷𝑝2
so, that is this one. If you substitute then you will get FD Ap for spherical particles is
4
𝜋𝐷𝑝2 𝜋𝐷𝑝2
that is the Ap of a sphere that is and in that if you substitute here and simplify
4 4

you will get 0.1833 Newton's drag force, that is the airstream is exerting a force of 0.1833
Newton's on the solid sphere in the flow direction, that is what we understand from this
problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:54)

Now similarly, we take another problem but slightly different. So, in the previous
example problem one, we know Reynolds number or we can calculate Reynolds number
because everything is known including the settling velocity. Now we calculate settling
velocity, we do not know settling velocity. So, how to calculate settling velocity?
Consider settling of oil droplet in air at 310 K and 101.3kPa, assume a rigid spherical
droplet of diameter 20µm with density 900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ,, calculate its terminal velocity if
density and viscosity of air are 1.137 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ,and 1.9 x 10-5 Pa-s.

In general when the droplets settling then there is a kind of possibility of deformation
because the surface of the droplet are deformable they are not rigid, but here the problem
statement it is given that the droplet is almost kind of rigid it is not undergoing any kind
of deformation, that is possible if you have the oil viscosity much higher compared to the
surrounding continuous fluid viscosity then you know in general it may be possible that
the droplet may remain spherical without going undergoing any kind of deformation and
it however, let us not go into the deformation characteristics of the droplet because in the
problem it is mentioned it is a kind of spherical droplet.
Now, here you how to find out the terminal velocity, if you know the Reynolds number,
then according to Reynolds number if the flow is under Stoles flow regime then you can
𝑔𝐷𝑝2 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)
use 𝑢𝑡 = expression to get the stokes velocity or the settling velocity of the
18𝜇

particle in Stokes regime. Similarly, if you know the Reynolds number is in between 103 ,
2 x 105 then you can use the free settling velocity corresponding to the Newton’s flow
regime and then you can calculate the velocity, but you need to know the Reynolds
number for that, you do not know Reynolds number in this case, why because Reynolds
𝐷𝑝 𝜌𝑢𝑡
number is 𝜇
ut terminal velocity we do not know, we indeed we have to calculate.

So, in order to overcome such kind of problems only we have defined this K expression.
So, first we calculate what is the value of K and then see accordingly to proceed next step
of the problem, because K is not function of you, whereas, Re Reynolds number is
1/3
𝐷𝑝0 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)
function of u. So, K we have defined as ( ) , if you substitute all these values
𝜇2

because Dp is known, g is known, 𝜌 is known, 𝜌𝑝 is known, mu is also known when you

substitute all these values you will get K is approximately 0.60566.

So, which is less than 2.6 if the K is less than 2.6, then 𝑅𝑒𝑝 would be less than 1, then
that means the particle would be settling in Stokes flow regime. So, then for the Stokes
flow regime we have already derived the free settling velocity expression ut as
𝑔𝐷𝑝2 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)
𝑢𝑡 = 18𝜇

So, if you substitute here 𝜌𝑝 , 𝜌, 𝐷𝑝 , 𝑔, 𝜇 values here in this expression, then simplify and
then you will get the free settling velocity of the oil droplet. So, that is coming go to be
1031.327 x 10-5 m/s or approximately 0.01 m/s now, this is how we how to solve the
problems associated with the settling velocity.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:42)

Now, what we do? We take another example, similar example, but see the K value does
not fall in either Stokes flow regime or Newton’s flow regime then how to solve. that is
what we are going to see now, estimate terminal velocity for minus 80 + 100 mesh
particles of limestone falling in water at 30 degrees centigrade. Actually here, the particle
size is not given, but it is mentioned that the particles passing through 80 mesh but
retaining on 100 mesh. So, the average size of those particles would be the average of the
aperture size opening of 80 mesh and a aperture size opening of 100 mesh.

