Chapter 4 lesson 0: Introduction to Addressing Schemes

An addressing scheme is clearly a requirement for communications in a computer network. With an

addressing scheme, packets are forwarded from one location to another.

Ports and Addresses

IP Addressing of Devices
The use of IP addresses, whether IPv4 or IPv6, is the primary means of enabling devices to locate one
another and establish end-to-end communication on the Internet.

Each end device on a network must be configured with IP addresses. Some examples of end devices
are:
❖ Computers (work stations, laptops, file servers, web servers)
❖ Network printers
❖ VoIP phones
❖ Security cameras
❖ Smart phones
❖ Mobile handheld devices (such as wireless barcode scanners)

The structure of an IPv4 address is called dotted decimal notation and is represented with four
decimal numbers between 0 and 255.
IPv4 addresses are numbers assigned to individual devices connected to a network.

A subnet mask is a special type of IPv4 address that, coupled with the IP address, determines which
particular subnet of a larger network the device is a member.

IP addresses can be assigned to both physical ports and virtual interfaces on devices.
A virtual interface means that there is no physical hardware on the device associated with it

Interfaces and Ports

Types of network media include twisted-pair copper cables, fiber-optic cables, coaxial cables, or
wireless.
Ethernet is the most common local area network (LAN) technology used today.
Ethernet ports are found on end user devices, switch devices, and other networking devices that can
physically connect to the network using a cable. For a cable to connect devices using an Ethernet
port, the cable must have the correct connector, an RJ-45.

Addressing Services
Configuring a Switch Virtual Interface
To access the switch remotely, an IP address and a subnet mask must be configured on the SVI:
❖ IP address - Together with subnet mask, uniquely identifies end device on the internetwork
❖ Subnet mask - Determines which part of a larger network is used by an IP address
❖ interface vlan 1 - Used to navigate to the interface configuration mode from the global
configuration mode
❖ ip address 192.168.10.2 255.255.255.0 - Configures the IP address and subnet mask for the
switch (this is just one of many possible combinations for an IP address and subnet mask)
❖ no shutdown - Administratively enables the interface to an active state

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Manual IP Address Configuration for End Devices
In order for an end device to communicate over the network, it must be configured with the correct
IP address information. Much like a switch SVI, the end device must be configured with an IP address
and subnet mask. This information is configured on the PC settings.

All of these settings must be configured on an end device in order for it to properly connect to the
network. This information is configured under the PC network settings. In addition to IP address and
subnet mask information, it is also possible to configure default gateway and DNS server
information, as shown in the figure.

The default gateway address is the IP address of the router interface used for network traffic to exit
the local network.
The default gateway is an IP address that is often assigned by the network administrator and is used
when traffic must be routed to another network.

The DNS server address is the IP address of the Domain Name System (DNS) server, which is used to
translate IP addresses to web addresses, such as www.cisco.com.

All devices on the Internet are assigned and reached via an IP address. However, it is easier for
people to remember names over numbers.
The DNS server is used to maintain the mapping between the IP addresses and names of various
devices

Automatic IP Address Configuration for End Devices

IP address information can be entered into the PC manually, or using Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP). DHCP allows end devices to have IP information automatically configured.

DHCP is a technology that is used in almost every business network. The best way to understand why
DHCP is so popular is by considering all the extra work that would have to take place without it.

DHCP enables automatic IPv4 address configuration for every end device in a network with DHCP
enabled. Imagine the amount of time that would be consumed if every time you connected to the
network you had to manually enter the IP address, the subnet mask, the default gateway, and the
DNS server. Multiply that by every user and every one of their devices on the network and you see
the problem.

DHCP is an example of technology at its best. One of the primary purposes of any technology is to
make it easier to perform the tasks they want to do or need to do. With DHCP, the end user walks
into the area served by a given network, plugs in an Ethernet cable or enables a wireless connection,
and they are immediately allocated the necessary IPv4 information required to fully communicate
over the network.

