DIAGRAM OF MRS.

GOYA’S CHOCOLATE • Cell all living things are made up

• Types of cell; prokaryotic and eukaryotic

Role of water in biochemical systems

• Excellent biological solvent – ability to dissolve a wide
range of inorganic and organic substances
• Amphoteric substance- may act as either acid or base;
may dissociate to form hydroxide (OH-) or hydronium
(H3O+) ions; may act as buffer to maintain the normal
physiological pH of body fluids and cells
• Aids in various metabolic processes- break down large
molecule to smaller molecules through hydrolysis; the
transfer of a group of molecules to another molecules
• Maintains normal body temp due to its high specific
FACTORY heat Principal areas of chemistry
QUESTIONS TO ANSWER • Structural chemistry- looks into the relationship of the
a. walls, roof, and floor cell membrane and cell wall molecular structure of biochemical substances to their
b. building framework cytoskeleton biological function
c. the machines ribosomes • Metabolism- studies the totality of chemical reactions
d. the conveyor belts with machines attached to them that occur in living organism
rough endoplasmic reticulum • Molecular genetics- seeks to understand the chemistry
e. the conveyor belts without machines attached to them of the processes and substances that store and transmit
smooth endoplasmic reticulum f. the control center biological information; aims to understand heredity
nucleus and the expression of genetic information in molecular
g. the machine shop nucleolus terms Principles of biochemistry
h. the packaging center golgi • Cell- highly organized and constant source of energy is
i. the storage area vacuoles required to maintain the ordered state
j. the power generators mitochondria • Living process- contain thousands of chemical
pathways; precise regulation and integration of those
k. the cleaning department lysosomes and peroxisomes
pathways are required to maintain life
l. solar cells chloroplast
• Certain important pathway- glycolysis is found in
m. boxes in the packaging center secretory and transport
almost all organism
vesicles
• All organisms use the same type of molecule; 4
n. everything in the factory cytoplasm
macromolecules
(2) In your cells, what is the product of the structure you • Instructions for growth, reproduction and development
listed in "c" above? Proteins for each organism is encoded in their DNA

Introduction to biochemistry
Biomolecules are polymers
• Biochem is the chemistry of living organism. If its
• Biopolymers- macromolecules created by joining
alive, biochemists will study it.
many smaller organic molecule (monomers)
• Biochemistry takes place at the molecular level of
• Condensation reaction- join monomers (water is
organisms.
removed in the process)
• These molecules make up like; bioinorganic molecule
• Residue- each monomer in a chain
(Water 70%, Inorganic salts 5%)[contains elements
other than C, H, O, N, S, & P], bioorganic molecule
(Proteins 15%, lipids 8%, carbohydrates 2%, nucleic
acid 2%)
Carbohydrates
- most abundant in nature among the other
macromolecules
- produced largely by green plants, algae, and some
bacteria by photosynthesis (sugars, provide most of the
energy used by cells, if not immediately needed for
photosynthesis, they are converted into glycogen or fat)
Functions
- Metabolic precursors of all other macromolecules
- Primary source of energy for humans and animals
- Important component of cell walls and extracellular
structures in plants, animals, and bacteria
- Plays an important role in cell recognition
Definition
- (Nutrition) substances that provide energy for various
metabolic processes. For every one gram of glucose (a
carbohydrate that is converted to ATP), 4 kcal of energy is
produced.
- (Etymology) “hydrates of carbon”
- (Structure) are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones or
substances that yields these compounds upon hydrolysis.
Classification of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharide
- one saccharide unit
- glucose (blood sugar) & fructose (fruit sugar)
2. Disaccharide
- two saccharide unit
- sucrose (table sugar) = glucose + fructose
- lactose (milk sugar) = glucose + galactose
- maltose (malt sugar) = glucose + glucose
3. Polysaccharide
- made up of polymers or chains of many saccharide units.
- starch = polymer of glucose
- glycogen= polymer of glucose
- inulin= polymer of fructose
Monosaccharide
- the simplest sugar units which follows the definition of
polyhydroxyaldehyde or polyhydroxyketone
- colorless, crystalline solids
- very soluble in water because hydrogen bonding is
possible between their polar —OH groups and water
- slightly soluble in ethanol and are insoluble in non-polar
solvents such as diethyl ether, dichloromethane, and
benzene
- Classification of Monosaccharide & Nomenclature
1. Accord. to the number of carbon atoms present
- prefix: tri-, tetr-, pent-, & hex- | suffix: -ose
- ex. Triose, tetrose, pentose
2. Accord. to the type of carbonyl group present and the
number of C atoms
- Aldoses (CHO) = “aldo” + number of carbon + -ose
- ex. aldopentose, aldotriose, aldohexose
- Ketose (CO) = “keto” + number of carbon + -ose
- ex. ketotriose, ketotetrose, ketopentose
Types of Monosaccharide Isomers
1. Constitutional isomers
- Isomers that differ in connectivity and functional groups.
- Ex. D-glucose (aldose) vs. D-fructose (ketose)
2. Stereoisomer
- Isomers that differ in orientation of atoms around
stereogenic (chiral) carbon.
 Enantiomers: non-superimposable mirror images of
each other
 Diastereomers: are stereoisomers which are not mirror
images of each other
 Epimers: diastereomers that differ in the position of
only one OH group.
Structures of Monosaccharide
1. Fischer projections
- developed by Emil Fischer
- is a two-dimensional structural notation representing the
open chain configuration of monosaccharides
- chiral centers which is almost always carbon are
represented as intersections of horizontal and vertical lines
- fischer projection of D-aldoses:

- fischer projection of D-ketoses:

3. Haworth Structures
- represent the cyclic structures of monosaccharides as
*furanose ring – 5 membered ring monosaccharide
- often produced by aldopentoses and
ketohexoses
*pyranose ring – 6 membered ring monosaccharide
- often produced by aldohexoses

- Nomenclature:
a. indicate whether α- (alpha) or β- (beta)
b. indicate whether D- or L-
c. root name of monosaccharide = drop the –se ending
2. Hemiacetal/ Hemiketals d. type of ring: pyranose or furanose
- Reaction between alcohol and aldehydes or ketones - Name transitions from Haworth, to Hemi-acetal, to
- Cyclic hemiacetals reaction often occurs between the Fischer:
anomeric carbon (carbon containing the HC=O for aldoses Haworth Name : β-D-glucopyranose
or C=O for ketoses) and the OH of the penultimate carbon Hemi-Acetal Name : β-D-glucose
(second to the last carbon). Fischer Name : D-glucose
- The hemiacetal produced from D-monosaccharides - How to draw
occur in two forms called anomers:  Determine the Fischer name from the given Haworth
*α- (alpha) if the OH of the anomeric carbon is at the name
right.
*β- (beta) if the OH of the anomeric carbon is at the left.

 Draw the Fischer structure based from the Fischer

name and number the Carbon atoms from top to bottom.
Identify the anomeric carbon.

 Assign an OH group on the anomeric carbon:

*α- (alpha) – the OH of the anomeric carbon is drawn
opposite the orientation of the last CH2OH.
*β- (beta) - the OH of the anomeric carbon is drawn with
the same orientation as the last CH2OH.
 Draw the ring structure based on the Haworth name
and number the Carbon atoms on the ring. The C atom to
the right of oxygen is the anomeric carbon. The number of
the anomeric carbon in the Haworth ring should coincide
with the number of the anomeric carbon in the Fischer
structure.

Derivatives of Monosaccharide
 Sugar Acids
 Assign OH groups to the carbons on the ring except for - formed by the oxidation of the aldehyde and/or primary
the two carbons nearest to oxygen based on the following: alcohol in aldoses into carboxylic acid groups
*if the OH is at the left in the Fischer structure = OH is
drawn upward in the Haworth ring
*if the OH is at the right in the Fischer structure = OH is
drawn downward in the Haworth ring (p. 31)

1. Oxidation of Sugar Acids

 Connect the last CH2OH on the last carbon on the ring.