So, from the standard Tyler screens, we know aperture size of 100 mesh is 0.147 mm
whereas the aperture size of 80 mesh is 0.175 mm. So, the average size would be the
average of these two number that is Dp is equals to 0.161mm, then for water at 30 degrees
centigrade we know or we can find out from the reference standard books the properties
of water like 𝜌 as 995.7 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , and 𝜇 is 0.801 cP or 0.801 into 10-3 Pa-s

Here also we have to find out it terminal velocity. So, first we have to find out what is the
1/3
𝐷𝑝0 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)
K value? K expression is this one ( ) again here everything is known now,
𝜇2

you substitute all these values here 𝜌𝑝 , 𝜌, 𝐷𝑝0 , 𝜇 values, then simplify you will get 4.896
as K value. It is not less than 2.6 it is not more than 68.9. So, it is in between the range so,
that means you cannot use the Stokes flow regime settling velocity equation, you cannot
use the Newton’s flow settling velocity equation, you have to use the generalized settling
velocity equation,.
So, for generalized settling velocity equation that there is a, this is the generalize equation
here which is valid for all flow regimes, you have to use this equation but if you want to
use this equation you should know what is the CD, then for the CD value how you can
get? You can get from the graph CD versus 𝑅𝑒𝑝 graphical information available for
spherical particles settling in a Newtonian fluid, from there you can read out. So, what is
the procedure? You have to assume one’s 𝑅𝑒𝑝 value corresponding to this one, since this
is K value corresponding to this K value, that is K is 4.89 only, which is not far away
from K is equals to 2.6 that is upper limit of Stokes flow regime.
So, that means upper limit of the Stokes flow regime is 𝑅𝑒𝑝 1. So, this is not too far from
2.6 so, 𝑅𝑒𝑝 is also not going to be too far from 𝑅𝑒𝑝 is equals to 1. So, this is how one has
to make a kind of a estimation or intuitively think what should be the starting guess of
Reynolds number, you cannot start with some kind of arbitrary Reynolds number, if you
start with that one, it is going to take a large time because it is a kind of trial and error
approach, you have to assume one 𝑅𝑒𝑝 value, obtain these corresponding CD from the
graph, then substitute that CD value here in this equation, to calculate this ut.

So now, for that assumed Rep you got 1 ut velocity it, so using that ut velocity, you
𝐷𝑝 𝜌𝑢𝑡
recalculate Rep using the 𝑅𝑒𝑝 = expression. So now, this calculated 𝑅𝑒𝑝 is it
𝜇

closely matching with the assumed 𝑅𝑒𝑝 or not? That is what you have to check. If it is
closely matching, then you can consider that is the final answer and then terminate the
calculation otherwise you how to make assumption of another 𝑅𝑒𝑝 value and then
continue the similar process until you get a constant reliable value where Re assumed and
Rep calculated both of them are matching together. So that is the process.
So, since trial and error approach is involved you cannot start with a kind of very blunt
any arbitrary or the assumed value then also you can get the solution but the number of
iterations that you need to do that may increase to a large number. So, this is how the
basis how to start with the assumption of 𝑅𝑒𝑝 value that based on the K value, let us say
K value is something around 50 or 60. So then it is close to the over limit of the Newton's
flow regime, that is K 68.9 which is corresponding to the Rep of 103, then you can start
with the assumption, Rep assumption, where assumed 𝑅𝑒𝑝 value something around 800 or
900 and start doing the calculations.

So, but here it is this K value is close to the 2.6 then Rep should be close to 1 or 2
something like that. So, this is how we have to do such kind of problem solving right. So
now, this CD versus 𝑅𝑒𝑝 information is available in standard books for spherical particle
settling in Newtonian fluid due to the gravity right, so that CD versus 𝑅𝑒𝑝 curve is like
this, this dotted, this red color line that whatever I am making here, something like this.
Whereas the Stokes flow regime it is a kind of this, this line here, you can see as the
Reynolds number increasing, at Reynolds number 1 they are closely matching, the Stokes
regime value and then true experimental value of CD versus 𝑅𝑒𝑝 both the values are
closely, almost closely matching.

