LOYOLA JESUIT COLLEGE, ABUJA

BASIC SCIENCE

JS THREE NOTE

FIRST TERM 2022/2023

Vitreous humour

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 BASIC SCIENCE (BST) JS3 TERM 1, 2022/2023 SESSION TOPICS AND
OBJECTIVES

Week Topics Content Performance

Objectives
1. Sense organs: Eye a. Function, Students should be
and Tongue structure of the able to :
eye 1. Draw a
b. Normal vision, labelled
eye defects diagram of
and correction, the human
eye.
care of the eye.
2. Explain eye
c. Function and
defects and
structure of the their
tongue corrections
with the aid of
diagrams.
3. Explain how
the tongue
performs its
functions

2. Family traits 1 a. Family traits( skin Students should be

colour, height, albino) able to :
1. define
b. meaning of genetics and
dominant and recessive other terms
traits associated
with it.
c. monohybrid cross of
2. Construct
inheritance patterns monohybrid
d. importance of cross of
family traits inheritance
(intelligence, diseases, pattern.
resemblance, family
genealogy)
3 Family traits 2 a. Meaning of Students should be
(reproductive health) reproductive able to :
health. 1. define
b. Examples and reproductive
care of health
reproductive 2. explain the
care of
organs.
reproductive
organs.

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4 Nature of matter, part a. Definition, structure Students should be
1 and constituents of the able to :
atom
1. state the properties
b. Periodic table of the different
constituents of an
atom
2. identify the alkali,
alkaline earth metals,
halogens and the
noble gases.

5 Nature of matter, part a. Electronic Students should be

2 configuration able to :
1. define and draw
b. Valency the electronic
c. Chemical formula structure of the first
twenty elements of
d. Balancing chemical the periodic table.
equation 2. write and name the
formula of some
compounds.
3.balance chemical
equations
6 Acids, bases, salts a. acids, examples of students should be
and Ph acids and properties of able to:
acids 1. Define acids ,
bases and
b. examples of bases, salts.
properties of bases. 2. State the
sources of
c. types of salts , uses
various acids,
of salts. pH scale. bases and
salts.
3. List examples
of acids, bases
and salts

7 Skill acquisition. a. meaning and Students should be

examples of able to:
skills 1. Define skill
b. importance of and skill
acquiring skills. acquisition.
2. Mention
examples of
skills
3. List some

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 importance of
skill
acquisition.
8 Revision/Examination

THE SENSE ORGANS

Higher animals have developed sense organs due to their complex nature of existence. It is
necessary for them to have specialized sense organs in order to survive by knowing the
happenings in their environment.

Human beings have five major sense organs and these are listed in the table below:

S/No Sense Organ Stimulus Function

1 Eye Light Vision (sight)

2. Ear Sound and gravity Hearing and balance

3. Nose Chemicals Smelling

4. Tongue Chemicals Tasting

5. Skin Temperature (heat or cold), Pressure changes, pains and

pains, touch and pressure touch

A sense organ is specialized for one or few types of stimuli. The sensory nerves of each organ
receive stimuli and transmit the messages (impulses) to the Central Nervous System, CNS,
for the appropriate responses.

The Eye

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 The eyes are the organs of sight in the higher invertebrate and all vertebrates. It enables us to
see objects and appreciate differences in their size, colour, shapes and beauty. The eye also
enables us to know the distance between objects and the distance of objects to us

Vitreous humour

Aqueous humour

Ciliary muscle

Cross section of the mammalian eye

Parts of the mammalian eye

The mammalian eye is made up of three major layers which are the outer sclerotic layer, the
middle choroid layer and the inner layer known as the retina. Each of these layers has other
parts connected to them as follows,

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 1. The sclera or sclerotic layer:- It is the fibrous connective tissue forming the white
part of the eye. It helps to give shape to the eye /eyeball and to protect the inner parts
of the eye.

Associated parts to this layer are;

a. The cornea:- The sclerotic layer bulges out at the front of the eye to form the
transparent cornea. The cornea admits and bends (refract) light rays to bring them to a
focus in the retina. It also protects the eye externally.
b. The conjunctiva:- It is a thin transparent layer that covers the cornea protectively. It
allows passage of light into the eye and serves as a protective membrane to the
innermost delicate structures.
c. Optic nerves:- Found at the back of the sclera. It also cuts across the middle choroid
and the inner retina at a point called the blind spot. The blind spot lack light sensitive
cells. Optic nerves send information to and from the brain.

2. The choroid or middle layer :- This layer is dark in colour due to the presence of a
black pigment called melanin which helps to prevent internal reflection of light in
the eye. It also contains many blood capillaries (blood vessels) that carry nutrients to
other parts of the eye.

Associated parts to this layer are;

a. The Iris :- The choroid forms the iris in front of the lens. It controls the amount of
light rays entering the eye so that clear images are formed on the retina.
b. The pupil:- The pupil is the opening through the iris. It also helps to regulate the
amount of light rays entering the eye.
c. The ciliary muscles :- In front of the eye the choroid layer branches to form the ciliary
muscles behind the iris. The ciliary muscles alter the focal length and bring about
proper accommodation of the eye.
d. The suspensory ligament:- They are attached to the ciliary muscles. They help to hold
the lens in place in front of the eye.
e. The lens:- This is a transparent, elastic, biconvex structure. It helps to bend (refract)
light rays that enters the eye and to focus the image of the object on the retina
properly.

3. The retina or inner layer :- This is the part of the eye that is most sensitive to light.
Images formed on it are always inverted and smaller than the real object. It has two
types of sensory cells which are the cones and the rods. The cones are sensitive to
bright colours and high light intensities while the rods are sensitive to only black and
white colours and to all light intensities, that is whether bright or dim lights.

Associated parts are;

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 a. The yellow spot (fovea):- This is the most sensitive part of the retina. It is the point
where images are formed.
b. The blind spot:- It is the part where cells are not sensitive to light.
c. The aqueous humour :- This is watery fluid that fills the space between the cornea and
the lens. It helps to refract light rays into the retina and to maintain the spherical shape
of the eye.
d. The vitreous humour :- This is a transparent jelly like fluid which fills the space
between the lens and the retina. It is wider than the aqueous humour. It performs the
same function as the aqueous humour.