*D-sugars – last CH2OH is drawn upward.
*L-sugars – last CH2OH is drawn downward.

1A. Aldonic acids

- Weak oxidizing agents such as Tollen’s, Fehling’s and
Benedict’s solution, oxidize the aldehyde end (CHO) of
an aldose to a carboxylic acid (COOH) to give an aldonic
acid.
- a-D-glucoronic acid detoxifies foreign phenols and
alcohols; in the liver, these compounds are converted to
glycosides of glucuronic acid and excreted in the urine. It
is a widely distributed in the plant and animal world. In
humans, it is an important component of the acidic
polysaccharides of connective tissues.

- Occurs in aldehyde because of the CHO, but there are

instances where ketose mimics its reaction because it
undergoes keto-enol tautomerization which produces
mixtures of aldoses.
- Ketose sugars also react with Benedict’s and Tollen’s to
2. Reduction of Sugar Alcohols/ Alditols
produce aldonic acids. They are converted to aldoses first
before reacting with the reagents.
D-psicose = D-allose or D-altrose
D-fructose = D-glucose or D-mannose
D-sorbose = D-gulose or D-idose
D-tagatose = D-galactose or D-talose
1B. Aldaric acids
- Strong oxidizing agents such as nitric acid oxidized the
anomeric end and the primary alcohol end producing
aldaric acid
- galactaric acid is an example
- Xylitol is a component of sugar free gum
- D-glucitol or D-sorbitol is found in the plant world in
many berries and in cherries, plums, pears, apples,
seaweed, and algae. It is also used as a sweetening agent.
Accumulation of D-sorbitol in the eye is a major factor in
1C. Uronic acids the formation of cataracts.
- Enzymes can oxidize only the primary alcohol end of an - D-mannitol is now used in the treatment of malignant
aldose to produce an alduronic acid brain tumors. It is injected directly into the brain’s main
arteries to lower the blood-brain barrier and allow
chemotherapeutic agents to be administered intravenously.
- Alditols are used as moisturizing agents in food and in
cosmetic products.
3. Glycoside Formation
- The cyclic form of monosaccharide are hemiacetals
which may react with alcohols to form an acetal. A
glycoside is an acetal formed by a cyclic monosaccharide
- may also exist as closed ring structure
by replacement of the OH of the hemiacetal carbon with
an O – R group.
 - Glucosamine is a chemical found naturally in the body,
4. Phosphate esters
in the fluid that cushions joints. It stimulates
- The hydroxyl groups (OH) of a monosaccharide can
chondrocytes, the cells in the joint that produce and repair
react with phosphoric acid to form phosphate esters.
cartilage.
- Galactosamine is a major component of glycoproteins,
an essential part of living cells. It can also be found in
small amounts in soil. Humans and animals do not derive
galactosamine from the diet; rather it is synthesized within
the body. It is a constituent of hyaluronic acid, a potent
water-binding agent
- D-mannosamine is a monosaccharide involved in a range
of metabolic processes. In its N-acetyl form it is a
constituent of neuraminic acids, glycolipids and
glycoproteins.
- Amino sugars and their N-acetyl derivatives are
important building blocks of chitin and hyaluronic acid.
- N-acetyl derivatives of glucosamine and galactosamine
acts as biochemical markers of red blood cells which
distinguishes various blood types.

5. Amino Sugars
- Amino sugars are constituents of structures found in all
tissues, mostly on the surface of cells and in the spaces
between them, forming the substance that binds cells
together, membranes that envelope them and protective
layers that cover them.
- only occurs in carbons 2-4 - The surface of red blood cells contain glycoproteins
(sugar containing proteins) that determines the blood type
(has specific antigens and antibodies against other blood
types).