So, but as you increase the Reynolds number the deviation between these two increasing.
So, that is the reason Stokes regime is valid only for the Reynolds number less than or
equal to 1 and the Newton flow regime between 𝑅𝑒𝑝 103 to 105 it is a constant value it is
something like this around 0.44 or 0.45 something like this. Now, we can see in this
regime the deviation between experimental or the curve values and then the theoretical
value of 0.44 or 0.45 it is almost same, constant, it is not changing.

This CD versus Re curves are in general based on the experimental results or based on
some kind of numerical results, both of them are you know matching well, so, these are
well established curve. So, there is no ambiguity in these results. So, now, what we do?
We assume one Reynolds number, let us say we assume Reynolds number 5 so, then 1, 2,
3, 4, 5 so, when Reynolds number 5 is this line, so what is the corresponding value of CD
from the curve, not from the Stokes regime curve line, but from the curve line. So, then
that is coming somewhere here, that is coming somewhere here, so, that is approximately
14.
So, from the graph Rep is equal to 5, CD we can see it is approximately 14, we are also
having some correlations between CD versus 𝑅𝑒𝑝 , for spherical particles we can use those
correlations as well. So, either graphs or the correlation we can use indeed, both of them
are matching together very much closely. So, then you calculate ut using this equation
because now, CD is known or assumed the 𝑅𝑒𝑝 value. So, you have a ut expression from
𝐷𝑝 𝜌𝑢𝑡
here then, using this ut you calculate, recalculate 𝑅𝑒𝑝 that is so here this ut, you
𝜇

substitute whatever the value that you are getting from just calculated ut, then check if the
Rep value whatever calculate Rep value is coming that is close to 5 or not, if it is not close
to 5, then you have to make another assumption and then repeat the calculation so, this is
how we have to do.

So, now, these are the expression that we have used for this calculation, tabulation if I
make so, when I assume 𝑅𝑒𝑝 is equals to 2.5 so from CD versus Re graph, I can get CD is
equals to 20 and then using this expression, if I calculate ut then I get ut is equals to
0.0138m/s and then using this ut by substituting this ut in this Rep expression, if I
calculate Rep then I get 𝑅𝑒𝑝 is equal to 2.76.
So, so, it is much close to the 2.5 value, let us assume it is acceptable, if it is acceptable
for you then ut would be close to 0.014 meter per second. If you want more accurate
results, so then you can make another assumption of Rep 2.6 and then see what would be
the new value of calculated 𝑅𝑒𝑝 . So, that is how we have to do and then corresponding
velocity values you should take as a terminal velocity. Wherever this assumed 𝑅𝑒𝑝 and
then calculated Rep are matching.

So, for this case, it is approximately 0.014m/s. This is how we have to calculate you
know settling velocities of the particles, spherical particles in Newtonian fluid due to the
gravity. So, that is about the motion of a particle settling in a Newtonian fluid because of
the gravity.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:14)

Now, the motion of particles in centrifugal field we see, so motion in a centrifugal field.
So, centrifuges in general increases the forces on particles many fold compared to the
gravity force. So, let us say centrifugal force if you calculate that is Fc and then gravity
force is Fg on a particle then you can see this is at least order of 102 or even more, in
general for rotational speed of 10 power 3 rpm this, this thing this is what we are going to
check any way now. So, for the time being you can take this, the ratio between the
centrifugal force to the gravity force is in general order of 102 or even more for a given
system

If the rotational speed is of the order of 102 to 103, if the rotational speed rpm and that is n
is equal to 103 rpm, if it is further increasing then this ratio is further going to increase
that means, centrifugal force is many fold at least 100 folds higher than the gravity fold in
simpler cases. So, it is also possible there are cases where the centrifugal force is several
thousand folds higher compared to the gravitational force. So, then obviously, the
particles those do not settle steadily or do not settle at all in gravity can often separated
from fluids by centrifugal forces, these kind of things may happen.