FUNCTIONS OF THE EYES.

The two major functions of the eye are;

1. Accomodation :- Accomodation is defined as the ability of the eye to focus both near
and distant objects on the retina properly. It is also the adjustment of the focal length
of the eye to see clearly.
2. Image formation :-

How we see objects – light rays from objects enter the eye from the front part of the eye
(cornea) which starts the refraction (bending) of the rays. The light rays enter the aqueous
humour and are further refracted into the lens. The lens also refracts the rays onto the vitreous
humour, which eventually bends the light so as to come to a focus on the retina. The image
on the retina is real but always inverted and smaller than the object. Information is sent to the
brain through the optic nerves. The brain draws from past experience and interprets the image
as upright and gives us the size and distance of the object. However, our left eye sees the
images of objects in a slightly different position from the right eye. It is by the working
together of the two eyes that we see things properly. This is called binocular or stereoscopic
vision. In normal vision, the image is formed exactly on the retina as it is shown on the
diagrams (figs 1 and 2) below. Any deviation from this causes what is known as eye defects.

Fig 1. Normal vision diagram

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 Fig 2:- Diagram of normal vision

EYE DEFECTS AND CORRECTIONS

There are 3 main types of eye defects, they are;

a. Myopia (short sightedness)

A shortsighted person is unable to see far objects clearly but can clearly see a nearby object.
The reason could be because the eyeball is too long or the cornea is too curved. Thus, the
image is formed in front of the retina and it is blurred. It can be corrected by the use of
concave (diverging) lenses.

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 b. Hypermetropia (Long sightedness)
A long-sighted person is unable to see a nearby object clearly but can see distant objects very
well. The image is formed behind the retina and is not clear. It is caused by too short eyeballs
and when the cornea is not sufficiently curved. Long sightedness is corrected by the use of
convex (converging) lens.

c. Astigmatism – This is due to uneven curvature of the cornea or lens or both. Light
rays are not focused on the retina evenly and therefore the person is unable to focus
objects horizontally and vertically. Wearing glasses with uneven curvatures or glasses
with cylindrical lenses correct it.

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Other types of eye defects are;

d. Presbyopia – The power of the lens to accommodate is reduced due to less elasticity
of the lens or hardened/weak ciliary muscles. It usually comes with age.
It can be corrected using bifocal glasses with one part for near vision and the other part for
distance vision. A bi-focal lens is a combination of a concave and a convex lens.

e. Colour blindness – In this condition, the sufferer is unable to distinguish colours

particularly red and green colours. It is more common in males than in females.
Colour blindness is an inherited sex – linked characteristic disease.
Causes of colour blindness

(i) Lack of colour absorbing pigment

(ii) Inherited sex – linked disease.

Correction:-

(i) Since it is an inherited disease, it can be corrected by avoiding marriage with an

infected person.

(ii) It can also be corrected by appropriate diet to restore the colour pigment.

f. Cataracts:- With age, lens can lose its transparency giving rise to what is called
cataract. A cataract is a clouding of the normally clear lens of your eye. For people
who have cataracts, seeing through cloudy lenses is a bit like looking through a frosty
or fogged-up window
Causes of cataracts
i. Aging
ii. Over exposure to UV rays
iii. Injuries
iv. Smoking
v. Eating of unhealthy diets --- Healthy vision requires a diet centered on vegetables,
fruits, whole grains, lean proteins, and a small amount of good fats like omega-3 fatty acids
and monounsaturated fats
Correction for cataracts
Surgery -- Cataract surgery removes the clouded natural lens and replaces it with an
artificial plastic lens..

Advantages of having two eyes

Each of our eyes sees an object slightly in a different position from the other eye. However,
the two eyes work together to enable us sight things properly. This is called binocular or
stereovision.
Care of the eye:

- Read in well lit places

- Book should be placed at a good reading distance of about 30 to 50cm.
- Read books with bold and clear prints
- Bath or wash the face with clean water

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 - Avoid playing with sharp object near the eye
- Avoid rubbing the eye or removing foreign bodies with dirty hands.

THE TONGUE

The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth of mammals and some vertebrates that
manipulates food for mastication.

The top of the tongue is covered with a layer of bumps which are visible to the eye called
papillae . Papillae help grip food and move it around while you chew. And they contain taste
buds, which are small sensory organs which contain the taste receptors cells so one can taste
everything from apples to zucchini! ... Taste buds can detect sweet, sour, bitter, and salty
flavors.

Sweetness is pleasant taste such as in sugar or any sweet fruit juice.

Sourness is the taste that detects acidity such as in lemon, grape, milk can spoil and develop a
sour taste as well.
Bitterness is perceived as unpleasant sharp or disagreeable taste. Common bitter food include
coffee

Where are the different taste buds on the tongue?

All taste sensations come from all regions of the tongue, but different parts are more sensitive
to certain taste.
The structure is: The taste buds for "sweet" are on the tip of the tongue; the "salt" taste
buds are on either part of the side, towards the front of the tongue; "sour" taste buds are
behind this; and "bitter" taste buds are way in the back towards the throat. See the diagram,

Japanese name for savoury

flavour

The middle part of the tongue contain few taste buds which help to detect savoury taste such
as in spices like pepper, ginger, garlic etc.

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How we Taste Things
We can only taste substances only in form of solution. When the sensory cells (chemo
receptor of taste) in the taste buds are stimulated by substances in solution, they transmit
impulses to the brain through nerves. These result in taste sensation as either a sweet, salty,
bitter and sour or savoury. As we know from the structure of the tongue, different areas on
the tongue detect those different taste solutions.

Our ability to taste enable us to know whether or not we like or hate what we eat or if it is the
right thing or otherwise. In that way, we might be able to protect ourselves from eating
harmful things.

CONTINUITY OF THE FAMILY (GENETICS)

One characteristic of human beings is the ability to produce its kind. This is very important to
living organisms so that life continues.
One of the factors that maintains life and ensure continuity of the family is heredity.

Meaning of genetics, heredity and variation.