- There are 3 naturally occurring amino sugars. In all

three, the amino group replaces the carbon 2 hydroxyl
group.
 Identifying factors of a Disaccharide
1. Monosaccharide composition (monosaccharide present
and order of monosaccharides)
2. Glycosidic bond

Disaccharide Sugars
1. Maltose
- a-D-glucopyranose + a-D-glucopyranose
- glycosidic linkage: a-(14)
- A product of the hydrolysis of starch and is eventually
broken down into glucose to be absorbed in the body.
- Known as “malt sugar” since it is found in wheat and
barley from which malt extract is produced commercially.

Disaccharides
- a group of carbohydrates that are composed of two
monosaccharides bonded together
- The bond between the two monosaccharides is called
glycosidic bond usually in carbon 1-4
- formed through condensation (combining small units
together) dehydration (removal of water) reactions.

2. Lactose
- b-D-galactopyranose + a-D-glucopyranose
- glycosidic linkage: b-(14)
- Known as “milk sugar”. It is found in milk and milk
products.
- Synthesized by lactating mammary gland
- Milk sugar (lac-milk)
- Enzyme – lactase and lactose intolerance
- Least sweet sugar – 16% of sucrose
- Possesses one potential aldehyde group
* reducing sugar
* forms osazone crystals
- Lactose intolerance
* A glass of milk often contains 11g of lactose
* In order for lactose to be absorbed, it should be broken
down into glucose and galactose by the enzyme lactase in
the small intestine.
* For those with lactose intolerance, the body is unable to
produce sufficient amount of lactase to break down
lactose
* When the undigested lactose reaches the large intestine,
lactose undergo fermentation which produces CO2 that
leads to an upset stomach
* A digestive disorder caused by the inability to digest
lactose
6. Fructose (Monosaccharide)
* symptoms: bloating, diarrhea, abdominal cramps
- Latin word for fruit — "fructus"
*diagnosis: oral tolerance test and/or measurement of H2
- Found in fruit juices, honey
gas in breath
- Released by the hydrolysis of inulin
3. Glucose (Monosaccharide)
- Main nutritional source of energy for the spermatozoa
- Found in fruits, fruit juices, hydrolysis of starch, maltose
and is found in the seminal fluid
and lactose.
- Can be converted to glucose in the liver
- Body sugar and the principal one used by the tissues
- It is the sweetest sugar
- Excess in the blood is called hyperglycemia and
- Lack of enzymes of metabolism can lead to essential
presence in urine (glucosuria) indicates diabetes mellitus
fructosuria
- Cataract due to sorbitol
4. Galactose (Monosaccharide)
Reducing Disaccharide
- Greek word for milk--"galact", found as a component of
- Disaccharides with a free anomeric Carbon which was
lactose in milk
not used in forming the glycosidic bond.
- Formed by the hydrolysis of lactose
- Synthesized in the lactating mammary gland
- Constituent of glycolipids and glycoproteins
- Can be converted to glucose in the liver
- Accumulation can lead to galactosemia and cataract
(galactitol)
5. Sucrose
- a-D-glucopyranose + b-D-fructofuranose
- glycosidic linkage: a-(12)
- non-reducing sugar because there is no free anomeric
carbon that can form other glycosidic bond