As shown in figure below, to configure DHCP on a Windows PC, you only need to select "Obtain an IP
address automatically" and "Obtain DNS server address automatically". Your PC will be assigned
information from an IP address pool and associated IP information set up on the DHCP server

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It is possible to display the IP configuration settings on a Windows PC by using the ipconfig command
at the command prompt.

IP Address Conflicts
If a static (manual) IP address is defined for a network device, for example, a printer, and then a
DHCP server is installed, duplicate IP address conflicts may occur between the network device and a
PC obtaining automatic IP addressing information from the DHCP server.

To resolve such an IP addressing conflict convert the network device with the static IP address to a
DHCP client; or on the DHCP server, exclude the static IP address of the end device from the DHCP
scope.

Verifying Connectivity
Test the Loopback Address on an End Device
The ping command is used to verify the internal IP configuration on a local host. This test is
accomplished by using the ping command on a reserved address called the loopback (127.0.0.1). The
loopback address, 127.0.0.1, is defined by the TCP/IP protocol as a reserved address that routes
packets back to the host.

The result indicates that four test packets of 32 bytes each were sent and returned from host
127.0.0.1 in a time of less than 1 ms. This successful ping request verifies that the network interface
card, drivers, and the TCP/IP implementation are all functioning correctly.

Testing the Interface Assignment

In the same way that you use commands and utilities to verify a host configuration, you use
commands to verify the interfaces of intermediary devices. The IOS provides commands to verify the
operation of router and switch interfaces.

Verifying the Switch Interfaces

Examining S1 and S2, you use the show ip interface brief command to verify the condition of the
switch interfaces, as shown in the figure. The IP address assigned to VLAN 1 interface on S1 is
192.168.10.2. The IP address assigned to VLAN 1 interface on S2 is 192.168.10.3. The physical
interfaces F0/1 and F0/2 on S1 are operational, as are the physical interfaces F0/1 and F0/2 on S2.

Testing End-to-End Connectivity

Testing PC-to-Switch Connectivity
The ping command can be used on a PC, just as on a Cisco IOS device. The figure shows that
a ping from PC1 to the IP address of the S1 VLAN 1 interface, 192.168.10.2, should be successful.

Testing End-to-End Connectivity

The IP address of PC1 is 192.168.10.10, with subnet mask 255.255.255.0, and default
gateway 192.168.10.1.

The IP address of PC2 is 192.168.10.11, with subnet mask 255.255.255.0, and default
gateway 192.168.10.1.

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 A ping from PC1 to PC2 should also be successful. A successful ping from PC1 to PC2 verifies
end-to-end connectivity in the network

Lesson 1: MAC Address

(Media Access Control)

MAC Addresses are unique 48-bit hardware number of a computer, which is embedded into a
network card (known as a Network Interface Card) during the time of manufacturing. MAC Address
is also known as the Physical Address of a network device. In IEEE 802 standard, Data Link Layer is
divided into two sublayers –
1. Logical Link Control(LLC) Sublayer
2. Media Access Control(MAC) Sublayer

MAC address is used by the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of the DataLink Layer.
MAC Address is worldwide unique since millions of network devices exist and we need to uniquely
identify each.

Why are MAC addresses used?

MAC addresses are unique 6-byte long hardware-encoded identifiers also known as EUI (Extended
Unique Identifier)

Anatomy of MAC addresses

MAC addresses are unique and used worldwide. Millions of online devices communicate through
them. We use the 48-bit or 6-byte long MAC address in Hexadecimal for the unique identification of
devices.

Vendor code: B4 A4 E3
Serial Number: BA 87 5B

Architecture of MAC 1. MAC Address containing 6 outlets.

2. First, three octets (group of eight bits) are Organizationally
Unique Identifier (OUI). It is a 24-bit number that identifies the
manufacturer, organization, or any vendor. The last three pairs of
digits are the number specific to the device, which is known as
Network Interface Controller (NIC) specific.
3. Three octets contain 8 bits like a0, a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, and
a7.
4. In a0, there are two bits, 0 and 1. 0 indicates unicast having a
unique address of destination server. 1 bit means multicast MAC
address of protocol, data stream, or application.
5. In a1 also, there are two bits, 0 and 1. 0 indicates globally
unique (OUI ENFORCED) to identify manufacturers and vendors
worldwide or globally. 1 means LOCALLY ADMINISTERED, which is
similar to LAN (Local Area Network) IP address.

