1 Sets and Numbers

1 Numbers and Sets and Proofs
Sets are the building blocks of just about all mathematical objects.
Just about every mathematical thing you know about is a set.
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Topic 1 Contents
I 1.1 Sets of Numbers 20

I 1.2 Set Notations and Relations 26
I 1.3 Set Operations 51
I 1.4 Sets and Mathematical Proofs 73
I 1.5 Complex Numbers 96
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1.1 Sets (of Numbers)
Unless you have taken some advanced studies, all of the calculus
you have studied up until now has been about a particular class of
functions - often called functions of one variable - that take a real
number as input and give a real number as output.
In MAST10005, we will deepen our knowledge of the calculus of
these functions and also start to extend our calculus studies a little
beyond functions of one variable. We will also learn a little bit
more about functions in non-numerical contexts.
We begin by reviewing some sets we have seen before.
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1.1 Sets of Numbers: Natural Numbers and Integers
I N is the set of natural numbers or counting numbers:
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }
I Whether or not to include 0 as a member of N is a matter of

preference. (We will take the convention that 0 is not a
member of N. )
I Z is the set of integers or whole numbers1 . It includes the
positive and negative whole numbers as well as zero.
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
1
The Z is for Zahlen – a German word for “number”.
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1.1 Sets of Numbers: Rational Numbers
I Q is the set of rational numbers2 - those that can be written

as fractions m
n where m and n are integers, for example:
1 78 3 0 6 1 2
2 , 23 , 4 , 5 = 0, 1 = 6, 1 = 1 = 2 = 33 , . . .
I Every integer is a rational number.
2
The Q is for Quoziente – Italian for “quotient”.
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1.1 Sets of Numbers: Irrational Numbers
I Some numbers cannot be written as fractions! We say they

are irrational (i.e., not rational)
I A few examples:
p p 3
⇡, e, 2, 2, log2 (5), log5 (2), . . .
I In an upcoming tutorial we will prove irrational numbers exist.
... of course we will also have to deal with the the meaning of the word prove at some point as well...
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1.1 Sets of Numbers: The Real Numbers
I The set of irrational numbers joined together with the set of

rational numbers gives the set of real numbers, which we
write as R.
1 x
p ⇡
0 2
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1.1 Sets of Other Mathematical Objects
I Later we will work with many sets that are not subsets of R.
E.g.,:
I The complex numbers.
I Higher dimensional sets like the plane and 3D space.
y
3
(x,y )
y
2
x
3 2 1 1 2 3 x 4
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations
Throughout this subject we will define many di↵erent

mathematical notations. Mathematical notation is used to ease
written communication in mathematics. Usually, mathematical
notation stands in for more complicated phrase.
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations
e.g.,
the slope of the tangent line to a point the function where the
output is given by the square of the input is given by twice the x
coordinate.
d 2
x = 2x
dx
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: What are sets?
Before we go too far, let us take a moment to discuss what we

actually mean when we use the word set.
A set is a collection of unique objects. A particular set is defined

exactly by its members. For example, the set of students in this
room.
It turns out that giving a more precise definition of a set is hard. At some point during your mathematics education
you might be tempted to consider the set of all sets. Thinking too hard about this concept will reveal why our
definition above has some shortcomings. Ask your tutor if you are interested in hearing more!
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: Set Membership
I If A is a set, saying x 2 A means
x is in the set A. A
I When we write x 2 A we say:
x
I “x is an element of A” or
I “x is a member of A” or
I “x is in A” or
I “A contains x”.
I We express the fact the statement x 2 A is false by writing
x2
/ A.
I When we write x 2
/ A we say: A
I “x is not an element of A” or
I “x is not a member of A” or
I “x is not in A” or
I “A does not contain the point x”. x
I Venn diagrams help us visualise set relationships.
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: Set Membership Examples
Membership examples:
I Writing n 2 Z means n is an integer (positive, negative or
zero).
I Writing x 2 Q means x can be written as a fraction, so
x=m n where m 2 Z, n 2 Z with n 6= 0.
I Writing y 2 R means y is some real number – it can be found
somewhere on the real number line
Non-membership examples:
I 32 2
/ Z means 32 is not an integer.
I log2 (5) 2
/ Q means log2 (5) is not rational (i.e., it is irrational).
I 12 / N means 1 is not a natural number.
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: Defining a Particular Set
A set is defined precisely by its elements. We can do this by

I explicitly listing out the elements:
A = {dog, cat, koala}

B = {0, 2, 4, 6, . . . }
I or by giving a description of the set: let B be the set of

non-negative even numbers,
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: Set Builder Notation
I or by using set builder notation.

For example, writing
A = {x 2 R | x 2 + 1 > 37}
defines the set A to be:

“the set of all real numbers x such that x 2 + 1 > 37 is true.”
A = { x 2R | x 2 + 1 > 37 }
" " " "
The set of all real such that this statement
numbers is true.
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: Set Builder Notation
Examples
Example 1.1
1. Express the set of real numbers whose natural (base e)
logarithm is positive in set builder notation.
2. Express the set of integers whose cube is even in set builder
notation.
3. Describe the set {n 2 N | sin(n) > 0} with an English
sentence.
4. Give some examples of elements of the set
A = {x 2 R | there exists k 2 Z such that x = k⇡}
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: Simplifying Set Builder
Notation
I We can abbreviate set builder notation.
For example, instead of writing
A = {x 2 R | there exists k 2 Z such that x = k⇡} we can
write
I We can read the abbreviated notation part by part:

A = { k⇡ | k 2Z}
" " " "
The set of real numbers such that this statement
of this form is true.
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Notation
Example 1.2
1. Express the set of odd integers in abbreviated set builder
notation.
2. Express the set {x 2 R | cos(x) = 0} in abbreviated set
builder notation.
3. Express the set {x 2 R | sin(x) = 1} in abbreviated set
builder notation.
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Notation
Homework 1
1. Express the set of integers whose square is no greater than
their cube in set builder notation.
2. Describe the set {x 2 R | x 2 > x 3 } in words.
notation.
notation.
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: Intervals of Real Numbers
Consider the following sets
A1 = {x 2 R | 1 < x < 2}
A2 = {x 2 R | 1  x < 2}
A3 = {x 2 R | 1 < x  2}
A4 = {x 2 R | 1  x  2}
All of these sets are di↵erent. No two of them contain the exact
same elements.
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For a, b 2 R with a  b:
I (a, b) means the interval of real numbers3
(a, b) = {x 2 R | a < x and x < b} = {x 2 R | a < x < b}.
a b
We refer to this interval as an open interval.