Genetics is defined as the scientific study of heredity and variation in living things.
Heredity is defined as the transmission and expression of characters or traits in organisms
from parents to their offspring.
Variation is the differences which exist between parents and offspring as well as among
offspring.

The concept of heredity - Children often bear some resemblances to their parents e.g.
height, skin, eye colour, size of eyes or head. Sometimes the resemblance may be to the other
members of the nuclear or extended family. Some other times, the offspring may have unique
features from members of either the nuclear or extended family.
However, heredity alone does not always determine how inherited features manifest in the
offspring. Other factors like environment play a role in the manifestation of inherited
characteristics.

What is known today about heredity and its transmission result from many years work of
scientist among who are:
Gregor Mendel
Thomas Morgan
Charles Darwin
Francis Galton

Heredity is the transmission of inherited characters from parents to offspring through genes.
It is responsible for the similarity, as well as small differences or variation between parents
and offspring.

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Only characters controlled by genes can be transmitted. The sum total of genes that an
offspring inherits from its parents is known as its genotype or genetic make-up.

Variations shown by inherited characters may be due to:

- Effects of the environment
- Use or misuse of body parts
The actual physical expression of characters is the organism’s phenotype.
A change in the structure of genes or the genotype is called mutation.

Some terms used in genetics.

a. Chromosomes :- All living things are made up of cells. Within the nucleus of the cell
are threadlike structures called chromosomes. They always occur in pairs, normally
23pairs in humans.

b. Genes :- These are molecules in the chromosomes responsible for the transmission of
characters from parents to offspring.

c. Traits or characters :- These are the inherited features or attributes possessed by an

organism e. g. seed colour, seed size.

d. Gamete :- A matured sex cell which takes part in sexual reproduction. Examples in
plants are pollen grains for males and ovules as female gametes. Gametes are usually
haploid.

e. Haploid is when an organism has one set of chromosomes in the gametes. It is

represented by ‘n’

f. Diploid :- This is when an organism has two sets of chromosomes, it is usually so in

the body cells. It is represented by ‘2n’

g. Zygote :- A zygote is a single cell formed as a result of the union of a male and a
female gamete, hence zygote is usually .

h. Alleles or allelomorphs :- These are pairs of genes on the position of chromosomes

that controls contrasting characters.

i. Phenotype :- This is the actual physical expression of a character i.e. the observable
character in an organism like height, skin colour.

j. Genotype :- This is the genetic make-up or constitution of an individual as inherited

from the parents. It includes both the dominant and recessive genes or traits.

k. Dominant traits :- These are the characters expressed in an offspring when two
individuals with contrasting characters or traits are crossed. Dominant genes control
dominant traits.

l. Recessive traits :- These are the characters that are oppressed or not expressed though
present internally in the individual. Recessive genes control them.

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m. Homozygous :- An individual is said to be homozygous, if it has two similar genes for
the same character i.e. it has two identical alleles at the same position on a pair of
chromosomes e. g. TT for tallness and tt for shortness.

n. Heterozygous :- This is when a pair of genes controlling contrasting characters are

different .i e. it has two different alleles located on the same position on a pair of
chromosomes e. g. Tt.

o. Filial generations :- The off springs of parents. F1 generation , F2 generation.

p. Locus :- The site of location of a gene in a chromosome.

q. Hybrid :- This is the offspring or progeny from a cross between two organisms or
parents which are genotypically different.

r. Test cross :- This is the mating or exposure of the heterozygous individual of F1

generation to homozygous recessive. A test cross can determine whether the
individual being tested is homozygous dominant (pure bred) or heterozygous
dominant (hybrid).

s. Genetic mutation :- This is a change in the genetic makeup of an organism resulting in

a new inheritable characteristic.

t. Monohybrid cross :- This is a genetic cross between parents that differ in the alleles
they possess for one particular gene, one parent having two dominant alleles and the
other two recessives. All the offspring (called monohybrids) have one dominant and
one recessive allele for that gene.

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MENDELIAN LAWS
Mendel discovered that, when he crossed purebred white flower and purple flower pea plants
(the parental or P generation), the result was not a blend. Rather than being a mix of the two,
the offspring (known as the F1 generation) was purple-flowered. When Mendel self-fertilized
the F1 generation pea plants, he obtained a purple flower to white flower ratio in the F2
generation of 3: 1.

He then conceived the idea of heredity units, which he called "factors". Mendel found that
there are alternative forms of factors—now called genes—that account for variations in
inherited characteristics. For example, the gene for flower color in pea plants exists in two
forms, one for purple and the other for white. The alternatives “forms” are now called alleles.

Mendel hypothesized that allele pairs separate randomly, or segregate, from each other during
the production of gametes: egg and sperm. Because allele pairs separate during gamete
production, a sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited trait. When sperm and
egg unite at fertilization, each contributes its allele, restoring the paired condition in the
offspring. This is called the Law of Segregation. Mendel also found that each pair of alleles
segregates independently of the other pairs of alleles during gamete formation. This is known
as the Law of Independent assortment.

Law of segregation states that during gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate
from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.

Law of independent assortment states that genes for different traits can segregate
independently during the formation of gametes.

Law of dominance states that some alleles are dominant while others are recessive; an
organism with at least one dominant allele will display the effect of the dominant allele.

Cellular basis of heredity

All living things are made up of cells. Within the nucleus of the cell are structures called
chromosomes.
The chromosomes contain genes, which are molecules that control the characteristics
transmitted from parents to offspring. In diploid organisms, there are two sets of
chromosomes known as homologous. Such organisms have two sets of copies of each gene.
Diploid organisms produce sex cells or gametes, which contain only one set of chromosomes
and are therefore called haploid. During sexual reproduction, the gametes of male and female
parent fuse to form a zygote. Each zygote is diploid as it gets one copy of chromosome from
each parent, and hence one copy of each gene from the gamete of each parent.
A gene for a particular character may have alternative forms which express the character in a
different or contrasting way. Each alternative form of a gene is known as alleles. For example
flower colour in pea plants is determined by the two alleles: one for red colour and one for
white colour.

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When the two alleles for a particular character are identical in an individual, we say that the
individual is homozygous for that character, while an individual having two different alleles
for a particular character is said to be heterozygous.