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Format of MAC Address:

MAC Address is a 12-digit hexadecimal number (6-Byte binary number), which is mostly represented
by Colon-Hexadecimal notation.

The First 6 digits (say 00:40:96) of the MAC Address identify the manufacturer, called OUI
(Organizational Unique Identifier).

IEEE Registration Authority Committee assigns these MAC prefixes to its registered vendors.

Here are some OUI of well-known manufacturers:

CC:46:D6 - Cisco
3C:5A:B4 - Google, Inc.
3C:D9:2B - Hewlett Packard
00:9A:CD - HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD

As discussed above, the MAC address is represented by Colon-Hexadecimal notation. But this is just
a conversion, not mandatory. MAC address can be represented using any of the following formats:

How to find MAC address:

Command for UNIX/Linux – ifconfig -a
ip link list
ip address show

Command for Windows OS – ipconfig /all

MacOS – TCP/IP Control Panel

Types of MAC Address:

1. Unicast - A Unicast-addressed frame is only sent out to the interface leading to a specific
NIC.
 If the LSB (least significant bit) of the first octet of an address is set to zero, the
frame is meant to reach only one receiving NIC. MAC Address of source machine is
always Unicast

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 2. Multicast - The multicast address allows the source to send a frame to a group of devices. In
Layer 2 (Ethernet) Multicast address, LSB (least significant bit) of the first octet of an address
is set to one. IEEE has allocated the address block 01-80-C2-xxxx-xx (01-80-C2-00-00-00 to
01-80-C2-FF-FF-FF) for group addresses for use by standard protocols

3. Broadcast: Similar to Network Layer, Broadcast is also possible on the underlying layer( Data
Link Layer). Ethernet frames with ones in all bits of the destination address (FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-
FF) are referred to as the broadcast addresses. Frames that are destined with MAC address
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF will reach every computer belonging to that LAN segment

What is MAC Cloning:

Some ISPs use MAC addresses in order to assign an IP address to the gateway device.
When a device connects to the ISP, the DHCP server records the MAC address and then assigns an IP
address. Now the system will be identified through the MAC address. When the device gets
disconnected, it loses the IP address.
If the user wants to reconnect, the DHCP server checks if the device is connected before. If so, then
the server tries to assign the same IP address (in case the lease period has not expired).
In case user changed the router, the user has to inform the ISP about new MAC address because the
new MAC address is unknown to ISP, so the connection cannot be established

Characteristics of MAC address:

Media Access Control address (MAC address) is a unique identifier assigned to most network
adapters or network interface cards (NICs) by the manufacturer for identification and used in the
Media Access Control protocol sub-layer.
An Ethernet MAC address is a 48-bit binary value expressed as 12 hexadecimal digits (4 bits per
hexadecimal digit).

Advantages:
1. Uniqueness: Each MAC address is unique, which means that devices on the network can be easily
identified and managed.
2. Simplicity: MAC addresses are easy to configure and manage, and do not require any additional
network infrastructure.
3. Compatibility: MAC addresses are widely used and supported by a variety of networking
technologies and protocols, making them compatible with many different systems.
4. Security: MAC addresses can be used to restrict access to a network by only allowing devices with
authorized MAC addresses to connect.
5. Fault-tolerance: In case of hardware or software failure, a device can be easily replaced without
affecting the network, as long as the new device has the same MAC address as the old one.

Disadvantages:
1. Limited address space: MAC addresses are 48-bit numbers, which means that there is a finite
number of possible MAC addresses. This can lead to address conflicts if multiple devices have the
same MAC address.
2. Spoofing: MAC addresses can be easily spoofed, allowing unauthorized devices to gain access to
the network.
3. Inefficiency: MAC addresses are not hierarchical, which can make it difficult to efficiently manage
large networks.