In general, you know when the density difference the 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌 is very small or the density
of particles and then density of the fluid are very much close to each other, then settling
becomes very difficult in gravity. Similarly, if the particle size is also very small order of
you know 10-6 micron size, 10-6 m, that is in micron size or something like that, then also
settling of this particle becomes very much difficult in gravity field.

So, when the density of two phases that is solid in fluid phases or density difference
between these two phases is very small and as well as the particle size is also very small
than settling will take longer time, it may be settling, but it may not be practical, it may
be taking several days or several hours to settle those particles by gravity, but under such
conditions or for those kind of situations, if you are applying kind of centrifugal forces,
so, those separation or the separation of those particles can be done even in a few minutes
despite the density differences small or despite the particles are very small or fine micron
size particles.

That is what mean by the centrifugal field is strong, that is what mean by this centrifugal
force is very high or high settling force means that practical rates of settling can be
obtained with much smaller particles than in gravity settlers. That is under such
conditions where 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌 is very small, or Dp is very small such as that in some microns,
then the settling of those particles in gravity may take several hours whereas, the same
particles may be settling in the same fluid because of the centrifugal force even in a few
minutes. So, that is what mean by practical rates, practically it can be done very quickly
or high centrifugal forces, What does it mean by high settling forces? That now practical
rates of settling is obtainable with centrifugal force, are they changing the relative
velocity between the particles?

No the relative velocity between the particles is not going to change because the density
whatever the relative velocities are there is only because of the density differences and in
external force that is applied. So, but here in, in such conditions centrifugal field what
happen? The centrifugal forces are so high that they overcome the disturbing Brownian
motion or the free convection currents between the particles or the particle and fluid. So,
whatever this Brownian motion that is making these particles to stay together and do not
settle, sometimes free convection currents also make these particles to float rather than
settle quickly, so, these are the kind of problems for the smaller particles or the particle
fluid system where the density difference is very small.
So, these are the kind of problems, reasons, they are, they do not settle quickly in gravity
settling conditions, but what happens you know if you apply high centrifugal forces,
these forces will overcome the so called the Brownian motion of free convection currents
and then make those particle to settle or separate from the fluid quickly as compared to
the gravity cases, gravity case may take more time, but here they can be done very
quickly because these high forces because now we have already seen this centrifugal
force is very high compared to the gravity force. So, these high forces overcome so called
Brownian motion, or the free convection currents between the particle and fluids.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:43)

So, a few examples, in general in dairy industry, what we have the cream from whole
milk is in general separated out in order to get the skim milk. So, the separating of cream
from the whole milk if you wanted to do by the gravity, then it may take several hours.
But the same thing if you wanted to do in a kind of centrifugal bowl, it can be done in a
few minutes only. So, that is practical rates that is, why should you wait several hours
you know, if you the same thing can be done in a few minutes, that is the one advantage,
another advantage that these you know, centrifugal bowls are in general smaller size
compared to the gravity sedimentation tanks available in industries, gravity sedimentation
tanks or the gravity classifiers or clarifiers are much higher size compared to the
centrifuges in general that we use in industry.
So, the size of this equipment is also very small right, so, that is one of the example.
Similar way we have examples in many food industries also such as breweries, vegetable
oil processing, fish protein concentrate processing etcetera. In vegetable oil processing
like what from what we do from vegetable seeds, edible seeds what we do we extract the
oil. So, in this process the oil comes out and then final particles, small small particles of
the crushed seeds will also be there even after separation by filtration etcetera.

So, sometimes this oil phase may be having the different phases, the liquid that we may
get that may be having two different phases or even one phase is there this small, very
small particles, the crushed seed particles may also be there, if you want to separate them
from the oil they take a long time in the gravity settling chambers, but if you apply the
centrifugal forces, so, the particles may be move towards the wall and then clear oil can
be taken from the center because of the density difference. In centrifugation what
happens you know whatever the contents are there fluid, solid, mixture other suspension
contents are there, you take in a bowl and then you rotate that bowl in one particular
direction at high speeds.