Dental carries
- Dental caries or cavities refers to the destruction of the
enamel surface of teeth caused by acids resulting from
bacterial breakdown of sugars in the mouth.
Polysaccharide (glycans)
- are carbohydrates that are made up of many saccharide
units.
- made up of chains or polymers of saccharide units.
- usually made up of more than 10 saccharide units.
- carbohydrates with 3 – 9 saccharide units are called
oligosaccharide.
- the monosaccharides that make up polysaccharides are
bonded together by glycosidic bonds in nature occur as
polysaccharides.
- most abundant type of carbohydrates
Classification Of Polysaccharides
A. According to Composition
- polysaccharides may be classified based on its repeating
units.
1.Homoglycan – made up of only one kind of
monosaccharide as its repeating unit.
a. Hexosans – polysaccharides that yield hexoses upon
hydrolysis
i. Glucans – polysaccharides made up of glucose units.
ii. Fructans – polysaccharides of fructose.
iii. Galactans – polysaccharides of galactose.
b. Pentosans – polysaccharides that yield pentoses upon
hydrolysis.
2. Heteroglycan – made up of two or more different kinds
of monosaccharide or sugar derivatives as its repeating
unit.
B. According to Function
- polysaccharides fulfill a wide variety of functions in
living organisms. Hence, it is best to categorized
polysaccharides according to their function.
Polysaccharides according to their function
1. Storage Polysaccharide
- These polysaccharides is the storage form of
monosaccharides and is used as energy source for cells.
*Starch (homoglycan)
- contains a-D-glucose units only which gives rise to a
chain that folds in a helical form
- energy reserve of plants which are stored in granules
within cells
- most abundant dietary carbohydrate in cereals, potatoes,
legumes and other vegetables.
- Used as thickening agent in cooking
- composed of amylose and amylopectin
- Amylose is made up of unbranched chains of up to 4000
D-glucose units joined by α(1-4) glycosidic bonds;
unbranched and accounts for 15-20% of starch
- Amylopectin contains chains up to 10,000 D-glucose
units joined by α(1-4)glycosidic bonds; at branch points,
new chains of 24 to 30 units are started by α(1-6)
glycosidic bonds; branched and accounts for 80-85% of
starch that has higher molecular weight than amylose due
to branching
*Glycogen (homoglycan)
- has a structure that is similar to amylopectin but is much
more branched
- energy reserve of animals which is deposited in the liver.
- also abundant in muscle tissues where it is more
immediately available for energy release.
- a branched polysaccharide of approximately 106 glucose
units joined by α(1-4) and α(1-6) glycosidic bonds.
*Dextrin (homoglycan)
- intermediate product of the hydrolysis of starch.
- Used as adhesives, glue and binders. Also used as
mucilages at the back of postage stamps.
- Mixture of linear α(1-4) linked D-glucose polymers
starting with an α(1–6) bond.
*Dextran (homoglycan)
- Used as blood extenders to increase the volume of
circulating blood.
- Found in dental plaque
- A branched polysaccharide made of many glucose units
joined by α(1-4) linkages with branches bonded with
α(1-6) linkages.
*Inulin (homoglycan)
- Energy reserve of plants containing tubers and bulbs like
onions and garlic.
- Suitable for diabetics and helpful in managing blood
sugar illness.
- Mainly compose of fructose units which are joined by
ß(2-1) glycosidic bonds
2. Structural Polysaccharide
- plays a role in providing shape, structure and outer
covering of organisms
*Cellulose (homoglycan)
- contains b-D-glucose units which gives rise to a long
chain which can hydrogen bond with each other
- Found in the cell wall of plant cells thus, giving plant
cells a rigid shape which enables them to sustain
tremendous weight.
- The disaccharide repeating unit is cellobiose which is
made up of ß-D-glucose units which are held together in a