I [a, b] means the interval of all real numbers from a to b,
including a and b.
[a, b] = {x 2 R | a  x and x  b} = {x 2 R | a  x  b}.
a b
We refer to this interval as a closed interval.

3
the same notation can mean di↵erent things in di↵erent contexts.
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Example 1.3
Draw [a, b) and (a, b] on the real line.
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: Unbounded Intervals
Consider the set

A = {x 2 R | x < 1}
When we draw this set on set on the real line it looks like an
interval. But it doesn’t look like any of the intervals we have seen.
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I For any a 2 R
I ( 1, a) is the interval of real numbers strictly less than a.
( 1, a) = {x 2 R | x < a}.
a
I (a, 1) is the interval of real numbers strictly greater than a so
(a, 1) = {x 2 R | x > a}.
I Note 1 and 1 are not elements of R. They are not

numbers.
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Homework 2
Give definitions of ( 1, a] and [a, 1), with diagrams.
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: The Empty Set
Consider the set
A = {x 2 R | 1 < x < 1}
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: The Empty Set
Every set with no elements is the same. We refer to the empty set
using the notation ;.
{x 2 R | 1 < x < 1} = ;
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: Relating Sets
So far the notation we have defined for sets makes it more
convenient to denote sets and their elements. But gives us no
tools to relate two sets.
We are well familiar with notation we can use to relate two
numbers:
In each of these examples, the notation is standing in for

statement about how to numbers relate to one another:
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: Set Equality
Are these two sets the same?
{1, 2, 3, 4} {x 2 N | x < 5}
How do you know?
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1.2 Set Notation and Relations: Set Equality
Definition 1.4
Let A and B be sets. We say A and B are equal when every
element of A is an element of B and every element of B is an
element of A. When A and B are equal we write A = B.
We have underlined the thing we are defining. Now whenever we

see A = B from here on out, we should take it to mean every
element of A is an element of B and every element of B is an
element of A.
{1, 2, 3, 4} = {x 2 N | x < 5}
What does it mean for two real numbers to be equal? 46 / 208
1.2 Set Notation and Relations: Subsets
Every integer is a real number.
Every element of Z is an element of R
Z is a subset of R
If x 2 Z, then x 2 R.
Z✓R
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Definition 1.5
Let A and B be sets. When every element of A is an element of B
we say A is a subset of B. When A is a subset of B we write
A ✓ B.
When we write A ✓ B, we say
I “A is a subset of B” or
I “A is contained in B” or
I “B contains A”.
Whenever we see A ✓ B from here on out, we should take it to

mean every element of A is an element of B.
Note: The empty set is a subset of every set. E.g., ; ✓ {1, 2, 3}
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Definition 1.6
Let A and B be sets. When every element of A is an element of B
we say A is a subset of B. When A is a subset of B we write
A ✓ B.
;✓N✓Z✓Q✓R
Notice that the subset relation is transitive. If A ✓ B and B ✓ C ,

then A ✓ C .
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1.3 Set Operations
So far we have developed notation that lets us denote whether or

not an element is in a set, lets us describe a set and lets us
compare two sets. However, like numbers, there is more we can do
with sets.
We consider four operations:
1. set union
2. set intersection
3. set complement
4. Cartesian product of sets
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1.3 Set Operations
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1.3 Set Operations: Set Union
Definition 1.7
Let A and B be sets. The union of A and B is the set of elements
that are in at least one of A and B. We denote the union of A and
B as A [ B. That is
A [ B = {x | x 2 A or x 2 B}.
B
A
Note that the use of or is inclusive in mathematics.
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Example 1.8
Express each of the following sets as a union of intervals.
Drawing graphs may help for the first two.
1. {x 2 R : x 2 > 1}.
2. {x 2 ( 2⇡, 2⇡] : sin(x)  0}.
/ Z}.
3. {x 2 [ 2, 2] : x 2
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Example 1.9
1. Express (2, 8) [ [3, 10] as an interval.
p
2. Is the set (0, 2] [ [ ⇡2 , 3) an interval?
1.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
2.
0 1 2 3 4
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Homework 3
Express the set A = {x 2 R | x 2 + 1 > 37} as a union of intervals.
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1.3 Set Operations
Let U be the set of undergraduate students at the University of
Melbourne. Let C1 be the set of all students enrolled in
MAST10005 Calculus 1 this semester. Let C2 be the set of all
students enrolled in COMP10001 Foundations of Computing this
semester.
There are some students who are in none of these sets, some
students who are in at least one of these sets and some students
who are in both of these sets.
I The set of students who are in at least one of MAST10005
and COMP10001 is denoted as C1 [ C2 .
I The set of students who are in both of MAST10005 and
COMP10001 is denoted as C1 \ C2 .
I The set of students who are in neither of MAST10005 and
COMP10001 is denoted as U \ (C1 [ C2 ).
For this to make any sense to use we need to define the notation
[, \ and \.
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1.3 Set Operations: Set Intersection
Definition 1.10
Let A and B be sets. The intersection of A and B is the set of
elements that are in both of A and B. We denote the intersection
of A and B as A \ B. That is
A \ B = {x | x 2 A and x 2 B}.
B
A
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Example 1.11
1. Express (2, 8) \ [3, 10] as an interval.
p
2. Express (0, 2] \ [ ⇡2 , 3) in the simplest possible way.
3. Express Z \ [ ⇡, ⇡] as a list of elements.
4. Express Z \ {x 2 R | x 2 5 < 0} as a list of elements.
1.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2.
0 1 2 3 4
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3.
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
4.
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
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1.3 Set Operations
Example 1.12
Express the following sets as intersections and as single sets using
set builder notation.
1. The set of reals with positive sine and negative cosine.
2. The set of integers with positive sine.
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1.3 Set Operations
Let U be the set of undergraduate students at the University of
Melbourne. Let C1 be the set of all students enrolled in
MAST10005 Calculus 1 this semester. Let C2 be the set of all
students enrolled in COMP10001 Foundations of Computing this
semester.
There are some students who are in none of these sets, some
students who are in at least one of these sets and some students
who are in both of these sets.
I The set of students who are in at least one of MAST10005
and COMP10001 is denoted as C1 [ C2 .
I The set of students who are in both of MAST10005 and
COMP10001 is denoted as C1 \ C2 .
I The set of students who are in neither of MAST10005 and
COMP10001 is denoted as U \ (C1 [ C2 ).
For this to make any sense to use we need to define the notation
[, \ and \.
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1.3 Set Operations: Set Complement
Definition 1.13
Let U and A be sets. The complement of A with respect to U is
the set of all elements of U that are not elements of A. We denote
the complement of A with respect to U as U \ A. That is
U \ A = {x 2 U | x 2
/ A}.
A
U
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Example 1.14
Express each of the following sets as a set complement.
1. {x 2 R | x 2 > 1}.
/ Z}.
2. {x 2 [ 2, 2] | x 2
3. ( 1, 0) [ (0, 1).
y
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Homework 4
Express each of the following sets as a set complement.
1. {x 2 [0, 2⇡] | cos(x) > 0}.
2. {x 2 R | 1 x2  x2 1}.
3. The set of irrational numbers.
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1.3 Set Operations: Commutativity
The real numbers have a very convenient property with respect to