Heredity and Environment:

The environment interacts with dominant genes to determine an individual’s expressed
character or phenotype. The environment is the sum total of our surrounding which we
interact with and respond to.
It includes the food we eat, diseases around or their absence, the weather, insect, other
animals and micro-organisms, medical care etc
They all act in their own way on the inherited traits to determine their development. It is
however difficult to distinguish which aspect of one’s development are determined by
heredity, and which ones by environment because they act together.
For instance, a child may have inherited tallness from his parents but may not reach his full
potential or maximum height, if he is deprived of an adequate diet. On the other hand a child
born of short parents may grow much taller than his parents if he enjoys better environment
and privileges than his parents did.

FAMILY TREE (Pedigree)

The transmissions of traits from parents to offspring are demonstrated in plants and lower
animals by crossing or mating the various organisms. In human beings on the other hand the
transmission of traits is studied by observing the similarities and differences existing among
members of the same family.
One way of doing this is by preparing a family tree or pedigree. The family tree refers to lines
of generations of parents and offspring and traces the descendants of a man and his wife.

Fig 1

In the family tree shown above, circles symbolize females and squares males. The horizontal
lines connecting circles to squares represents marriage lines while the longer horizontal lines
represent lines of generations. The short vertical lines represent the descendants or lineage.
First generation in the family tree is represented by a man and his wife. The second
generation is made up of the children while their grand-children make up the third generation.

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When the diagram is turned upside down, it will have the shape of a tree as shown in fig 2,
below, hence the name, ‘family tree.

Fig 2

NOTE: If a man has more than one wife, each wife will make up one unit for the purpose of
preparing the family tree.

Some genetic traits can run through the family. We can therefore predict traits to be expected
from offspring of a marriage.
Such traits include the blood group A, B, AB, O, and albinism. If the blood group of a
woman is A and that of her husband B their offspring can have blood group A OR B or AB.
They are determined by laboratory tests using just a few drops of blood. Albinism refers to
the incomplete or partial absence of pigmentation in the skin, hair and eyes. Albinism is a
recessive trait. A parent who is an albino may have a non albino child as long as the other
parent is not an albino. Parents who are neither albino but are carrying the trait for albinism
may have a child who is an albino

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REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Health is the fitness of the body. The health and well- being of the reproductive organs and
issues relating to reproduction is referred to as reproductive health.
Importance of reproductive Health
(i) Encouraging freedom from harmful practices that relate to sex and reproduction.
(ii) Enhancing the avoidance of illness, diseases related to sex and reproduction.
(iii) Improving sexual responsibility
(iv) It also helps to detect complications during and after pregnancy
(v) Gives access to basic reproductive health information, so that; people are better
informed about the functions of their reproductive system.

Ante – natal Care:

This is the care given to a pregnant woman before the birth of the child. This is to ensure a
safe delivery. It is done by an experience mid – wife or doctor. It entails examining the baby
in the womb and the woman. A doctor who is specialized in caring for pregnant women is
called an obstetrician. Ante – natal care starts from 3 – 4 months after conception.

Intra – partum Care:

After the gestation period of nine months, the woman falls into labour. During labour the
womb contracts to push the foetus out of the uterus through the vagina. It normally last
between 12 – 24 hours. During labour the care given to a woman is called intra – partum care.

Post – natal care:

This is the care given to a mother and her baby within the first 6weeks after delivery it
ensures that the woman recovers from the birth and that the baby is fairing fine. It is also
during this period that the midwife discusses contraceptives.

Child Care:
This is very important for higher animals like humans. They take care of their young ones
until they are able to care for themselves. Animals which feed their young in this way are
called mammals.

Care of the reproductive organs:

a. Wash private parts regularly with clean water.
b. Wear clean under wears
c. Keep toilets clean
d. Shave pubic hair when grown
e. Abstain from sex before marriage
f. Avoid mutilation of the sex organs, especially the female organ
g. Avoid self - medication.

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 THE NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Anything that occupies space and has mass is known as matter. Everything around us is a
form of matter. Matter is said to be composed of particles which are basically atoms /and
molecules. All matter such as solids, liquids, and gases, is composed of atoms. Therefore,
the atom is considered to be the basic building block of matter. However, atoms are almost
always grouped together with other atoms to form what is called a molecule.

ATOM

The concept of atoms was once again introduced to the scientific world by John Dalton in his 1808 book, A
New System of Chemical Philosophy. Dalton put forth the concept of all matter being composed of small
particles called atoms, which varied in weight and size. An element was a substance that contained only one
particular type of atom. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of any other element. The atoms
of elements combine in small whole number ratios to form the many chemical compounds found on earth and
in the rest of the universe.

All atoms are composed of a given set of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. These particles
have definite arrangements for any given element. The important thing to remember is that the protons,
electrons, and neutrons of one element are exactly the same as the protons, electrons, and neutrons of any other
element. It is their number and arrangement that make the elements different.

The basics of atomic structure are as follows:

• Protons are positively charged particles, weighing 1 atomic mass unit (1.67x10-24
grams) and located in the nucleus.
• Neutrons are neutrally charged particles, weighing approximately 1 atomic mass unit
and located in the nucleus.
• Electrons are negatively charged particles weighing zero atomic mass units and
located in the various orbitals of the energy levels outside the atomic nucleus. The
electron actually weighs 9.11x10-28 grams. This means it would take about 1,830
electrons to equal the mass of one proton. Since the heaviest naturally occurring
element has only 92 electrons in its normal state, we do not count the mass of the
electrons in calculating the mass of the atom.

Atomic Number: This is the number of protons in an atom

Mass Number This is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom. This is also called Nucleon number.

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The Periodic Table: Families and Periods

In the periodic table of elements, there are seven horizontal rows of elements called periods.
The vertical columns of elements are called groups, or families.

Periods in the periodic table

In each period (horizontal row), the atomic numbers increase from left to right. The periods
are numbered 1 through 7 on the left-hand side of the table.