So, because of that rotation what happens circular motion of the bowl what happened this
contents, fluid and solids exert equal and opposite forces on to each other and then the
centrifugal forces that acts towards the wall, that acts towards the wall. So, then the
centrifugal force, the magnitude is in general very high. So, the particles as well as the
fluids will be pushed harder or moved very fastly towards the wall of the container. So, in
this process, whichever the phase is heavier, particles let us say, their density is higher
than the liquid. So, then particles will be sticking to the wall and being separated from the
suspension.

So, that is what the process in general takes place in this centrifugal, we are going to see
more equipment working principles and in other related equation for this centrifugal
apparatus in module number 9, but as of now, we need to develop this equations for this
motion of single particle in centrifugal fields. So, this much information is sufficient as of
now, in general let us say you have a light liquid phase and then heavy liquid phase and
then solids and then if you try to separate them by the gravity, it will take long time, but
the same thing if you do it in a kind of centrifugal bowl, you take the feed continuously in
the bowl and then you rotate this bowl at certain you know rpm 102 to 103 rpm, then what
happen?

The heavier liquid will, will be push it towards the wall whereas the lighter liquid will be
towards the center of the bowl because of the different degrees of centrifugal forces
acting in two different phases heavier and lighter phases, whereas the particles may be
settling at the bottom, if the if the mixture is also having the particles or a few particles
may be attaching to the wall at the bottom only depending on the state.

So, if you take a much higher the rotational speed then these particles may also be
sticking to the container wall but you do not want, now here three phases are there. So,
you want such a kind of rotational speed that the particles should be at the bottom only,
whereas these liquids, lighter liquid and heavier liquid should be separated by this one.
So there are outlets but the lighter and then heavier liquid. So then from those outlets
continuously one can take, take out this samples. So, this is a kind of continuous process
one can do, one can do a kind of batch process also.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:58)

So, now we see the mechanics of motion of particles in a centrifugal field. So, what we
have seen in centrifugal, centrifuges or the centrifugal force how it generates, if an object
is rotated in a container the contents of fluid and solids exert equal and opposite force
called the centrifugal force outward to the walls of the container. This force causes
settling or sedimentation of particles through a layer of liquid as I just shown pictorially
or filtration of liquid through a bed of filter cake held inside a perforated rotating
chamber.

So, you have a kind of bowl in general right, you continuously take a kind of feed here,
solid plus fluid mixture, whatever you have that you can take here or something like milk
you can take here and then you have a rotational provision for this one. So, if you rotate
this bowl here, so what, what happens? Let us say in the case of the dairy applications,
whatever the cream that is there, so that will be sticking to the wall as a kind of fine
particles here or something like that, and then skimmed milk would be occupying the
center space of the bowl. So, this is how the separation can be done in by using
centrifugal field.

So now let us say, if you are settling a particle in the centrifugal field, so, what should be
the settling velocity of that particle, how do you measure? So, that is what we are going
to see now. Exactly the same similar way if you have a particle in gravitational field, if it
is settling, what is it settling velocity that we have seen the exactly similar way we are
going to do here also. We know that acceleration from centrifugal force from circular
motion is nothing but 𝑟𝜔2 .
So, that external force in the previous case whatever we have taken in the gravity cases,
we have taken 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑔 that gravity or the acceleration due to gravity, that we have taken
as ae. Now, here in the case of centrifugal force, it is going to be r omega square, where r
is the radius of the path of the particle that is rotating due to the centrifugal motion and
then 𝜔 is the angular velocity that is the rotational speed at which the centrifugal bowl is
rotated in rad/s. The force balance, net force balance is going to be same exactly the same
whatever we have done in the gravity case where one single particle settling in gravity
field in a one dimensional motion, so, the net force is equals to the (external force -
buoyant force - drag force). So, the same is valid here also, we have already seen these
forces.