addition and multiplication. For every pair x and y of real
numbers:
x +y =y +x and xy = yx
This is the commutative property.
Are each of the set operations commutative?
A [ B = {x | x 2 A or x 2 B}
A \ B = {x | x 2 A and x 2 B}
U\A = {x 2 U | x 2
/ A}
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1.3 Set Operations: Cartesian Product
Recall that we use R2 to refer to the points in the Cartesian plane.
y
3
(x,y )
y
2
x
3 2 1 1 2 3 x 4
R2 = {(x, y ) | x, y 2 R}
When z 2 R we use z 2 to denote the product z ⇥ z. The same

thing is happening here: R ⇥ R = {(x, y ) | x, y 2 R}.
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Definition 1.15
Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A and B is the set
of all possible ordered pairs we can build using elements of A as
the first element and elements of B as the second element. We
denote the Cartesian product of A and B as A ⇥ B. That is
A ⇥ B = {(a, b) | a 2 A, b 2 B}
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Example 1.16
List the elements of A ⇥ B where A = {0, 1, 5} and B = {e, ⇡}.
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Example 1.17
Sketch the Cartesian product Z ⇥ Z = Z2 as a subset of R2 .
y
3
x
3 2 1 1 2 3 4
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Homework 5
Sketch the Cartesian products Z ⇥ R and R ⇥ Z as subsets of R2 .
Is the Cartesian product commutative?
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1.4 Sets and Mathematical Proofs
Despite its reputation as a discipline of computation, one of the

main activities for many mathematicians is proving results, as
opposed to computing solutions.
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Consider the following statement:

Let A, B and C be sets. If A is a subset of B and B is a subset of
C , then A is a subset of C .
This statement is true, but how do we know?
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Let us take a moment to look at the structure of this statement:

Hypothesis: A is a subset of B and B is a subset of C
Conclusion: A is a subset of C .
To verify the statement is true we want to assume that the
hypothesis is true, and then use that information to deduce that
the conclusion is true.
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Let’s look a little closer at the conclusion

Conclusion: A is a subset of C .
We defined the word subset as shorthand for a more detailed idea.
Let us take a moment to find this back in our lecture notes.
To conclude that A is a subset of C , we need to conclude that

every element of A is an element of C .
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Goal: Consider a 2 A. Conclude, somehow, that a 2 C

Remember our hypothesis:
Hypothesis: A is a subset of B and B is a subset of C
I Let a 2 A.
I Since A is a subset of B, then the definition of subset tells us
a 2 B.
I Since B is a subset of C , then the definition of subset tells us
a 2 C.
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Theorem
Let A, B and C be sets. If A is a subset of B and B is a subset of
C , then A is a subset of C .
Proof.
I Let A, B and C be sets.
I Let a 2 A.
I Since A is a subset of B, then by the definition of subset,
a 2 B.
I Since B is a subset of C , then by the definition of subset,
a 2 C.
I Therefore every element of A is an element of C .
I By the definition of subset, it then follows that A is a subset
of C .
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Mathematicians use proofs to convince themselves and others of

the truth of a mathematical statement. For the purposes of this
subject, a good definition of proof is:
A proof is a sequence of true mathematical statements that
convinces a peer with similar knowledge of the truth of a
mathematical statement.
In our proof, we all agree on the definition of the notation we have
used and the definition of subsets. And so if we accept the
assumption: A ✓ B and B ✓ C , then we must accept A ✓ C
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Theorem
If C = {(x, y ) 2 R2 | x 3 + y 2 = x 2 } and
P = {(1 t 2 , t t 3 ) | t 2 R}, then P ✓ C
Though this is a very di↵erent looking statement to our previous

example, it has the same form.
Hypothesis: C = {(x, y ) 2 R2 | x 3 + y 2 = x 2 } and
P = {(1 t 2 , t t 3 ) | t 2 R}
Conclusion: P ✓ C
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Theorem
If C = {(x, y ) 2 R2 | x 3 + y 2 = x 2 } and
P = {(1 t 2 , t t 3 ) | t 2 R}, then P ✓ C
Proof.
Let C = {(x, y ) 2 R2 | x 3 + y 2 = x 2 } and
P = {(1 t 2 , t t 3 ) | t 2 R}.
Let (x, y ) 2 P.
This means x = 1 t 2 and y = t t 3 for some t 2 R. Hence:
x 3 + y 2 = (1 t 2 )3 + (t t 3 )2
=1 3t 2 + 3t 4 t6 + t2 2t 4 + t 6
=1 2t 2 + t 4
= (1 t 2 )2
= x2
Therefore x3 + y2 = x 2 . Therefore (x, y ) 2 C . Therefore every
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1.4 Sets and Mathematical Proofs - Subset Proofs
From these two examples, we see notice a pattern for proving one
set is a subset of another.
Let A and B be sets
Hypothesis: Some information about A and B.
Conclusion: A ✓ B.
Proof strategy: Consider an element a 2 A. Use the information in
the hypothesis as well as any relevant definitions and notation to
deduce a 2 B.
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1.4 Sets and Mathematical Proofs - Subset Proofs
Example 1.18
Let A and B be sets such that A = {n 2 N | sin(n) > 0} and
B = {n 2 N | sin2 (n)  sin(n)}. Prove A ✓ B
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1.4 Sets and Mathematical Proofs: Exploration
I When constructing a proof, we often reach a point where we
don’t know how to proceed. This is okay and very much
expected. In such cases we must do some exploration.
Example 1.19
Let A and B be sets such that A = {4n | n 2 Z} and
B = {2m + 2 | m 2 Z}. Prove A ✓ B.
Proof: Let x 2 A. This means x = 4n for some n 2 Z.

