A Hybrid Localization Approach for UAV in GPS Denied Areas

S. Rady, A.A. Kandil, and E. Badreddin

Abstract—In this paper, the localization problem of an
autonomous unmanned aerial vehicle in case of losing the GPS
signal is handled. A vision-based solution approach is proposed
consisting of two phases. In the first phase a hybrid map is
constructed. Such map consists of a set of reduced features
obtained by information-theoretic analysis. This enables faster
UAV localization processing without degenerating the
accuracy. The features are represented by local descriptors
which are additionally tagged with their metric position. The
second phase localizes the UAV using the map, which is
performed on two scales. A fast and coarse topological location
is identified based on matching features of images taken by the
camera with the local descriptors information in the map. This
guides the UAV in fast and safe emergency homing. A second
precise metric position can be estimated in extension with
respect to a previously identified topological location and with
the aid of the features’ metric position information. This can
assist the UAV navigation in case the mission should be
completed without interruption despite the GPS signal loss.
I. INTRODUCTION
provide reliable UAV position information, as the state
estimation solution (position, velocity and attitude) drifts in
time [2]. This would result in errors in determining the
accurate position of the UAV during flight mission, which
could have disastrous consequences [3], especially when the
UAV becomes out of sight of the pilot and can not be
brought back to the homing point manually. Thus, such a
safety-critical UAV system should be able to navigate
safely, even if the GPS signal is disrupted or totally lost.
This problem has been investigated by researchers in the
last few years. One potential solution is based on the
integration of a vision system to support the already existing
navigation system (fig. 1). A localization method can be
utilized to detect some pre-extracted features in the images
and hence to calculate the position of the UAV when the
signal of the GPS is lost. A Kalman filter can be used to fuse
signals from the inertial sensors with the position sensor
(GPS or the vision system in case the GPS is not available).
Vision-based solutions are attractive since video cameras

T HE integration of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

into civil application fields is growing every day. Fixed-
wing aircraft and vertical take-off and landing (VTOL)
became standard equipment for UAV. Moreover, cameras
provide rich information like color and texture.