Now in the case of you know external force that is m x ae that we have seen, buoyant
𝑚 1
force we have seen that and then drag force we have seen 𝐶𝐷 2 𝜌𝑢2 𝐴𝑝 , here now
𝜌𝜌𝑝 𝑎𝑒

what we do? You separate out this m from all these terms so in the right hand side here
2m will get and then from these two terms what you do? You separate out ae we did
𝜌 𝜌𝑝 −𝜌
previously, then you have 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑡 is equal to 𝑎𝑒 × 1 − 𝜌 that is nothing but and then
𝑝 𝜌𝑝

1
last one𝐶𝐷 2𝑚 𝜌𝑢2 𝐴𝑝 is coming into the picture here. But now we know in under the case

of centrifugal force ae is nothing but 𝑟𝜔2 so, that you can substitute here.
Now, what we understand this velocity is now function r that is the radius of the path of
the particle, that is what we understand. So, this radius of path of the particle is very
much important. So, where it is rotating? Is it rotating towards the center? Is it rotating
towards the wall, close to the wall? If it is rotating close to the wall, the velocity is going
to be more obviously from this expression. So, those we are going to see the example
problem as well. So, but in general you know in the free settling condition due to gravity
that we have seen that the particle is not you know affected by the neighboring particles
there is only one particle in infinitely unbounded fluid.
So, there are no neighboring particles and then container wall is also far away from the
particle. So, there is no wall effects coming into the picture due to the presence of the
wall of the container. But those things are not true here in the centrifugal forces because
both fluid and particle both are rotating and they are rotating with different velocities in
general. So, under such conditions you cannot say 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑡 = 0. So, how to simplify this
equation? Until and unless you have some kind of information about this one we are, this
𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑡 we are, we will not be able to proceed further. So, how to deal such kind of cases?

So, but practically people have found the magnitude of these two terms in the right hand
side is much higher compared to the magnitude of a 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑡 term in the left hand side, that
is in comparison to two terms in the right hand side, the left hand side term is very very
𝑑𝑢
small. So, one can take = 0 is equal to 0 based on the practical consideration. Then we
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢
get ut is equals to this expression, mean after taking = 0 is equal to 0, then whatever
𝑑𝑡

the u in the right hand side is there that should be replaced by ut because when
acceleration is 0, the velocity is known as the terminal velocity or the maximum
attainable velocity ut. So, that ut, when you rearrange this equation, you will get this one,
so, simple rearrangement.
So, it is exactly the same like you know in the gravity case we have done but only with a
2𝑔(𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)𝑚
small change here in the gravity case we have √ rho this is what we have, only
𝐴𝑝 𝜌𝑝 𝐶𝐷

now, what is the difference here? In place of g we are getting r omega square, indeed all
the analysis is like that only because in case of acceleration, because of the centrifugal
force, the external force is 𝑚𝑟𝜔2 . So, that is compared to the gravity force where m into
g. So, g is replaced by 𝑟𝜔2 . So, that is the reason all the equation we are going to get
exactly the similar one's except that g is replaced 𝑟𝜔2

(Refer Slide Time: 45:05)

So now, motion of spherical particles in centrifugal field, that is what we see the just
derived expression ut that is irrespective of the shape of the particle we have not taken the
shape of the particle into the picture only during the orientation etcetera are not
considered, the motion is a one dimensional motion, that is what the assumption. So now,
if the particle is spherical, so, then m and Ap can be substituted accordingly and then
simplified, so that we can get equation or the motion of spherical particles in centrifugal
field or the equation for motion of spherical particles in centrifugal field that we can get if
you substitute m is equals to 𝑉𝑝 𝜌𝑝 , Vp is nothing but volume of the spherical particle that
𝜋𝐷𝑝3
is multiplied by rho p and then Ap is projected area.
6