Exploration:
I Now we know the correct m value, we can continue with the

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1.4 Sets and Mathematical Proofs: Exploration
I Important: An exploration is not formally a part of the proof.

I It is like “rough working out”. Anything goes!
I After we explore to find out what is needed, we must
complete the proof by careful steps.
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1.4 Sets and Mathematical Proofs: Counterexamples
So far all of our examples of proofs have been proving that a

conclusion is true. However, not all mathematical statements are
true!
Z⇢N
This statement is not true. How do you know?
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Let A and B be sets. To prove A ✓ B is a false statement, it

suffices to find a single element of A that is not an element of B.
Example 1.20
Let A = {3n + 1 | n 2 Z} and B = {6m + 1 | m 2 Z}. Prove
A ✓ B is false.
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1.4 Sets and Mathematical Proofs: Contradictions
Let us take a closer look what the strategy we used to confirm

42/ B. We assumed 4 2 B, and then used that to conclude
something absurd: there is a number that is simultaneously an
integer and not an integer.
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1.4 Sets and Mathematical Proofs: Contradictions
Prove x 2 + x + 1 = 0 has no real solutions.
Strategy: Assume that x 2 + x + 1 = 0 has a real solution, and then
use that to deduce an absurdity.
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Homework 6
Use the double angle formula for sine to prove
{x 2 R | sin(x) = 0} ✓ {x 2 R | sin(2x) = 0}.
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Homework 7
Prove that {x 3 | x 2 R} 6✓ {x 2 | x 2 R}.
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1.5 Complex Numbers
Consider the equality x 2 + 1 = 0. Naively applying the quadratic

formula we find:
p
x =± 1,
which is absurd.
But what if it wasn’t?
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1.5 Complex Numbers
Complex numbers are a number system in which previously

unsolvable polynomial equations have solutions. Complex numbers
are used extensively in physics and engineering, to study
electromagnetic waves and electric circuits for example.
The key idea is to introduce a new number i (sometimes called an
imaginary number) with the property
i2 = 1,
.
/ R. Since
There is no real number with this property, and so i 2
/ R we need to think carefully about the meaning of numbers like
i2
3+i and 4i
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1.5 Complex Numbers
Back to our example: x 2 + 1 = 0.

Applying the quadratic formula yields:
p
x =± 1,
Since i 2 = 1, we find x = ±i.
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1.5 Complex Numbers
Example 1.21
Assuming the usual rules of arithmetic apply, find two solutions of
x 2 + 4 = 0.
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1.5 Complex Numbers
Example 1.22
By completing the square, find the solutions of
x2 2x + 5 = 0.
In order to solve some equations, it seems we need numbers of the

form x + iy where x, y 2 R. This turns out to be enough to solve
all possible polynomial equations.
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1.5 Complex Numbers: Defining Complex Numbers
Definition 1.23
A complex number is a quantity consisting of a real number added
to a real multiple of i. That is, a complex number is a number of
the form.
z = x + iy
where x, y 2 R. The set of all complex numbers is denoted C.

That is,
C = {x + iy | x, y 2 R}.
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Example 1.24
1. Using the number i, write down two square roots of 25.
2. Simplify i 7.
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A complex number z of the form z = a + bi has two parts.
Definition 1.25
Let z = x + iy 2 C.
I x is called the real part of z and is denoted Re(z);
I y is called the imaginary part of z and is denoted Im(z).
Note that both Re(z) and Im(z) are real numbers.
Example 1.26
For the complex number z = 3 4i, write down:
1. Re(z).
2. Im(z).
p
3. (Re(z))2 + (Im(z))2 .
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1.5 Complex Numbers: The Complex Plane
In our final computation, the computation we did felt a lot like

finding the the length of a hypotenuse of a right triangle.
I Complex numbers can be represented graphically in the
complex plane.
Im
I A complex number z = x +iy
3i
corresponds to a point in a y = Im(z)
z=x + iy
plane with: 2i
I real part measured on the

i
horizontal axis (the real
axis) Re
I imaginary part measured 2 1 1 2 3 4
x = Re(z)
on the vertical axis (the i
imaginary axis).
2i
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1.5 Complex Numbers: The Complex Plane
Example 1.27
Sketch the complex numbers 3 i, 2 + 2i, 4, and 3i in the
complex plane.
Im
3i
2i
Re
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
2i
103 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Complex Arithmetic
Definition 1.28
Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be complex numbers. We say
z1 and z2 are equal when a = c and b = d.
We define operations on complex numbers as follows.
I addition: We add z1 and z2 as follows:
z1 + z2 = (a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d).
I subtraction: We subtract z2 from z1 as follows:
z1 z2 = (a + ib) (c + id) = (a c) + i(b d).
I multiplication by a real: We multiply z1 by k 2 R as follows:
kz1 = k(a + ib) = (ka) + i(kb).
104 / 208
Each of our operations has an interpretation in the complex plane.

Im z1 + z2
z2
I z1 + z2 is the other vertex of
the parallelogram with sides
0 to z1 and 0 to z2 .
z1
Re
Im
2z
I For k positive, kz is found by z
stretching (or shrinking) z. 1
2
z
Re
105 / 208
Example 1.29
Illustrate the geometric e↵ect of adding complex numbers for
z1 = 1 + 2i and z2 = 2 + i.
Im
3i
2i
Re
1 1 2 3 4
106 / 208
I For k negative, kz1 is found Im
z1
by stretching or shrinking z1
and reflecting through 0. Re
In particular, z is a reflec- 1
z
2 1
tion through 0. z1
Im z2
I z1 z2 is similarly found by z1
expressing it as z1 + ( z2 ). Re
z1 z2
z2
I We will explore these ideas further when we study vectors.