Elements that are in the same period have chemical properties that are not all that similar.
Consider the first two members of period 3: sodium (Na) and magnesium (Mg). In reactions,
they both tend to lose electrons (after all, they are metals), but sodium loses one electron,
while magnesium loses two. Chlorine (Cl), down near the end of the period, tends to gain an
electron (it’s a nonmetal).

Groups in the periodic table

Members of the families/group (vertical columns) in the periodic table have the same number
of valence electron . The families are labeled at the top of the columns in one of two ways:

• The older method uses Roman numerals and letters. Many chemists prefer and still
use this method.
• The newer method uses the numbers 1 through 18.

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So why do the elements in the same family have similar properties? You can examine four
families on the periodic table and look at the electron configurations for a few elements in
each family.

The figure below lists some important families that are given special names:

• The IA family is made up of the alkali metals. In reactions, these elements all tend
to lose a single electron. This family contains some important elements, such as
sodium (Na) and potassium (K). Both of these elements play an important role in the
chemistry of the body and are commonly found in salts.
• The IIA family is made up of the alkaline earth metals. All these elements tend to
lose two electrons. Calcium (Ca) is an important member of the IIA family (you need
calcium for healthy teeth and bones).
• The VIIA family is made up of the halogens. They all tend to gain a single electron
in reactions. Important members in the family include chlorine (Cl), used in making
table salt and bleach, and iodine (I).
• The VIIIA family is made up of the noble gases. These elements are very
unreactive. For a long time, the noble gases were called the inert gases, because
people thought that these elements wouldn’t react at all.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

This is the arrangement of electrons in an atom of an element

Examples:

Fluorine F 2,7

Chlorine Cl 2,8,7

Calcium Ca 2,8,8,2

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Do not worry in the exam about colouring in the electrons. Just make them clear and ensure
they are in the right place. You may be asked to use a cross rather than a dot for each
electron.

Working out an element's electronic structure

Here is how to use the periodic table to work out an electronic structure:

1. Find the element in the periodic table. Work out which period (row) it is in, and draw
that number of circles around the nucleus.
2. Work out which group the element is in and draw that number of electrons in the
outer circle – with eight for Group 0 elements – except helium.
3. Fill the other circles with as many electrons as needed. Remember – two in the first
circle, and eight in the second and third circles.
4. Finally, check that the number of electrons is the same as the atomic number.

Valency

The valency of an element measures its ability to combine with other elements. The valency
is determined by the number of electrons in the outer shell of each atom of an element. All
atoms with two or more electron shells are most stable when they have eight electrons in their
outer shell, but only a few elements are naturally formed that way (neon, for example), and
most that just have one or two electrons in their outer shell (lithium, for example) or six or
seven (oxygen, for example) tend to react, or combine their outer-shell electrons with the
outer-shell electrons of other adjacent elements to bond and form more stable multi-element
molecules.

Calculating the Valency of an Element (or Molecule)

Step 1

Consult the periodic table of the elements to determine the valency of an element. The
periodic table is organized by groups in rows and columns, and the elements of groups I-VIII
have the same valency as others in their group. All the elements in group VIII have eight
electrons in their outer shells, and thus have a valency of zero (highly stable). Elements in
group I just have one valence electron in their outer shells and thus have a valency of one,
which means they are very reactive. Group IV/valency 4 elements like carbon are relatively
stable. Group VI and VII elements like oxygen are also reactive as they seek electron pairs to
complete their outer shell octet.

Step 2

Calculate the valency of an element using the total number of electrons. The valency of an
atom is equal to the number of electrons in the outer shell if that number is four or less.
Otherwise, the valency is equal to eight minus the number of electrons in the outer shell. The
number of electrons in each shell of an atom is regular so if you know the number of
electrons in the atom, then you can calculate the valency. All atoms (except hydrogen) have
two electrons in the first electron shell, and up to eight electrons in each succeeding electron
shell. For example, carbon has six electrons, two in the first shell, and four in the outer shell,

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giving it a valency of four. Oxygen has eight electrons, two in the first shell and six in the
outer shell, giving it a valency of two (8 - 6 = 2).

Chemical formulae

This is a formula consisting of symbols of elements in the ratio these elements combine to
form a compound. Chemical formulae can be deduced from the valences of the component
elements or radicals.

The following steps are taken in writing the formulae of compounds:

• Write the symbol for the element and radicals

• Write the valencies above and to the right of the symbols
• Re-write the symbols exchanging the valencies and write the number below(
subscript) and to the right of the symbol.
• The sum of the positive valencies of a compound must be equal to the the sum of its
negative valencies.
• The number of atoms of the component elements in the formula must be written as a
numerical subscript after the element concerned. If a radical occurs more than once, it
must be enclosed within a bracket.

Example: Write the formula of aluminium chloride

Aluminium Chlorine

Al3+ Cl-

They exchange valencies

Al3+ Cl- = AlCl3

Calcium hydroxide

Ca2+ OH-

Ca(OH)2

valency or ionic charge = the combining power of the ion

'molecular' or ionic style of formula and compound name

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 1 of K+ balances 1 of Br- because 1 x 1 = 1 x 1 gives KBr or K+Br-
potassium bromide

2 of Na+ balances 1 of O2- because 2 x 1 = 1 x 2 gives Na2O or (Na+)2O2-

sodium oxide

1 of Mg2+ balances 2 of Cl- because 1 x 2 = 2 x 1 gives MgCl2 or

Mg2+(Cl)2 magnesium chloride

1 of Fe3+ balances 3 of F- because 1 x 3 = 3 x 1 gives FeF3 or Fe3+(F-)3

iron(III) fluoride

1 of Ca2+ balances 2 of NO3- because 1 x 2 = 2 x 1 gives Ca(NO3)2 or

Ca2+(NO3)2 calcium trioxonitrate(V)

2 of Fe3+ balances 3 of SO42- because 2 x 3 = 3 x 2 gives Fe2(SO4)3 or

(Fe3+)2(SO42-)3 iron(III) tetraoxosulphate(VI)

Oxidation Number and naming of ionic compounds

Oxidation number is the charge on an atom, group of atoms, ions as determined by a

set of rules.
The oxidation number of group 1 elements and group two elements are +1 and +2
respectively.
The oxidation number of oxygen is always -2 except in peroxide where it is -1
The oxidation number of an uncombined atom is always zero.
The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 except in hydride where it is -1

The Naming Of Compounds

If a given compound is multinuclear, that is, it consists of a single metal ion and a number of
ions of another element then we use prefixes in front of the different parts of the name to
denote how many of these atoms, ions or groups are present. Some of these prefixes are
presented in the table below.