𝜋𝐷𝑝2
Projected area of sphere is nothing but if you substitute these two values in this
4

equation with which we just derived here we get. So, this is nothing but you know m
value and this is nothing but 1 by Ap value. So, when you simplify this equation you will
get this. So, now here also the previous case due to the gravity if you remember, it is
4 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)
exactly 3 𝑔 , this expression we got. So, here also except this g is replaced by 𝑟𝜔2
𝜌𝐶𝐷
24
square nothing is new. So, similarly if you do 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑅𝑒 plus Stokes flow regime that is
𝑝

small Reynolds number regime, if 𝑅𝑒𝑝 is less than 1 then we can say it is a Stokes flow
24
regime and in for Stokes flow regime for spherical particles CD is nothing but 𝑅𝑒 .
𝑝

24
So, these . if you substitute here in this place CD, so, then this equation further after
𝑅𝑒𝑝

simplification will represent the settling velocity of a spherical particle in Stokes flow
regime. But due to the centrifugal field here, because this is centrifugal field we are
24
doing, so that we substitute here so, this is 𝜇𝐷 , if you simplify it, you will get ut is this
𝑝 𝜌𝑢𝑡

one, ut is left hand side and then right hand side also there. So, if you do square either
𝑟𝜔 2 𝜌𝐷𝑝2
side, so, then simplify you will get to 𝑢𝑡 = . So, let us say if you designate this ut
18𝜇

to utc, just to differentiate that it is because of the centrifugal fields.

 18𝜇
So then gravity fields corresponding equation we have you know derived it as 𝑔𝐷𝑝2

corresponding equation under the gravity field that we have derived that utg now g stands
𝑔𝐷𝑝2 ∆𝜌
for the gravity here. So that we have seen like that means utc by utg that is the same
18𝜇

size particle, you know same fluid then terminal velocities if you compare utc, that is
terminal velocity in centrifugal field divided by the utg that is the terminal velocity due to
the gravity is 𝑟𝜔2 by g, 𝜔 is a positive value, r is a positive value, g is also positive value.
So, then we can see utc is going to be r omega square by g times higher than the utg, that
is the particle is going to be settled 𝑟𝜔2 by g times faster than the terminal velocity in the
gravity field.

(Refer Slide Time: 49:01)

Similarly, for Newton's flow regime, we know that CD is equals to 0.44 so, in place of CD
𝑟𝜔 2 ∆𝜌𝐷𝑝
if you substitute 0.44 and then simplify you will get ut is 1.75√ . This is let us say
𝜌

utc and then corresponding utg we have already seen utg that is due to the gravity whatever
∆𝜌
the settling velocity is there in Newton’s flow regime is 1.75𝑔 . So, now you take the
𝜌

ratio of these two and then you will get utc by utg here again the g simply replaced by the
𝑟𝜔2 .
So, under the Newton's flow regime the ratio between these two terminal velocity that is
𝑢𝑡𝑐 𝑟𝜔 2
=√ , it is not such higher, but still here also the utc or the terminal velocity in
𝑢𝑡𝑔 𝑔

centrifugal field is much higher compared to the terminal velocity under the gravity field,
𝑟𝜔 2
how much higher it is? √ times it is higher.
𝑔

And then K criteria will be same except g is to be replaced by r omega square as, as just
we have seen two cases exactly the same way it has to be done. So, you can do it or
otherwise simply whatever the K expression previously you derived for the case of
gravity's settling or settling of particles under the gravity. So, if there if you replace the g
by r omega square you will get corresponding K expression for centrifugal field. And
those limits are also going to be exactly the same if K is less than 2.6 then Stokes flow
applicable, if K is in between 68.9 and 2360 then Newton's flow regime is applicable and
then corresponding settling velocity equations one can use. In between these two
numbers are there, so then we have to do trial and error approach as we have done
previously.
(Refer Slide Time: 51:16)

Now, relation between centrifugal and then gravity force, a relation between centrifugal
force and then gravity force, if you see so, what we have and we will get an expression or
we will get an feel how much larger is Fc compared to Fg that is what we get. So,
𝑣 𝑚𝑣 2
centrifugal force Fc is equals to m into ae now, ae is 𝑟𝜔2 . But 𝜔 = 𝑟 that means 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
So, if you wanted to represent the same Fc in terms of linear velocity then , but in
𝑟

general in the centrifugal bowl etcetera. We have a input parameter as a rotational speed
rpm or rp something like that. So, we try to represent this equation in terms of the
 60𝑣 2𝜋𝑁
rotational speed. Rotational speed 𝑁 = 2𝜋𝑟 rev/min or 𝜔 = , this is what we can have
60

now.