107 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Complex Multiplication
I For convenience, it would be nice to have Complex numbers
to obey the usual laws of arithmetic.
I Accordingly, we define multiplication using the familiar
distributive law.
(a + ib)(c + id) =
108 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Complex Division
We have defined addition, subtraction and multiplication of

complex numbers. It seems reasonable that next would be complex
division.
This takes a little more care that we might first expect.
Consider the following complex quotient
1 + 2i
1 + 3i
109 / 208
Let z = 1+2i
1+3i . Simplifying here requires a bit of non-obvious
cleverness:
110 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: The Complex Conjugate
In our simplification of a rational complex number, multiplying the

denominator of 1 + 3i by 1 3i resulted in a real denominator.
Definition 1.30
Let z = a + ib be a complex number. The complex conjugate of z
is a ib and is denoted z̄. That is, z̄ = a ib.
111 / 208
Example 1.31
Write down the complex conjugates of:
(a) 3 + 7i (b) 2 5i (c) 3i (d) 4
112 / 208
Example 1.32
I If z1 = 1 + i and z2 = 3 2i, plot z1 , z2 , z̄1 and z̄2 in the
complex plane.
I What is the geometric relationship between z and z̄?
Im
3i
2i
Re
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
2i
113 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers
Homework 8
Plot z1 = 2i, z2 = 3, z̄1 and z̄2 in the complex plane.
114 / 208
Example 1.33
By completing the square, find the solutions of z 2 6z + 10 = 0
and plot them in the complex plane.
Im
2i
Re
2 1 1 2 3 4
2i
115 / 208
116 / 208
Theorem 1.34 (Properties of complex conjugates)
Let z = x + iy and w = a + ib be complex numbers. Then:
1. z + z̄ = 2x = 2 Re(z)
2. z z̄ = 2yi = 2 Im(z)i
3. z z̄ = x 2 + y 2
4. z + w = z̄ + w̄
5. zw = z̄ w̄
We prove parts 1, 2 and 3 of Theorem 1.34 by applying the

definition of complex conjugate, the meaning of the notation z̄,
and the meaning of the notation Re(z) and Im(z)
117 / 208
118 / 208
Homework 9
Prove part 4 of Theorem 1.34 for a pair of complex numbers
z = x + iy and w = a + ib.
119 / 208
Example 1.35
Using the complex conjugate, express simplify the following to the
form x + yi.
1 + 2i
z=
1 + 3i
120 / 208
Example 1.36
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 + 5i 1 + 5i
Find Re and Im .
2 2i 2 2i
121 / 208
Homework 10
Let z = 1 5i and w = 2 + i. Express the following complex
numbers in the form a + ib
w
(a) w 2 z (b)
w + 2z
122 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Complex Exponentiation
Example 1.37
Calculate p
(1 + 3i)6 .
123 / 208
Example 1.38
Calculate p
(1 + 3i)6000 .
124 / 208
125 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Polar Form
We have learned how to work with complex numbers written in

Cartesian form
x + iy .
In this form, the task of adding and subtracting complex numbers

is easy. Multiplication and division are reasonably easy in Cartesian
form, but taking powers (and roots) is generally hard work. Our
practice of representing complex numbers as points in the plane
leads to another representation.
Instead of giving the x and y coordinates, we can represent a
complex number z by saying how far it is from the origin and what
angle we get when we draw a line from z to the origin. In this
polar form finding powers and roots becomes much easier.
126 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Modulus and Argument
I The position of a complex number z in the complex plane can

be specified in two di↵erent ways:
I Cartesian form: give the real and imaginary parts x and y , so
that z = x + iy ;
I Polar form: give the distance r from the origin, and the angle
✓ from the positive real axis.
Im Im
z z
r
y
✓
x Re Re
Note: Distance r is always given as a non-negative real.
127 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Modulus
Definition 1.39
Let z 2 C. The modulus of z is the distance r from z to the origin
in the complex plane. We denote the modulus of z as |z|.
I Writing z = x + iy , we can find |z| by Pythagoras’ Theorem:
p
|z| = x 2 + y 2 .
Im
2
y
p x2 +
y
|z |=
Re
x
128 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Argument
Definition 1.40
An argument of z 6= 0 is any angle ✓ that z makes with the
positive real axis in the complex plane.
I To find an argument ✓ of Im
z
z = x + iy 6= 0
y
draw z in the complex plane
and use standard triangles (if ✓
Re
x
possible) to find ✓.
129 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Principal Argument
I Arguments of z are not unique. Adding multiples of 2⇡ does
not change the position of z in the complex plane.
I However, there is one unique argument in ( ⇡, ⇡]. We can
find this argument by adding or subtracting multiples of 2⇡ to
any argument ✓ until we arrive at one in the interval ( ⇡, ⇡].
Subtract 2⇡ again. Yes! Subtract 2⇡. Not there yet.
⇡ ✓ 4⇡ 0 ⇡ ✓ 2⇡ 2⇡ 3⇡ ✓
I This is called the principal argument of z and is denoted

Arg(z). Note the capital A.
I This gives a standard way of representing the angle - a bit like
putting a fraction into the lowest terms:
1 2 3 4 5
2 = 4 = 6 = 8 = 10 = ...
⇡ 9⇡ 17⇡ 25⇡
4 ⇡ 4 ⇡ 4 ⇡ 4 ⇡ ...
130 / 208
Example 1.41
Find the modulus
p and an argument ✓ of
(a) 1 + 3i (b) 3 3i (c) 3 + 4i (d) 1
Im
(a)
Re
Im
(b)
Re
131 / 208
Im
(c)
Re
(d) Im
Re
I Always draw a sketch when converting to polar form!