straight chain by ß(1-4) glycosidic bonds.
*Chitin (homoglycan)
- has identitical structure as cellulose except that the
monosaccharide unit is the glucose derivative N-acetyl-D-
glucosamine
- Found in the exoskeleton of arthropods (crustaceans and
insects) where the chitinous structure is hardened by
calcium carbonate deposits.
-A linear molecule of N-acetyl glucosamine bonded by
ß(1-4) linkages.
*Alginic acid (heteroglycan)
- Structural polysaccharide of brown algae and seaweeds
like kelp
- Used as thickener, emulsifier and stabilizer due to its
ability to hold water and large molecules.
- A linear molecule of D-mannuronic acid joined by ß(1-
4) linkages. Some alginic acids contain L-guluronic acids
in addition to D-mannuronic acids.
*Carageenan (homoglycan)
- Structural polysaccharide of red seaweeds
- Can hold solids in suspension thus, it is used in food
processing to make ice cream, cocoa milk, butter, yogurt
etc. It is also used in the manufacturing of cosmetics,
toothpastes and many others.
- A linear polysaccharide consisting of: ß-D-galactose-4-
sulfate and 3,6-α-D-anhydrogalactose. The sugar residues
are linked with alternating α(1-3) and ß(1-4) linkages
*Agar (heteroglycan)
- The structural polysaccharide which occurs in red algae.
- Used as a culture medium to study microorganisms.
- It has lower sulfate content hence it has greater tendency
for gelling.
- Contains two fractions: agarose and agaropectin.
- Agarose contains equal portions of D-galactose and 3,6-
anhydro-L-galactose. Agaropectin also contains D-
galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactose plus traces of ester
sulfate and D-guluronic acid. The sugars are bonded with
alternating α(1-3) and ß(1-4) linkages.
*Peptidoglycan (heteroglycan)
- Found in the cell wall of bacteria and other prokaryotes.
- made up of N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic
acid bonded by ß(1-4) linkages.
3. Acidic Polysaccharide
- contains carboxyl groups or sulfate esters that plays an
important role in connective tissues. They are also
referred to as Glycosaminoglycans. They are commonly
bonded with a protein like collagen.
- contain disaccharide repeating unit comprising an amino
sugar and at least one component with negative charge
due to the presence of carboxyl or sulfate groups
*Hyaluronic acid (homoglycan)
- contains alternating residue of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine
and D-glucoronic acid with alternating ß(1-4) and ß(1-3)
linkage
- Found in the synovial fluid in joints which acts as
lubricant and shock absorber in joints.
- Also found in the vitreous of eyes which keeps the retina
in place.
- Made up of N-acetyl glucosamine and glucuronic acid
which are bonded by ß(1-3) linkages.
*Heparin (homoglycan)
- contains alternating residues of D-glucoronate-2-sulfate
and N-sulfo-D-glucosamine-6-sulfate with α(1-4) linkage
- Serves as anticoagulant (prevents blood clotting) by
forming a complex with thrombin, the protein responsible
for blood clotting.
- Made up of N-acetyl glucosamine or N-acetyl
galactosamnine bonded by α(1-3) or α(1-4) linkages.
*Chondroitin sulfate (heteroglycan)
- Helps in maintaining structural integrity of tissues
- Widely used as dietary supplement for the treatment of
osteoarthritis
- Unbranched polysaccharides containing two alternating
monosaccharides: D-glucuronic acid and N-acetyl-D-
galactosamine which are bonded by ß(1-3) linkages.
Hydrolysis of Starch
- can be hydrolyze by acid and enzymes
- acid-hydrolysis f starch small fragments gradually
- starchamylodextrinerythrodextrin
achrodextrinmaltose
- enzymatic hydrolysis of starch is brought about by
amylase Dietary fiber
- 2 types of amylase: α-amylase (hydrolyzes internal - fiber is known as cellulose
glycosidic bond [endoglycosidae]) and ß-amylase - this normalizes bowel movement, maintain bowel health,
(hydrolyzes terminal glycosidic bond [exoglycosidase]) and lower cholesterol levels