unmanned vehicles are being increasingly used for

surveillance, search and rescue missions, aerial mapping,
inspection, and agricultural imaging, to name just few
applications domains [1]. Unlike fixed-wing aircrafts,
helicopters (which will be considered here) are distinguished
by their maneuverability and hovering ability, which makes
them suitable for performing a wide variety of tasks.
The autonomous navigation of UAVs relies on accurate
determination of their location, which is commonly acquired
by a Global Positioning System (GPS). An autonomous
UAV is usually equipped with a GPS and an Inertial
Measurement Unit (IMU), consisting of three gyros and
three accelerometers to determine the position and Figure 1. Navigation architecture.
orientation of the UAV during flight. However, the GPS-
signal can be lost or disrupted because of bad weather Many research works utilize the simultaneous localization
conditions, existence of obstacles or terrains, inconvenient and mapping (SLAM) method, which is well described in
position of satellites, or even jamming. In this case, if the [4, 5]. SLAM algorithms are used to develop landmark-
GPS-signal is lost, the IMU alone becomes unable to based navigation systems with the capability of online map
building. SLAM became a standard technique for indoor
Manuscript received October 10, 2011. applications. Numerous research works were carried out to
S. Rady is with the Institute for Computer Engineering of the University apply the SLAM technique to UAV. Wang et al. [6] and
of Heidelberg, 68131 Mannheim, Germany (phone: 0049-621-1812471; Kim et al. [7] presented the integration of vision-based
fax: 0049-621-1812740; e-mail: sherine.rady@ ziti.uni-heidelberg.de).
A. A. Kandil is with the Institute for Computer Engineering of the
measurements with inertial navigation system to
University of Heidelberg, 68131 Mannheim, Germany (e-mail: simultaneously localize an UAV through the position of
amr.kandil@ziti.uni-heidelberg.de). some extracted features by image processing. However,
E. Badredin is with the Institute for Computer Engineering of the
SLAM is still a challenge when applied to large areas.
University of Heidelberg, 68131 Mannheim, Germany (e-mail:
essameddin.badreddin@ziti.uni-heidelberg.de).
 Lindsten et al. [8] presented a method which relies on
flying over the area of interest to construct a reference map.
The constructed map is then saved onboard to assist later
localization of the UAV. According to the authors, using
existing maps instead of creating a new one online results in
more accurate position determination of the UAV. The UAV
localization can be performed by matching the images taken
during flight mission with the pre-existing map saved
onboard. The images are segmented into uniform regions
(superpixels). Each superpixel is classified using a neural
network classifier. The classified images are then to be
matched with the pre-existing map. This method performs
well if the overflown area is rich on information. However,
if the area or the pre-existing map is low on information, the
UAV can not be localized with acceptable accuracy.
The presented work here also complies with constructing
a reference map to be used later by the helicopter for
standby localization. The paper is organized as follows:
section 2 describes the problem to be handled followed by a
description of the UAV in section 3. The vision-based map
construction and localization approach is depicted in section
4. Section 5 explains the triangulation method used in the
map-building and the UAV metric position estimation. The
paper is finished by a conclusion section.
II. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
The loss of the GPS signal represents an emergency
situation for a UAV executing a mission. Researchers have
developed several measures to be taken in this case
depending on the current situation itself. If the pilot has
sight contact with the UAV, then he can switch from the
autonomous to the manual mode to bring the vehicle to the
nearest possible landing position. If the UAV is out of sight
for the pilot, then it cannot be flown manually and the
homing procedure has to be automated. In some other
situations, it might be preferable that the UAV continue the
mission without interruption and after that the vehicle flies
directly to the landing point [9]. For these two late
situations, an additional integrated vision navigation system
can handle such emergencies. It helps guiding the UAV to
its home point or support the UAV to continue its mission
when the GPS is not available. However, in such
emergencies, the vision-based localization methods need to
be fast and accurate.
SLAM algorithms perform well for indoor applications,
but have problems when applied to large areas (such as
outdoor applications). Furthermore, the utilization of
previously existing maps to localize the UAV, when the
GPS signal is lost, have proven to lead better results.
However, the accuracy of the solution depends mainly on
the size of features to be extracted from the images. On one
side if the number of features is high, an accurate
localization of the UAV can be obtained. On the other side,
the computation time can be high, which is actually a main
drawback of using pre-exiting maps. In emergency cases,