132 / 208
Homework 11
Find the modulus and an argument of z = 2 2i.
133 / 208
I We can prove the following properties of the modulus and
argument of complex numbers z and w .
Theorem 1.42 (Modulus and Argument)
Let z, w 2 C.
1. |zw | = |z||w |
z |z|
2. =
w |w |
3. An argument (not necessarily principal) of zw is Arg(z) + Arg(w ).
z
4. An argument (not necessarily principal) of is Arg(z) Arg(w ).
w
I Theorem 1.42 makes calculating moduli and arguments easier.
Homework 12
Use Property 1 to prove Property 2.
134 / 208
Example 1.43
Using the above properties, evaluate
2(3 i)(5 + 2i)

(1 + 3i)(7 i)
135 / 208
Example 1.44
Using the above properties, find an argument of
p
1. z1 = (1 + i)( 1 + 3i)
i
2. z2 =
2 + 2i
and hence find Arg(z1 ) and Arg(z2 ).
1. Im
Re
136 / 208
Example continued
2. Im
Re
137 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Trigonometric Polar Form
Im
z = x + iy
I Recall that any complex
number z = x + iy 6= 0 can r
also be specified by its mod- y
ulus r and an argument ✓. ✓

x Re
I From the diagram:

x y
cos(✓) = and sin(✓) = ) x = r cos(✓) and y = r sin(✓).
r r
) z = x + iy = r cos(✓) + i r sin(✓).
Definition 1.45
Let z 2 C, with modulus r and argument ✓. The
trigonometric polar form of z is given by:
z = r (cos(✓) + i sin(✓)).
138 / 208
Example 1.46
Express the following
p complex numbers in trigonometric polar form.
(a) z = 3 + i (b) z = 1 i
Im
(a)
Re
139 / 208
Im
(b)
Re
140 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Polar Form
Recall that our goal is to find a form for complex numbers that
makes exponentiation easier. Unfortunately, trigonometric polar
form doesn’t quite do this.
(cos ⇡/2 + i sin ⇡/2)6000
There is another polar form for complex numbers that simplifies

calculations like this.
141 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Exponential Polar Form
On every top 10 list of best mathematical equations, the following

is usually number 1:
e i⇡ = 1
This looks like it has something to do with complex numbers: we

see an i and an angle, ⇡.
142 / 208
Definition 1.47
Let z 2 C, with modulus r and argument ✓. The
exponential polar form of z is given by:
z = e i✓
Im
e i✓
✓
Re
I This definition enables us to write a complex number z 6= 0 in

exponential polar form
z = re i✓
where r = |z| and ✓ is any argument of z. 143 / 208

On every top 10 list of best mathematical equations, the following

is usually number 1:
e i⇡ = 1
144 / 208
Example 1.48
p
Express z = 2 + 2 3i in exponential polar form re i✓ and use it
to compute z 2 .
Im
Re
145 / 208
Example 1.49
3⇡
Express z = 5e i 4 in Cartesian form x + iy .
146 / 208
Homework 13
i ⇡3
Express z = 4e in Cartesian form.
147 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Exponentials and Conjugates
Example 1.50
Use the trigonometric identities cos( ✓) = cos(✓) (even function)
and sin( ✓) = sin(✓) (odd function) to prove
i✓
e = e i✓
for any ✓.
Im
Re
1 1
148 / 208
Theorem 1.51
1. e i0 = 1
2. e i↵ e i = e i↵+i = e i(↵+ )
e i↵
3. = e i↵ i = e i(↵ )
ei
4. e i↵ = e i precisely if = ↵ + 2k⇡ for some k 2 Z.
I Properties 1–3 look like the usual rules for exponentials in R

I This is why we generally work with the exponential polar form
re i✓ instead of the trigonometric polar form r (cos ✓ + i sin ✓).
149 / 208
Property 2 in Theorem 1.51
I Recall the compound angle formulas for cos and sin:
cos(↵ + ) = cos(↵) cos( ) sin(↵) sin( )
sin(↵ + ) = sin(↵) cos( ) + cos(↵) sin( ).
Example 1.52
Use the compound angle formulas to prove Property 2.
150 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Multiplication by i
Theorem 1.53
For two complex numbers z1 = re i↵ and z2 = se i , the product is
given by
z1 z2 = rse i(↵+ ) .
I For modulus, this gives the simple identity |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.
I We can’t write quite such a simple formula for the principal
argument of a product.
Homework 14
Find z1 , z2 2 C such that Arg(z1 z2 ) 6= Arg(z1 ) + Arg(z2 ).
151 / 208
Example 1.54
Describe geometrically what happens when a complex number z is
multiplied by w = i.
Im
z
Re
152 / 208
Homework 15
Describe geometrically what happens when a complex number z is
multiplied by w = i.
153 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Division in Polar Form
Homework 16
Consider two complex numbers written in polar form:
z1 = re i↵ and z2 = se i 6= 0.
Prove
z1 r
= e i(↵ )
.
z2 s
154 / 208
I For modulus, this gives the simple identity z1
z2 = |z1 |
|z2 | .
I We can’t write quite such a simple identity for the principal
argument of a quotient.
Homework 17
Find a pair of complex numbers of z1 and z2 such that
✓ ◆
z1
Arg 6= Arg(z1 ) Arg(z2 ).
z2
155 / 208
Example 1.55
p p
Let z = 3 + i and w = 1 3i. Use exponential polar form to
find z1 and wz .
Im
Re
156 / 208
Im
Re
157 / 208
Homework 18
Describe geometrically
p what happens when a complex number z is
divided by w = 12 + 23 i.
158 / 208
159 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Sketching subsets of the Complex
Plane
I The set of complex numbers that satisfy certain conditions
corresponds to some region in the complex plane.
I Example: The set {z 2 C | Re(z) = 3} of all complex
numbers with real part 3, is represented in the complex plane
by the vertical line intersecting the real axis at 3.
Im {z 2 C | Re(z) = 3}
3
Re
160 / 208
Plane
Example 1.56
Sketch the set {z 2 C | Im(z) < 2} in the complex plane.
Im
2i
Re
3 2 1 1 2 3
2i
161 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Distance in the Complex Plane
I For z = x + iy and w = a + ib in C, the modulus |z w | is
simply the distance between z and w in the complex plane.
Im
z
y
w|
|z
w
b
a x Re
Im
I For fixed p 2 C and r > 0 this means z
r
p
C = {z 2 C : |z p| = r }
is a circle of radius r and centre p.