Action of Amylase in Starch Sweeteners

- when b-amylase acts on amylopectin, maltose units are
liberated from the ends of the branches of amylopectin,
until the action of enzymes is blocked at the 1,6-
glycosidic linkage
- the action of b-amylase stops at branching points,
leaving a large molecule, called limit dextrin or residual
dextrin
Digestion of Starch in Humans
1. Starts in the mouth by action of salivary amylase (a-
amylase) which hydrolyzes random a(1-4) bonds. This
results in branched and unbranched oligosaccharides
(dextrin) and some maltose
2. Salivary digestion occurs briefly though, because it is
interrupted by the acidic environment of the stomach
3. When acidic stomach contents reach the small intestine,
they are neutralized by bicarbonate secreted by the
pancreas, and pancreatic a-amylase continues the process
4. Digestion by pancreatic amylase results in maltose
5. Final digestive process occur primarily at the mucosal
lining of the upper jejunum, and include the action of
several brush-border enzymes (disaccharide like maltase,
lactase, and sucrose-isomaltase complex)
Simple dietary carbohydrates
- crystalline solids
- provides rapid source of energy creating a spike in the
blood glucose level
- irregular consistency in terms of providing energy; short-
term energy
- when lacking, hypoglycemia is expected
- when too much, hyperglycemia is expected
- food sources: fruits and milk
1. Nutritive sweetener
- provides calories
- enhances the flavor and/or texture of food
2. Artificial sweetener
- provides 0 to none calroes
- enhances the flavor and/or texture of the food
Glycemic index
- system of assigning a number to carbohydrate-
containing foods according to how much each food
increases the blood sugar
- High GI can be absorbed quickly and increases the risk
of heart disease
- ex. beer, honey, chocolate, white rice, etc.
- Low GI breaks down slowly, gradually, reduces blood
sugar level, aids weight loss, and lowers risk of heart
disease
- ex. brown rice, dark chocolate, carrots, leafy vegetable,
etc.
Glucose homeostasis
- Glucagon interacts with the liver to increase blood sugar
when it is too low
- Insulin reduces blood sugar by helping the cells use
glucose
- Glycolysis is the metabolical pathway that converts
glucose into pyruvate
- Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of the molecule
glycogen to glucose
- Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose
- Gluconeogenesis is the metabolical pathway that results
in the generation of glucose from certain non-
carbohydrate carbon substrate

Complex dietary carbohydrates Diabetes Mellitus

- amorphous powder
- provides slow but consistent amount of energy
- good for weight control
- when lacking, hypoglycemia is expected
- when too much, hyperglycemia is expected
- food sources: whole grains, legumes, starchy vegetables
- a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high
blood sugar level over a prolonged period of time
- possible causes are genetic and environmental factors
like overweight
- symptoms: urinating often, feeling very thirsty, feeling
very hungry
- patients have honey-sweet urine because their body tries
to get rid of extra glucose through urination Types of Fatty acids
- patients have high risk of ketoacidosis due to high 1. Saturated fatty acids
accumulation of ketones due to high blood sugar - fatty acids which contain Carbon to carbon single bonds
- treatments: weight loss, healthy eating, regular exercise, only.
insulin therapy, blood sugar monitoring, etc. - more compact

Lipids and Fatty acids

- (definition) An organic compound found in living
organisms that is insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents.
- lipids are the largest and most diverse class of
biomolecules
- are usually made up of fatty acids and alcohol.
- Lipids in our body are essential for proper digestion and
absorption of food and nutrients. 2. Unsaturated fatty acids
- play many important roles in your body, from - fatty acids which contain Carbon to carbon double
providing energy to producing hormones. bonds.
- used to insulate and protect your body. a. Monounsaturated fatty acids
- also known as fats. - fatty acids which contain only one Carbon to carbon
- Metabolism of fats produces 9 kcal/g double bond.
b. Polyunsaturated fatty acids
- fatty acids which contains two or more Carbon to carbon
double bonds.