high computational time can not be afforded and a fast
determination of the position of the UAV is crucial.
In this work, a novel approach for the localization of
UAV based on using pre-exiting maps is presented. The
approach method applies an information-theoretic technique
to construct a map with a reduced set of informative
features. The technique allows identifying the most
informative data for the map and filtering out the less
informative ones. In this way, the number of features is
reduced without negatively affecting the localization
accuracy. Finally, an efficient-use map is generated that can
be mounted on the UAV platform for localization in case the
GPS system malfunctions. Feature reduction based on
information-theoretic analysis has a double benefit of
minimizing the recognition and localization uncertainties, as
well as reducing the features’ matching time, which directly
influences the time needed to calculate the position of the
UAV. The proposed approach integrates additional
compression for the filtered features. This compressed
feature format can assist the UAV in quick and safe homing
for emergency situations.
III. HELICOPTER DESCRIPTION
The autonomous helicopter (fig. 2) at the Automation
Laboratory is of the type Scout B1-100 [9]. It has been
modified to cope with the foreseen research requirements of
the research group. A radar-based collision avoidance
system has been developed [10]. The autonomous helicopter
is powered by an air-cooled one piston internal combustion
engine (100cc) and has a main rotor diameter of 3.2 meter. It
has two fuel tanks of 5 liters each and a total payload of
31Kg. The flight endurance can achieve about one and half
hour. The helicopter is equipped with a differential GPS
system and can fly planned missions autonomously. In
manual mode, the pilot can fly the helicopter using a RC-
control device. It can fly also in a so called assisted mode.
Figure 2. Autonomous Helicopter from Aeroscout type Scout B1-100.
IV. VISION-BASED LOCALIZATION APPROACH
Figure 3 shows a structure for the proposed vision-based
localization solution. Besides the common feature extraction
process for constructing the map, the solution relies on
additional two processes of feature evaluation and feature
compression (fig. 3.a). Such processes enable generating an
efficient map that provides high localization accuracy with
fewer features and consequently provides computational
savings in memory and processing time [11,12]. Moreover,
the solution structure makes use of combined topological
and metric features to construct a hybrid map. This map is
capable of localizing the UAV on two scales, a coarse
topological region and a precise metric position.
As shown in fig. 3.b, the realization of the map generation
concept is divided into two different phases: the map
construction phase and the UAV localization phase. The
main processing for the map generation is executed offline
after data gathering to produce the final map, which is then
installed on the UAV platform for stand-by localization.
The proposed solution structure processes the space and
features on two different levels; topological and geometric
levels. It employs three main modules as shown in figure 3:
(A) Hybrid feature extraction, (C) Map generation and (D)
Hybrid localization.
The hybrid feature extraction module combines two
different feature representations in order to resolve the UAV
location at the two scales. The map generation module
employs components for feature evaluation and feature
compression. The first filters the most relevant set from the
extracted features using an information-theoretic technique.
The second reduces the size of the filtered features further
through a codebook compression to generate the final map.
The hybrid localization module affords localizing the
UAV to a node (i.e. a topological region). It extends the
localization to a precise metric one, if desired, confined to
the identified node in a hierarchical manner. Hierarchical
localization frameworks [12,13,14] provide computational
efficiency since the search is executed in more than one step,
in which the final search is projected to smaller space rather
than the exhaustive search of the entire space. Additionally,
they scale well to large-space environments.
The three previous modules will be explained in details in
the subsequent subsections.
A. Hybrid Feature Extraction Module
The hybrid feature extraction consists of a local feature
extraction component and a feature localization component.
A local point feature extraction technique is suggested for
the first component, such as the Scale Invariant Feature
Transform (SIFT) [15] or the Speeded-Up Robust Features
(SURF) [16]. Those techniques are distinguished by the
richness of their descriptors and robustness for detection
under different scale, different view point and other
transformations and distortions. Additionally, they suit
mapping environments with poor structure. Their
disadvantage is the high computational power involved with
regard to the extraction and matching. The proposed map
generation described in subsection C will treat this problem
of speeding up the matching.
The feature localization component calculates the position
of the extracted features in the global frame of reference. It