Re
162 / 208
Plane
Example 1.57
Sketch the set C = {z 2 C : |z i| = 2}.
Im
3i
2i
Re
3 2 1 1 2 3
163 / 208
Plane
Find the Cartesian equation (i.e. an equation in terms of x and y )
of this curve, by substituting z = x + iy into
|z i| = 2
and simplifying.
164 / 208
Plane
Example 1.58
Sketch the set {z 2 C : |z 3 2i|  3}.
Im
5i
4i
3i
2i
Re
3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
165 / 208
Plane
Homework 19
Find the Cartesian equation of this region by substituting
z = x + iy . Hence find the points where the boundary of the set in
Example 1.58 intersects the real axis.
166 / 208
Plane
Example 1.59
Sketch the set
⇢
⇡ 3⇡
A= z 2C 2  |z|  4 and < Arg(z) < .
4 4
Im
4i
3i
2i
Re
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
i
2i
3i 167 / 208
Plane
Example 1.60
Use a geometric argument based on the fact that |z a| gives the
distance between z and a to sketch the set
B = {z 2 C : |z + 2| = |z + i|}.
168 / 208
Plane
Im
3i
2i
Re
3 2 1 1 2 3
2i
3i
169 / 208
Plane
Homework 20
Find the Cartesian equation of the set in Example 1.60.
170 / 208
Plane
Example 1.61
By expressing a typical element of C in Cartesian form, determine
the set {z 2 C | z = i z̄} and sketch it.
Im
3i
2i
Re
3 2 1 1 2 3
2i
3i
171 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Powers and Roots
How can we find

(cos(1) + i sin(1))100 ?
172 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: De Moivre’s Theorem
Theorem 1.62 (De Moivre’s theorem)

Let z = re i✓ . For any integer n:
z n = r n e in✓ .
Proof idea:
173 / 208
De Moivre’s theorem can be used to avoid expanding the brackets
when finding large powers of complex numbers.
Example 1.63
p
Use de Moivre’s theorem to find (1 + i 3)8 in both exponential
and Cartesian form.
Im
Re
174 / 208
Example continued
175 / 208
Example 1.64
✓ ◆14
2
Find in exponential and Cartesian form.
1+i
Im
Re
176 / 208
Example continued
177 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Roots of Complex Numbers
I Suppose we wish to find all n-th roots of a fixed complex
number w = se i↵ 6= 0. This means finding all solutions z of:
zn = w.
178 / 208
I The values k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 give n distinct n-th roots of w .
I But we can stop at n 1 since:
I Plugging in k = n gives the same z-value as k = 0.
I Plugging in k = n + 1 gives the same answer as k = 1.
I Plugging in k = n + 2 gives the same answer as k = 2.
I And so on . . .
Example 1.65
Check the above claims in the cases k = 0 and k = 1.
179 / 208
I The reasoning on the two previous slides amounts to a proof
of the following theorem.
Theorem 1.66 (Root finding formula)

Every w = se i↵ 2 C \ {0} has exactly n complex n-th roots given
by:
1 1 1
w n = s n e i( n (↵+2k⇡))
for k = 0, 1, . . . , n
1. In set notation:
n 1 1
o
{z 2 C | z n = w } = s n e i( n (↵+2k⇡)) | k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1
180 / 208
Example 1.67
Find the set of cube roots of 8.
I Over the reals, 2 is the only cube root of 8.

I Over the complex numbers 8 has 3 cube roots!
I Note: Our root finding formula does not necessarily express
angles as principal arguments.
181 / 208
Sketch these 3 cube roots of 8 and check that they are correct:
Im
3i
2i
Re
3 2 1 1 2 3
2i
3i
I Observe that the cube roots of 8 are evenly spaced around a

circle of radius 2.
I In general, the n-th roots of a complex number are always
evenly spaced around a circle centred at the origin.
182 / 208
Express the three cube roots of 8 in Cartesian form:
183 / 208
Homework 21
Find the 6-th roots of 1, and sketch these in the complex plane.
You may keep your answers in exponential polar form.
Note: The n-th roots of 1 are often called ‘roots of unity’.
184 / 208
Example 1.68
p
Find the 4-th roots of 2 2i 3 and sketch them.
Im
Re
185 / 208
Im
2i
Re
2 1 1 2
2i
186 / 208
Homework 22
Find the cube roots of 1 + i.
187 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Trigonometric Functions
I The complex exponential can be used to express cos and sin

in a way that makes a lot of calculations easier.
Example 1.69
Use Theorem 1.34(Part 1) and Example 1.50 to prove that
1 ⇣ i✓ i✓
⌘
cos(✓) = e +e
2
for every ✓ 2 R.
188 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Trigonometric Functions
Homework 23
1 ⇣ i✓ i✓
⌘
Prove that sin(✓) = e e .
2i
Theorem 1.70
1 ⇣ i✓ i✓
⌘ 1 ⇣ i✓ i✓
⌘
cos(✓) = e +e and sin(✓) = e e .
2 2i
I We can use these identities to express powers of cos(✓) or
sin(✓) in terms of cos(n✓) or sin(n✓).
I This will be very useful in our study of integration.
189 / 208
I Applying the binomial formula to our exponential formulas for
sin and cos converts expressions sinm (x) and cosn (x) into a
form where we can integrate them.
Example 1.71
Express sin4 (x) as a sum of sines or cosines of multiples of x.
190 / 208
Example continued
This approach always converts expressions of the form

sinm (x) cosn (x) to an equivalent form that is easy to integrate.
191 / 208
Homework 24
Express cos4 (x) sin2 (x) as a sum of sines and/or cosines of
multiples of x.
192 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Factoring Polynomials
We can apply our knowledge of complex numbers to the well

known problem of factoring polynomials. Our method for finding
roots of complex numbers supports new techniques for finding
roots of polynomials and hence factoring them. An ability to
factorise over the complex numbers often enables us to factors in
the more familiar setting of real valued polynomials.
This has many applications in calculus. For example, we later learn
how to integrate functions of the form
p(x)
q(x)
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials using the technique of partial
fractions. A key step in this technique is factoring of q(x).
193 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Complex Polynomials
I A real polynomial like
p(x) = 3x 4 + 5x 2 x +2
extends to a complex polynomial
q(z) = 3z 4 + 5z 2 z +2
defined for all z 2 C.

I Since these two polynomials agree exactly on R, solving
q(z) = 0, also yields all solutions of p(x) = 0.
194 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Roots of Complex Polynomials
I Finding the roots of a complex polynomial P(z) means (as

usual) solving P(z) = 0.
I Recall that over the reals R, some quadratics have roots
precisely if they can be factorised into linear factors. E.g.,
x2 + x 2 = (x + 2)(x 1),
since this equation has roots 2 and 1.