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4. Static addressing: MAC addresses are typically assigned at the time of manufacture and cannot be
easily changed. This can be a disadvantage in situations where devices need to be reconfigured or
replaced.
5. Limited scope: MAC addresses are only used for identifying devices within a local network
segment, and cannot be used to identify devices outside of this segment.

Lesson 3: IP Addressing
IP Addressing
• An IP address is a 32-bit sequence of 1s and 0s.
• To make the IP address easier to use, the address is usually written as four decimal numbers
separated by periods.
• This way of writing the address is called the dotted decimal format.

IPv4 Addressing
IP addresses are displayed in dotted decimal notation, and appear as four numbers separated by
dots. Each number of an IP address is made from eight individual bits known as octet. Each octet can
create number value from 0 to 255. An IP address would be 32 bits long in binary divided into the
two components, network component and host component. Network component is used to identify
the network that the packet is intend for, and host component is used to identify the individual host
on network.

IP addresses are broken into the two components:

Network component: - Defines network segment of device.
Host component: - Defines the specific device on a particular network segment

IP Classes in decimal notation

Class A addresses range from 1-126
Class B addresses range from 128-191
Class C addresses range from 192-223
Class D addresses range from 224-239
Class E addresses range from 240-254

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• 0 [Zero] is reserved and represents all IP addresses.
• 127 is a reserved address and is used for testing, like a loop back on an interface.
• 255 is a reserved address and is used for broadcasting purposes
Subnet mask
Subnet mask is a 32 bits long address used to distinguish between network address and host address
in IP address. Subnet mask is always used with IP address. Subnet mask has only one purpose, to
identify which part of an IP address is network address and which part is host address.
- For example how will we figure out network partition and host partition from IP address
192.168.1.10 ? Here we need subnet mask to get details about network address and host
address.
-
• In decimal notation subnet mask value 1 to 255 represent network address and value 0 [Zero]
represent host address.
• In binary notation subnet mask ON bit [1] represent network address while OFF bit[0] represent
host address.

In decimal notation
IP address 192.168.1.10
Subnet mask 255.255.255.0
Network address is 192.168.1 and host address is 10

In binary notation
IP address 11000000.10101000.00000001.00001010
Subnet mask 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Network address is 11000000.10101000.00000001 and host address is 0000101

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Network ID - First address of subnet is called network ID. This address is used to identify one
segment or broadcast domain from all the other segments in the network.

Block Size - is the size of subnet including network address, hosts addresses and broadcast address.

Broadcast ID - There are two types of broadcast, direct broadcast and full broadcast.

Direct broadcast or local broadcast is the last address of subnet and can be hear by all hosts in
subnet.

Full broadcast is the last address of IP classes and can be hear by all IP hosts in network.
Full broadcast address is 255.255.255.255
The main difference between direct broadcast and full broadcast is that routers will not propagate
local broadcasts between segments, but they will propagate directed broadcasts.

Host Addresses
All address between the network address and the directed broadcast address is called host address
for the subnet. You can assign host addresses to any IP devices such as PCs, servers, routers, and
switches.

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Reserved IP Addresses

• Certain host addresses are reserved and cannot be assigned to devices on a network.

• An IP address that has binary 0s in all host bit positions is reserved for the network address.

• An IP address that has binary 1s in all host bit positions is reserved for the Broadcast address.

Public and Private IP Addresses

• No two machines that connect to a public network can have the same IP address because public IP
addresses are global and standardized.

• However, private networks that are not connected to the Internet may use any host addresses, as
long as each host within the private network is unique.

• RFC 1918 sets aside three blocks of IP addresses for private, internal use.

• Connecting a network using private addresses to the Internet requires translation of the private
addresses to public addresses using Network Address Translation (NAT).

Obtaining an Internet Address

• Static addressing
- Each individual device must be configured with an IP address.
• Dynamic addressing
- Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
- Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP)
- Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
- DHCP initialization sequence
- Function of the Address Resolution Protocol
- ARP operation within a subnet

Static Assignment of IP Addresses

Each individual device must be configured with an IP address.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Allows a host to obtain an IP address using a defined range of IP addresses on a DHCP server.
As hosts come online, contact the DHCP server, and request an address

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