Categories of Lipids based on biochemical function

1. Energy-storage lipids (triacylglycerols)
2. Membrane lipids (phospholipids, sphingoglycolipids,
and cholesterol)
3. Emulsification lipids (bile acids)
4. Messenger lipids (steroid hormones and eicosanoids)
5. Protective –coating lipids (biological waxes)
6. Saponification reaction
*Saponifiable lipids (triacylglycerols, phospholipids,
sphingoglycolipids, and biological wax)
*Nonsaponifiable lipids (cholesterol, steroid hormones,
bile acids, and eicosanoids)
Lipids (fatty acids)
- long chain (10 or more carbon) carboxylic acids which
has even number of carbon
- vary in length (affects absorption) and saturation
(chemical structure; affects cooking & storage
properties and health)
Essential fatty acids
- Are fatty acids needed in the human body that must be
obtained from dietary sources because it cannot be
synthesized within the body in adequate amounts.
- Omega Number refers to the position of the double bond
nearest the methyl end of the carbon chain
- omega-3 fatty acids: Linolenic acid (sources: oils, nuts
and seed, vegetable)
- omega-6 fatty acids: Linoleic acid (vegetable oils,
poultry fat, nuts, seed
Properties of Fatty acids
1. Structure
- saturated: straight/linear, fully-extended and compact
- unsaturated: has kinks (bends due to double bond)
2. Melting point
- saturated: the higher the # of carbon, the higher the MP,
has higher MP compared to unsaturated due to compact
structure
- unsaturated: the lower the number of double bonds, the
higher the MP, the higher the # of carbon, the higher the
MP
3. Strength of intermolecular attractions
- saturated: extends and stack regularly which increases
intermolecular attraction Triglyceride formation
- unsaturated: double bonds causes 30o bend (kinks) which
cannot stack in an organized manner and decreases
intermolecular attractions resulting to lower MP

Simple Lipids

Nomenclature of Triglycerides
1. Identical fatty acids
- use the prefix –tri
- change the –ic acid ending to –in.

Triglycerides (Triglycerols)
- an ester of glycerol with three fatty acids.
- most abundant type of lipid in the human body.
- concentrated primarily in special cells (adipocytes)
2. Three different fatty acids
- ester bonds with product of water
- 1st and 2nd fatty acid -ic to - o
- 3rd fatty acid - ic to - in
- change the –ic acid ending of the first and second fatty
acids to -o
- change the –ic acid ending of the third fatty acid to –in.

3. First and Second fatty acids are identical

- use the prefix di- and change the –ic acid ending of the
first and second fatty acid to –o.
- change the –ic acid ending of the third fatty acid to –in. Fats stored beneath the
skin (subcutaneous fat)
serves as heat insulators
to keep the body warm in
cold weather.
Contains unsaturated fatty
acids especially the Contains saturated fatty
omega -3 and omega -6 acids and trans fats
fatty acids
Promotes proper brain Causes greater chances of
4. Second fatty and Third fatty acids are identical
development and healthy blocking of arteries and
- change the –ic acid ending of the first fatty acids to –o.
heart atherosclerosis
-use the prefix di- and change the –ic acid ending of the
second and third fatty acid to –in.
WAXES
- an ester of a fatty acid and a long chain monohydroxy
alcohol.
• Uses:
- excellent protective coatings.
- presence of waxes on the feather of birds, fur of animals
and leaves of plants
prevents excessive loss of water in these organisms.
- Beeswax from honeycomb of bees are used as polishes
and an additive to pharmaceutical products.
- Spermaceti from sperm whale is used in cosmetics and
OILS (GOOD FAT) FATS (BAD FAT)
in making candles.
Unsaturated fatty acids Saturated fatty acid
- Carnauba from the Carnauba palm is used as floor wax
Lower melting points Higher melting point
and as polishes.
from plants from animals
- Lanolin from wool is used in skin ointments.
Liquids at room Solid or semi-solids at
temperature room temperature
Colorless, odorless, Colorless, odorless,
tasteless tasteless
serves as a fuel in the
For various cooking and
body, producing more
food preparation;
energy per gram than
flavoring and modifying
either carbohydrate
food texture.
(4kcal)
absorption and
as lubricants for various transportation of fat-
purposes. soluble vitamins
A, D, E and K
stored in the adipose
tissues and serves as a
protector for the vital
supporting medium for
organs. They surround the
paints.
vital organs to keep them
in place and act as
shock absorbers