I Others have no real roots and cannot be factored over R. EG:
x2 2x + 2.
(Here the discriminant b 2 4ac = 4 is negative.)
195 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Roots of Complex Polynomials
I For w = re i✓ 2 C \ {0} where ✓ = Arg(w ), the root finding
formula gives two solutions of z 2 = w :
p ✓ p ✓
z1 = r e i( 2 ) , z2 = r e i( 2 +⇡) = z1
I z1 is called the principal square root of w (sometimes denoted

p p
w ), so the square roots of w are ± w .
Im
✓ ⇡ ⇡
I Since ✓ = Arg(w ) ) 2 ( , ],
p 2 2 2 Re
w is always in quadrant 1 or 4.
p
I For w 2 [0, 1), this agrees with our usual definition of w .
p
I For w 2 ( 1, 0), w is on the positive imaginary axis.
196 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: The Quadratic Formula
I Since the algebra used to prove the quadratic formula holds in
C, we can still use the quadratic formula.
I This always gives linear factors.
Example 1.72
Use the quadratic formula to factorise p(z) = z 2 3iz 2 over C.
197 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Factoring Complex Polynomials
I We have now achieved our aim of constructing a number
system in which all polynomial equations have solutions.
Theorem 1.73 (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

Every complex polynomial P(z) of degree n can be factored into n
linear factors over C, that is
P(z) = a(z ↵1 )(z ↵2 ) . . . (z ↵n ),
where a, ↵1 , ↵2 , . . . , ↵n 2 C.
I This also tells us that a polynomial of degree n has  n roots

over C.
I There might be some repeated roots and hence repeated
factors, so the number of distinc roots could be < n.
198 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers: Conjugate Pairs
Theorem 1.74 (Conjugate Pairs)
If the coefficients of a complex polynomial P(z) are all in R, the
non-real roots of P(z) occur in complex conjugate pairs z and z̄.
I Another way of stating this result is to say that:
P(z) = 0 ) P(z̄) = 0.
I The requirement that all coefficients are all real is

indispensable, as our next example illustrates.
199 / 208
Example 1.75
Consider the polynomial P(z) = z 3 3iz 2 2z.
1. Factor P(z).
2. Sketch the roots of P(z).
3. Do the non-real roots come in conjugate pairs?
Im
2i
Re
1 1
2i 200 / 208
Example 1.76
Sketch the set {z 2 C | z 4 + z 2 12 = 0}.
Im
2i
Re
2 1 1 2
2i
201 / 208
1.5 Complex Numbers
Homework 25
Sketch the set {z 2 C | z 4 2z 2 + 4 = 0}.
202 / 208
I The following consequence of the Conjugate Pairs Theorem
has important consequences for our study of integration.
I A quadratic is called irreducible (over R) when it has no real
roots (and hence no real linear factors).
Theorem 1.77 (Real Polynomials)

If the coefficients of a polynomial p(x) are all real, then p(x) can
be written as a product of linear and irreducible quadratic factors
with real coefficients.
203 / 208
Example 1.78
Express the polynomial p(z) = z 4 + z 2 12 as a product of linear
and quadratic factors with all coefficients real .
204 / 208
Homework 26
Express the polynomial p(z) = (z 3)3 + 8 as a product of linear
and quadratic factors with real coefficients.
205 / 208
I Even though the Real Polynomials theorem guarantees

linear/quadratic factors exist, they can be very difficult to find.
I For polynomials of degree 5 or more, it is often impossible!
p(x) = x 5 x +1
y
3
I For example, we can’t express
2
the factors of p(x) = x 5 x +1
in simple terms, even though 1
p(x) has a real root.

x
2 1 1 2
I These results belong a field of mathematics called Galois

Theory, studied in MAST30005 Algebra.
206 / 208
207 / 208
208 / 208

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1 Sets and Numbers

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1 Numbers and Sets and Proofs

I 1.1 Sets of Numbers 20

I N is the set of natural numbers or counting numbers:

I Whether or not to include 0 as a member of N is a matter of

I Q is the set of rational numbers2 - those that can be written

I Every integer is a rational number.

I Some numbers cannot be written as fractions! We say they

I In an upcoming tutorial we will prove irrational numbers exist.

I The set of irrational numbers joined together with the set of

Throughout this subject we will define many di↵erent

Before we go too far, let us take a moment to discuss what we

A set is a collection of unique objects. A particular set is defined

A set is defined precisely by its elements. We can do this by

A = {dog, cat, koala}

I or by giving a description of the set: let B be the set of

I or by using set builder notation.

defines the set A to be:

I We can read the abbreviated notation part by part:

Consider the following sets

(a, b) = {x 2 R | a < x and x < b} = {x 2 R | a < x < b}.

We refer to this interval as an open interval.

[a, b] = {x 2 R | a  x and x  b} = {x 2 R | a  x  b}.

We refer to this interval as a closed interval.

Consider the set

(a, 1) = {x 2 R | x > a}.

I Note 1 and 1 are not elements of R. They are not

Consider the set

In each of these examples, the notation is standing in for

Are these two sets the same?

How do you know?

We have underlined the thing we are defining. Now whenever we

Every integer is a real number.

Every element of Z is an element of R

Whenever we see A ✓ B from here on out, we should take it to

Notice that the subset relation is transitive. If A ✓ B and B ✓ C ,

So far we have developed notation that lets us denote whether or

Note that the use of or is inclusive in mathematics.

The real numbers have a very convenient property with respect to

When z 2 R we use z 2 to denote the product z ⇥ z. The same

Despite its reputation as a discipline of computation, one of the

Consider the following statement:

This statement is true, but how do we know?

Let us take a moment to look at the structure of this statement:

Let’s look a little closer at the conclusion

To conclude that A is a subset of C , we need to conclude that

Goal: Consider a 2 A. Conclude, somehow, that a 2 C

Mathematicians use proofs to convince themselves and others of

Though this is a very di↵erent looking statement to our previous

Proof: Let x 2 A. This means x = 4n for some n 2 Z.

I Now we know the correct m value, we can continue with the

I Important: An exploration is not formally a part of the proof.

So far all of our examples of proofs have been proving that a

This statement is not true. How do you know?

Let A and B be sets. To prove A ✓ B is a false statement, it

Let us take a closer look what the strategy we used to confirm

Consider the equality x 2 + 1 = 0. Naively applying the quadratic

But what if it wasn’t?

Complex numbers are a number system in which previously

Back to our example: x 2 + 1 = 0.

Since i 2 = 1, we find x = ±i.

In order to solve some equations, it seems we need numbers of the

where x, y 2 R. The set of all complex numbers is denoted C.