Number of atoms,
Naming prefix
ions or groups
1 Mono- (optional)
2 Di-

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 3 Tri-
4 Tetra-
5 Penta-
6 Hexa-

In ionic compounds containing metal ions, the name is formed with the name of the metal
(with the positive oxidation number), followed by the name of the non-metal (with the
negative oxidation number) with the added suffix '-ide'. The name of a binary compound
(compounds that are made up of only two different atoms of elements) ends in the suffix –
‘ide’.

For example: HCl - Hydrogen Chloride,

NaOH- Sodium hydroxide

NaCl - Sodium Chloride,
MgO - Magnesium oxide,
AlCl3 - Aluminium trichloride,
NaH - Sodium hydride

We can also have more complex cations (positively charged) and anions (negatively charged)
which are molecules themselves, but carry an overall charge. There are a range of molecular
anions called 'oxo ions' which contain the atoms of an element bonded to several oxygen
atoms. The overall charge on these ions is the sum of the oxidation number for the central
atom and those for the oxygens present. If the central atom is in its highest oxidation state,
the names for these ions tend to end with the suffix '-ate'.

For example: CO32- -Trioxocarbonate (IV),

SO42- - Tetraoxosulphate(VI) (containing sulphur(VI)),

NO3- -Trioxonitrate (V),
PO43- - Tetraoxophosphate (V).

Balancing Equations

A chemical equation is the representation of the chemical reaction taking place. This gives us
the exact moles of reactants reacting and the products formed. So, it is important to provide
the exact moles of the reacting substances and products. Also, we know that according to
the law of conservation of mass , moles of a product formed would be equal to the moles of
the reactant. Nothing will be lost in the process of a chemical reaction.

How to Balance a Chemical Equation Step by Step

The number of atoms of each element is conserved during a chemical reaction. A correctly
written chemical equation reflects this observation. To satisfy the law of conservation of
mass, we need to insert the right coefficients into a chemical equation.

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This process is referred to as balancing an equation. Trial and error is the best way to learn
how to balance equations. There are an equal number of atoms for each element on each side
of the equation, when the equation is balanced.

A general method to learn the balancing of chemical equations is as follows :

1. Write down the unbalanced equation containing the correct molecular formula of all
reactants and products.
2. Determine whether or not the chemical equation is already balanced.
3. If the equation is not balanced, start by balancing the element that occurs in the fewest
number of reactants and the product molecules. Start with carbon or any other
atom with a high molar mass.
4. Balance the remaining elements.
5. Make sure that the number of atoms in each element is balanced.

Example :
Balance the chemical equation:

Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2

We can see that the equation is not already balanced.

• We start by balancing Fe, since it has a high molecular mass atom and only appears
once on the reactant and the product side. We see that there are three Fe atoms on the
product side, so, we can balance Fe by adding a coefficient '3' to Fe on the reactant
side. So:

3 Fe + H2O → 1 Fe3O4 + H2

• Having balanced Fe, we can then turn to oxygen, since it occurs with Fe in Fe3O4, and
we have already balanced Fe. There are four atoms of oxygen on the product side, so
we can balance oxygen by placing a coefficient of 4 in front of H2O on the reactants
side.

3 Fe + 4H2O → 1 Fe3O4 + H2

• Finally, Hydrogen is the only one, left unbalanced. We have 8 hydrogen atoms on the
left side, in water and so, we need 8 on the right side too. By placing '4' in front of H2,
we will get 8 hydrogen.

3 Fe + 4H2O → 1 Fe3O4 + 4H2

Thus, the following equation is completely balanced, for all the atoms.

Though, there are many types of chemical reactions,

all reactions are balanced in the same way, except for redox reactions, which require a
different method of balancing.

Simplifying Chemical Reactions

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Let us start with a chemical equation for a reaction involving the combustion of hydrogen gas
with oxygen gas. The two gases are ignited and the products formed are water and energy.

Write the formula for balancing the chemical equations for the reactants and products.

H2 + O2 → H2O (not balanced)

Balancing the Chemical Equation of Water

The number of atoms in a chemical equation can be equally balanced. Two oxygen atoms can
be presented in the reactant side but on the product side only one atom is presented here.

To solve the equations, on the product side, place 2 before the formula for water.

H2 + O2 → 2 H2O (not balanced)

Now, we can see, two molecules of water can be produced for each molecule of oxygen that
can be reacted. The number is placed before the formula and is called the chemical equation
solver’s coefficient.

A coefficient represents the number to be multiplied by everything in the formula for both the
reactant and the product sides. The water molecule on the product side is doubled so that the
two oxygen atoms and four hydrogen atoms combined, on the reactant side, equal the number
of atoms on the product side.

For balancing the equation, on the reactant side, place 2 in front of the H2.

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O (balanced)

Hence, there are four hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen atoms represented on both the reactant
and the product side.

Atoms of Reactants Atoms of products

4H 4H
2O 2O

For the chemical equation balancing solver for water molecule, the atoms involved can
neither be created nor destroyed.

Balancing Chemical Equation Problem

Solved Examples

Question 1: Balance the following chemical equation: NH3 + O2 → NO + H2O

Solution:

Let us write the unbalanced equation first:

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NH3 + O2 → NO + H2O

Now, counting the number of each atoms on both sides

Elements Reactants side Product side
Nitrogen 1 1
Oxygen 2 2
Hydrogen 3 2

Except for hydrogen, the other two elements present are balanced. Let us start with balancing
the hydrogen

Since hydrogen occurs in only one substance, in both products and reactant side, and also,
since in one side, its number is an odd number, 3 and on the other side, there are 2 numbers,
which is even, let us take a common multiple and make the number of hydrogen on both sides
as '6'. And also, satisfying the nitrogen, by adding a 2 before NO:

2NH3 + O2 → 2 NO + 3 H2O

On doing this, the number of oxygen and nitrogen changes too. And we have the same odd
and even problem now with oxygen too. There are 2 oxygen on the reactants side and 5 on
the product side.
By doubling all coefficients to make it even:

[2NH3 + O2 → 2 NO + 3 H2O ] x 2
4NH3 + 2O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O

Now, finally, we see that oxygen is still unbalanced. It is less on the reactant side. Changing
the coefficient of oxygen on the left-hand side, the reactants side, we get

4NH3 + 5O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O

The equation is finally balanced.