2𝜋𝑁 2
So, now here in this 𝜔2 equation place you can write ( 60 ) you can write, then what

2𝜋𝑁 2
you get 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑟 ( ) . So, this is what this, 0.01097𝑚𝑟𝑁 2 , but the gravity field is
60
𝐹𝑐
simply 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔. So, if you take then you will get this expression that is
𝐹𝑔

0.001118 𝑟𝑁 2 . Remember this N is, here is in terms of rpm we have written, in general
it is order of 102 to 103 or even more rpm. So, let us say if you take 102 rpm minimum 1,
then order of 102 rpm if you take N2 square, so, that will be order of 104 So, still it is Fc is
going to be at least 101 to 102 orders higher compared to the Fg, that is what we can say, if
you take N order of 103 then it will be √𝑁 with order of 106.

𝐹
So, then 𝐹𝑐 is going to be order of 103 or even more depending on the r value. So, this is
𝑔

how we can see, we can estimate how much important is this one, how much you know
reliable is this or how much strong force is a centrifugal force compared to the gravity
force. In other words, 𝐹𝑐 = 0.001118𝑟𝑁 2 𝐹𝑔 , we can also say that centrifugal force is r
𝑟𝑣 2
omega square by g times times greater than the gravitational force as we have seen in
𝑟𝑔

the previous slides just now. Now, we take one simple example problem, in order to have
a feel about the magnitude of this forces how much it is higher compared to the gravity
force.
(Refer Slide Time: 54:22)

A centrifuge having a radius of band 0.1016 m rotating at N is equal to 1000 rpm,

calculate Fc as function of Fg, that is first part, then compare Fc to that for a bowl with
radius of 0.2032 rotating at same speed, second part the rotational speed is kept constant,
it kept same, but the radius of the path of the rotating particle is doubled it. So, then how
the Fc is going to change? Obviously, it is also going to be doubled as, as per the equation
𝐹
that we have derived. So, 𝐹𝑐 we just derived it as 𝐹𝑐 = 0.001118𝑟𝑁 2 you substitute here N
𝑔

is in rpm so, 1000 you substitute here simplify. So, you can see 113.6 times higher that is
for this case, centrifugal force is 113.6 times higher than the gravity force.

Now, if you double the r value to 0.2032 meters, so, how much it increases? It will be
𝐹𝑐
doubled because is proportional to r so, it is going to be 227.2 times higher than the
𝐹𝑔

gravitational force. So, that means the particles towards the, close to the centrifugal bowl
wall or the wall of the centrifugal bowl is going to experience more centrifugal force
compared to the particles which are in the center of the bowl. Of course, during the
process of centrifugation once the steady stage develop the higher (particles) higher
density particles will be towards the wall and then lower density particles (toward) would
be towards the center as a separate layer.
(Refer Slide Time: 56:17)

So, the references for this lecture primarily this lecture is prepared from this reference
book Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering by McCabe, Smith and Harriot, there are
other reference books like Unit Operations of Particulates Solids: Theory and practice by
Ortega Rivas, Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering series by Chemical
Engineering series second volume by Richardson Harker is also having enough material
on these topics. Some problems related to the centrifugal forces that we have discussed in
this lecture are taken from this reference book Transport Processes and Unit Operations
by Geankoplis, other references or unit operations by Brown et al. And introduction to
Chemical Engineering by Badger and Banchero. Thank you.