A.
hybrid feature extraction
Sensor images
Feature Feature

MAP CONSTRUCTION
FINAL
Extraction Localization HYBRID
Data data set including MAP
codewords

scene dynamic variations

entropy-based

features

PHASE
position info.
features +

position info.

Feature
features Information-
Extraction + Theoretic Codebook
INITIAL position
HYBRID Feature Feature
info. feature Compression
MAP Evaluation
clusters
Feature B.
Evaluation map generation
C.

features Topological codewords

Feature Matching
LOCALIZATION

Compression Position
?
PHASE

node
topological metric
features features
Feature entropy-based features
Hybrid UAV
Position Triangulation position info.
Map

hybrid
localization Map Building
D.
Localization
(a) (b)

Figure 3. (a) Map generation concept. (b) Solution structure for a hybrid map building and localization.
applies triangulation for such purpose. Different positions of
the moving vehicle are required for the triangulation
execution (fig. 4). For this, the GPS system must be
functioning in the map construction phase to supply such
information on the vehicle position. The vehicle different
positions are used with the corresponding measured bearings
(i.e. angles between the unknown camera heading direction
and the features which are identified in camera in pixels) to
calculate the position of the features.
Figure 4. Feature localization in map building phase using the
vehicle position measured by the GPS and the angles to features
measured by the camera.
B. Initial Map
Using the hybrid feature extraction, the helicopter can fly
over the area of interest, collect image data and construct a
feature map for localization. The area is divided into a set of
discrete regions (nodes) which are related to each other by
neighborhood interconnectivities. The nodes can be assigned
automatically by generating them at equidistant distances
traveled by the flying UAV. An alternative option is to
assign the new node at the region exhibiting a variation in
the scene detail which can be monitored by the dynamic
change of the tracked features in the camera view.
After the UAV executes the mission of collecting data at
each node, a hybrid map can be constructed. The hybrid map
in this case will employ nodes with local features, which
possess both non-geometric and geometric information. The
non-geometric information part is represented by the
Gradient in the case of SIFT or SURF feature extraction and
is used to characterize the topological nodes. The geometric
information part is represented by the tagged position
information of the features in the nodes and will be used
together with the non-geometric part to resolve the UAV
metric location. The hybrid structure of the map information
will be used for two different localization modes for the
UAV as will be explained in subsection D. This constructed
map, however, does not specifically contain the most
informative data. Excessive or redundant data may exist,
which increases localization uncertainty and computational
overhead. Therefore, further processing is suggested to be
applied, in order to extract the possible minimum data that
maximizes the localization efficiency in terms of accuracy
and computational performance.
C. Map Generation Module
In order to generate a compact and more efficient map
than the previous one, the initial map is processed by an
information-theoretic evaluation approach which is
described in [11,17]. Such approach makes use of two
components, information-theoretic feature evaluation and
codebook feature compression, to generate the final map.
The approach utilizes an Entropy-based evaluating criterion
combined with a clustering technique to provide additional
compression for the evaluated data. It has proven to provide
accuracy combined with computational efficiency for robot
indoor navigation [11] and under severe illumination
conditions [17]. The approach aims at maximizing the
topological node recognition by filtering the most
discriminative information at each node. The filtered set
after evaluation is called entropy-based features as identified
in fig. 3. The feature evaluation component is implemented
in a way that supplies cluster information to a second
Codebook component. This Codebook allows further
compression to be applied for the evaluated features
resulting in a feature format called the codewords (see
figure). This additional compressed version of the features,
which contains the non-geometric information part only, is
targeted for use in the topological matching, in order to
accelerate recognition while still maintaining the accuracy of
recognition and matching.
The idea of the information-theoretic technique is to have
every topological node initially described with a set of local
features, and moreover compress those features to define a
set of local codewords. The compression is done by
clustering the features extracted in every node using k-
means clustering [18]. Next, the whole feature pool of the
nodes is sampled to determine the true variation
(distribution) of the features in the high-dimensional space.
Afterwards, a conditional-entropy-based criterion is applied
to evaluate the contribution of the features to uniquely
identify a local codeword. This correspondingly measures
the features’ contribution to the identification of a specific
node because the codewords are defined locally. The
H(O|f i )   P(ok| f i ).log 2 P(ok|f i )
criterion has the following form [19]:
(1)
k
where ok represents a local codeword and fi represents a true
variation sample; k=1,…,Ω; Ω is the total number of
codewords, and i=1,…,Ψ; Ψ equal to the total number of
feature samples. Finally, the codewords and their
corresponding uncompressed features which exhibit
relatively large entropy values are discarded, while those
exhibiting low entropy values are preserved in the final map.
Previous investigations have indicated that a large number
of the features can be eliminated (i.e. feature with high-
entropy values), while still maintaining the same localization
accuracy [11,17].
Therefore, the final form of the hybrid map will contain
the reduced feature set, where every node preserves features
with their measured gradient and position information, and Rotation transformation
bet. the two frame
Camera coordinate
with an additional compressed gradient information version. coordinate systems Z' Y'
Sytem
R(ω,φ,κ)
X'
D. Hybrid Localization Module Camera
perspective C
The hybrid localization module consists of two center
components: a topological matching component and a ( X C , YC , Z C )T f
feature triangulation component. The former matches the Z Positive focal
plane
current camera view to the map to identify the current
topological node and uses the compressed map data for that, ya xa
a lens axis
while the latter triangulates the identified features to
estimate the position of the UAV in 6-DOF by using the Y
non- compressed map data format. ZC
The UAV localization is processed hierarchically making
use of the divided topological space. At the first level of
hierarchy, the image captured by the camera mounted on the A (Landmark)
ZA ( X A , YA , Z A ) T
UAV is compared to the hybrid map. Features are extracted XA

from the current image and are used in fast matching with XC
the compressed codewords to identify the corresponding YC YA
topological node. After the topological node has been W
identified, the UAV location estimation is executed locally World coordinate
in this region in a second level of hierarchy. The identity of System
the features in the node is resolved by matching the non- X