Question 2: Write the balanced chemical reaction for the combustion of glucose, C6H12O6 in
air.
Solution:
To solve this question, we start by showing the unbalanced reaction

C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

We can start by balancing carbon. There are 6 C atoms on the left-hand side, so we can place
a coefficient of 6 in front of CO2, on the right-hand side. This gives us:

C6H12O6 + O2 → 6 CO2 + H2O

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Now, we can move to hydrogen. There are 12 H atoms on the left so we can add a coefficient
of 6 in front of water.

C6H12O6 + O2 → 6 CO2 + 6H2O

Now, only oxygen is left to be balanced. We have a total of 12 + 6 or 18 oxygen on the right-
hand side.
In the left-hand side, we have 6 oxygen in glucose molecule.

Therefore, we need to make sure that there are 12 more oxygen atoms on the left, which we
can accomplish by adding a coefficient of 6 in front of Oxygen.

C6H12O6 +6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6H2O

Thus, the equation is completely balanced.

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

ACIDS
Acids have long been associated with the sour taste of some fruits such as lime and lemon,
and their ability to turn blue litmus red. However, scientifically, an acid is defined as a
substance which produces hydrogen ions (H+) as the only positive ion when dissolved in
water.
For example;

HCl H+ + Cl-

In water, it has been found that the hydrogen ion (H+) is in combination with water
molecules as hydronium ion (H3O+)
Classification of acids
Acids can be classified based on the following criteria, which are; their sources, their
ionization ability and their concentration.

A. Classification based on sources:

Acids can be subdivided into organic acids and inorganic (mineral) acids.
i. Organic acids occur as natural products in plants and animals’ materials. e.g.
Ethanoic (acetic) acid in vinegar
Lactic acid in milk

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Citric acid in lime and lemon
Tartaric acid in grape
Ascorbic acid in orange and some other fruits (vitamin C)
Amino acids in proteins.
Fatty acids in fats and oil

ii. Inorganic acids on the other hands are prepared from mineral elements or inorganic
materials. Examples are
HNO3 - trioxonitrate (V) acid
H2SO4 - tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid
HCl - hydrochloric acid.

B. Classification based on ionization ability; this divides acids into strong and weak
i. A strong acid is one which ionizes completely in water to give hydrogen ions and anions
(H+ + anions). Examples are tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid and trionitrate (V) acid

ii. Weak acids are only partially ionized in water e.g.

H2 CO3 - trioxocarbonate acid
H3PO4 - tetraoxophosphate (VI) acid
H2SO3 - Trioxosulphate (IV) acid

C. Classification based on level of concentration: this subdivides acids into dilute and
concentrated acids. They are defined as follows;
i. a dilute acid is formed when a large amount of water is added to a small amount of acid.
ii. a concentrated acid is formed when a small amount of water is added to a relatively large
amount of acid

Physical properties of acid

1. Dilute acids have sour taste
2. Acids turn blue paper litmus red
3. Concentrated solutions of strong acids are corrosive

N.B: Never add water to acids. Always add acids to water, drop by drop.

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Chemical properties of acids

1. Acids react with metals like zinc, magnesium to liberate hydrogen gas.
2HCl + Zn ZnCl2 + H2

2. Acids react with bases and alkalis to form a salt and water as the only product. This
reaction is known as neutralization reaction.
E.g. HCI + NaOH NaCI + H2O

3. Acids react with trioxocarbonates (VI) to liberate carbon (IV) oxide.

Trioxocarbonate (IV) + Acid Salt + water + CO2
The chemical equation is
Na2CO3 + 2HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2
Another example is
CaCO3 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

Uses of acids
1. Hydrochloric acid is used for removing rust and to make chemicals.
2. Teteraoxosulphate (VI) acid is used in the manufacture of many car batteries. It serves as
a drying agent for making chemicals and as an electrolyte in accumulators. It is also
known as 'Oil of Vitriol'. The chemical formula is H2SO4.
3. Trioxonitrate (V) acid is used for making dynamites and as an explosive.
4. Fatty acids are used for the production of soaps.

5. Milk contains lactic acid. Lactic acid is named after the Latin word 'lac', which means
milk.

6. Vinegar is very dilute acetic acid. The vinegar used in cooking contains approximately
4% of acetic acid. The chemical formula of acetic acid is CH3COOH.

7. Trioxocarbonate (IV) acid is responsible for the 'fizz' in soft drinks. The carbonic acid
decomposes into Carbon dioxide bubbles. The chemical formula of Carbonic acid is H2CO3.

8. Ascorbic acid is the chemical name of Vitamin C. Deficiency of Vitamin C in the body
may result in a disease known as scurvy. The chemical formula of ascorbic acid is C6H8O6.

BASES
What is a Base?

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The term base refers to substances that neutralize the effect of acids and turn red litmus blue.
However, scientifically, a base is defined as any substance that produces hydroxyl ions (OH-)
as the only negative ion when dissolve in water. Most oxides and hydroxides of metals are
bases.

Characteristics of alkalis/bases

a. Bases are bitter in taste and soapy to touch.

b. They have bitter taste

c. They turn red litmus paper blue

d. They conduct electricity in aqueous solution.

e. Strong alkalis are corrosive.

If hydroxyl ions are found in a solution, the solution is basic in nature. Hydroxyl ions are the
only negatively-charged ions (anions) formed when a base dissolves in water. All the
properties of a base are due to the presence of these ions. The chemical formula of an
hydroxyl ion is OH-.