geometric information part and the position of the UAV is
estimated by applying a triangulation method for the
features using their metric position data.
The two localization components use different versions of
map data for supplying either a coarse topological location
or a precise metric position estimate for the UAV. In case of
flight emergencies signaled by the loss of the GPS signal,
the topological localization component can assist the UAV
in fast and safe emergency homing, since less data is
involved (codewords). In case that the mission should be
completed without interruption and exact positioning is
required, the non-compressed data with the metric position
data are used to complete the mission, which still provides
good computa-tional performance because of the
hierarchical processing.
The proposed localization method is robust against
uncertainties in node recognition and data correspondences.
This is because the features used for the map building are
selected based on properties of features discrimination and
node distinguishness measured by the introduced evaluation
criterion (i.e. ambiguities minimized). Moreover, the local
matching confined to a single topological node minimizes
the possibility of mismatches and data correspondence
problem when compared to matching features of the whole
map. Additional confidence for the data correspondence can
be provided by utilizing features’ metric relationships as
proposed in [20].
V. METRIC LOCALIZATION USING TRIANGULATION
Figure 5. Photogrammetric projective model
based on a photogrammetric projective model shown in
figure 5. The model relates the 3-D Cartesian coordinates of
features or landmarks in the real world to their
corresponding 2-D coordinates projected on the image
plane. The fundamental model used in the majority of
applications is the Collinearity equations [20]. They relate
the object point and its corresponding image point to the
perspective camera center. The projection model in the
figure shows the alignment of the three points, with the
image plane set in the positive focal position (i.e. z=-f,
where f is the camera focal length). Projections in the x and
y directions are proportional to the horizontal and vertical
bearings respectively, and are described by the Collinearity
equations:
r11 ( X A  X C )  r21 (YA  YC )  r31 ( Z A  Z C )
xa   f
r13 ( X A  X C )  r23 (YA  YC )  r33 ( Z A  Z C )
(2)
r12 ( X A  X C )  r22 (YA  YC )  r32 ( Z A  Z C )
ya   f
r13 ( X A  X C )  r23 (YA  YC )  r33 ( Z A  Z C )
(3)
for a feature position vector TW
q A =(XA YA ZA) and a camera
position vector located by its perspective center W q c =(XC YC
ZC)T. rij are elements of the rotation matrix describing the
transformation between the camera and the global world
coordinate systems, and which are function of the roll, pitch
and yaw angles of the camera.

 r11 r13 
R  Rx ( ).R y ( ).Rz ( )  
r23 
Both the hybrid feature extraction and hybrid localization r12
 r21
W
modules apply triangulation to estimate the position of C r22 (4)
features and UAV respectively (i.e. feature localization and  r31 r32 r33 
feature triangulation components). The triangulation is
 The problem of either the camera or landmark position
estimation will be defined as a nonlinear least squares
(NLLS) problem. Therefore, the solution equations to the
UAV localization are similar to that of the map-building
feature localization.
estimate the position vector W q c R6 using the horizontal
For the camera localization problem, it is required to
and vertical bearings xˆ 1a ,xˆ a2 ,...,xˆ am  R and yˆ 1a ,yˆ a2 ,...,yˆ am  R
and the given feature location vectors; W p1A ,W p 2A , ...,W p mA
 R where m is the number of features identified in the
image. Therefore, a residual cost function is defined from
which W q c is estimated. The function is based on
minimizing the sum of the squared error between the actual
measured positions of the features in the image and their
calculated values from the model equations (2) and (3).
Consequently, the cost function will have the form:
r    xˆ a  f i
 i   i
   yˆ a  f i
2 2
m i i
U V
i 1   
W W
with ( xˆ a , yˆ a ) defining the measured feature position in the
camera in pixels, and
U  r11 ( X A  X C )  r21 (YA  YC )  r31 ( Z A  Z C )
i i i i
V  r12 ( X A  X C )  r22 (YA  YC )  r32 ( Z A  Z C )
i i i i
W i  r13 ( X A  X C )  r23 (Y A  YC )  r33 ( Z A  Z C )
i i
W [10]
Solving for (5), the camera position q c can be determined.
The UAV position is deduced from the position of the
camera. Since the camera is fixed on the helicopter platform,
a fixed offset vector q off and a rotation matrix R defines the
relationship between the UAV body frame and camera
frame.
q r  W q c  R.q off
W using Entropy-based Feature Maps and Triangulation Techniques,”
(9)
where W
q r and W 519-525, 2010.
q c define the position of the UAV and the
camera respectively.
In a similar sense, the same solution is used for localizing
the features in the map building phase. The solution to
equation (5) is easier this time, since the Collinearity
equations are not function of the non-linear parameters of
W
. Required will be to estimate each feature’s location
C R
p A  R 3 given the camera position vectors
vector W
R , and with the help of the bearing measurements as has
6 Robust Features”, Computer Vision and Image Understanding,
been described previously in figure 4.
VI. CONCLUSION
This paper presents a vision-based approach for localizing
an UAV in case of the malfunction of the primary
localization system (GPS). The approach is capable of
localizing the UAV on both topological and metric levels. A
hybrid map construction is proposed which is based on
maintaining informative features that provide recognition
accuracy and less computational overhead. The features
provide double information that can resolve the topological
location and the metric position separately. The proposed
hybrid structure and hierarchical localization processing
offer combined accuracy with computational efficiency of
localization for the purposes of homing or mission execution
under flight emergency situations.
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