Examples of Bases

Antacids help to neutralize the acidity (of hydrochloric acid) in the stomach. They chiefly
contain two bases, namely Magnesium hydroxide and Aluminum hydroxide. The chemical
formula of Magnesium hydroxide and Aluminum hydroxide are Mg(OH)2 and Al(OH)3
respectively.

Sodium hydroxide is also known as 'Caustic Soda'. Its chemical formula is NaOH.

Potassium hydroxide is also known as 'Caustic Potash'. It is used in the manufacture of

alkaline batteries. Its chemical formula is KOH.

Ammonia is a basic gas which is used in the manufacture of fertilizers such as Urea,
Ammonium trioxoitrate (V), and Ammonium tetraoxosulphate (VI). The chemical formula of
Ammonia is NH3.

Alkalis are bases (hydroxides of metals) that are soluble in water.

Physical properties of bases

1. Alkalis have bitter taste
2. Alkalis are soapy to feel/touch
3. Alkalis turn red litmus paper blue

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4. Concentrated solutions of KOH and NaOH are corrosive, they are called caustic
alkalis

Chemical properties of bases

1. Bases react with acids to produce salt and water as the only product (neutralization
reaction).
2. Bases react with ammonium salts to liberal ammonia gas.

SALTS

A salt is defined as a compound formed by the complete or incomplete replacement of the

hydrogen ion of an acid by a metallic or an ammonium ion.

Types of salts are normal salt and acid salt

There are different types of salts. These include:

i. Normal salt is formed by the complete replacement of the hydrogen ion of an acid by a
metallic or ammonium ion e.g. sodium chloride (NaCl), Sodium sulphide (Na2S), sodium
carbonate, Na2CO3

ii. Acid salt is formed by the incomplete replacement of the hydrogen ion of an acid by a
metallic or ammonium ion e. g. sodium hydrogen tetraoxsulphate (VI) NaHSO4, ammonium
hydrogen carbonate, NH4HCO3, sodium hydrogen sulphide, NaHS etc

iii. Basic salt: Basic salt contains hydroxide ion together with metallic ions and negative
ions from an acid. They are formed by the incomplete eplacemen o he hydroxide ion o a base
by a negative ion from an acid. This occurs when there is insufficient acid to completely
neutralize the base. Examples are basic zinc chloride, Zn(OH)Cl, basic magnesium chloride,
Mg(OH)Cl

iv. Double salt: Double salt is a ype of salt that ionizes to produce three different types of
ions in solution, two of these are usually positively charged and the other negatively charged.
+(aq) + Zn(OH)2- (aq)
Na 2 Zn(OH) 4 (aq) 2Na
Examples are ammonium iron(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI) hexahydrate, (NH4)2 Fe(SO4)2.6H2O;
4
potash alum or aluminium potassium tetraoxosulphate(VI) dodecahydrate, KAl(SO4)2.
12H2O; and chrome alum or chromium(III) potassium tetraoxosulphate(VI) dodecahydrate,
KCr(SO4)2.12H2O.

v. Complex salt: Complex salt contains complex ions, i.e. ions consisting of a cenral
metal(positive) ion surrounded by other atoms, group of atoms or ions. Examples of complex
salts are sodium tetrahydroxoz incate(II), potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) etc

Uses of Salts

Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is used in the manufacture of detergents and glass.

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Sodium chloride is used to add taste and to preserve food.

MEASUREMENT OF ACIDITY AND ALKANITY

The acidity and alkalinity of substances are measured using a scale of numbers from 0 – 14
called the pH scale. The solution with the pH of 7 is neutral. A solution with a pH less than 7
is acidic while one with a pH greater than 7 is alkali. Acidity increases with decreasing pH
values while alkalinity increases with increasing pH value.

Increasing acidity increasing alkalinity

0 7 14
Highly neutral highly
Acidic alkaline

Importance of pH
pH values play important roles in our lifes, examples are:
Acidic pH value is required for normal digestion in the stomach while our mouth and
intestine requires alkaline pH values.
The pH of normal blood is about 7.4.
Soil pH values ranges from 4 – 9. Most crops grow optimally between pH of 9 and 8.
pH values are also important in medicine, pharmacy, water purification and sewage
treatment.

Measurement of pH
The pH of a medium can be measured with some of the following;
i. Acid-base indicators:- these are dyes which change colour according to the pH of the
medium.
ii. Litmus is a common indicator which is red in acid solutions and blue in alkaline
mediums. Other indicators include;
iii. methyl orange.
iv. methyl red
v. Phenolphthalein

pH of solutions are also measured by universal indicators or pH meter.

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 pH

The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic.

The pH scale is logarithmic and as a result, each whole pH value below 7 is ten times more
acidic than the next higher value. For example, pH 4 is ten times more acidic than pH 5 and
100 times (10 times 10) more acidic than pH 6. The same holds true for pH values above 7,
each of which is ten times more alkaline (another way to say basic) than the next lower whole
value. For example, pH 10 is ten times more alkaline than pH 9 and 100 times (10 times 10)
more alkaline than pH 8.

Pure water is neutral. But when chemicals are mixed with water, the mixture can become
either acidic or basic. Examples of acidic substances are vinegar and lemon juice, while
caustic soda, milk of magnesia, and ammonia are examples of basic substances.

SKILL ACQUISITION

A skill can be described as the ability to carry out a task and bring about some desired
changes end result with maximum certainty and minimum outlay of time and energy.

Acquisition of skills to perform some employable trades is necessary for an individual. Trade
is desirable for an individual not to seek government work that is not in existence and be self-
reliant. To acquire these skills, the individual some years ends some period of time ranging
from a few months to some years learning under the watchful eyes of the expert. Skill
acquisition can vary from learning the cognitive aspect of the task to learning the practical or
psychomotor aspect of the task.

Reasons for skill acquisition

It is a means of survival.

To learn how to mutually live in the society.

It aids in decision making.

To help in managing emergency situations.

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Types of skills

Farming

Basic computer literacy skills

Carpentry works

Electrical installations and repairs

Photography

Desktop publishing and networking

Bricklaying

Auto mechanic

Web designing

Plumbing works

Importance of skill acquisition

To earn a living

To meet the manpower need of the society

To reduce unemployment, hence reducing crime in the society

To reduce idleness

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