Modern University

For Technology and Information

Mechanical Engineering Department

Lectures Notes of
Machine Construction
MENG 202

Prepared By
Asoc.Prof. Omar Koura

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 Vision
The vision of the Faculty of Engineering at MTI university is to
be a center of excellence in engineering education and scientific
research in national and global regions. The Faculty of
Engineering aims to prepare graduates meet the needs of society
and contribute to sustainable development.

Mission
The Faculty of Engineering MTI university aims to develop
distinguished graduates that can enhance in the scientific and
professional status, through the various programs which fulfill
the needs of local and regional markets. The Faculty of
Engineering hopes to provide the graduates a highly academic
level to keep up the global developments.

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 Lecture Note 1: Introduction to design

➢ Sources of forces
The machine parts are subjected to various forces, such as:
1. Energy transmitted,
2. Weight of machine,
3. Frictional resistances,
4. Inertia of reciprocating parts,
5. Change of temperature, and
6. Lack of balance of moving parts.

➢ Types of Loads
It is defined as any external force acting upon a machine part. The following
four types are the most important from the design point of view:

1. Dead or steady load. A load does not change in magnitude or

direction.
2. Variable load. A load change continually.
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads. A load is suddenly applied or
removed.
4. Impact load. A load is applied with some initial velocity.
The load may be axial (tension or compression or shear) load, bending load or
torsional load, fig 1.1.

Fig 1.1: Direction of load

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➢ System

• Any isolated part or portion of a machine or structure to be studied.

• If the system is motionless or has constant velocity it is said the system

is in equilibrium ‫إتزان‬

• In equilibrium, all forces and moments acting on the system balance:

∑F=0 ∑M=0

• The isolated system together with all forces and moments due to any
external effects and the reaction with the main system is called free-body
diagram, fig 1.2.

Fig 1.2: bodies

➢ Stress

• It is a state property of a body which is a function of: load, geometry,

temperature and manufacturing process, figs 1.3 & 1.4.

• When a part of cross-sectional area (A) is subjected to normal tension

load or compression load, the part is under normal stress (σ) = F/A

• Stress has unit Pascal (Pa) [1 Pa = 1 N/m2]

• Various marks denote various kinds of stress:

o σ1 – principal stress – stress in the direction of a principal axis
o σy – coordinate stress component
o σr – radial stress component

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 Fig 1.3: Normal & shear forces

Fig 1.4: direction of normal and shear stresses

➢ Normal Strain

It is defined as deformation of a solid due to stress in terms of displacement of

material, fig 1.5.
Strain (ԑ) = δl / Lo [m/m]
were,
Lo is the original length
δl is the change in length due to the force = Ls - Lo

do ds

Lo Ls

Fig 1.5: strain

In the elastic zone the stress is directly proportion to the strain, i.e.
Young’s modulus of Elasticity (E) = σ / ԑ [N/m2]
Values for E for some materials are given in table 6.

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 ➢ Shear stress and shear strain

The part in fig 1.6 is subjected to shear force. The shear stress (τ) = F /A

Fig 1.6: Shear

The corresponding strain is known as shear strain (ϕ) and is measured by the
angular deformation.
The shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G) = τ / ϕ [N/m2]
Values for G for some materials are given in table 6.

The relation between modulus of elasticity and modulus of rigidity is given by

poison’s ratio (ν) = lateral strain / axial and E = 2*G*(1+ν)

The relation between stress and strain differs from one material to another. For
steel, fig 1.7 shows the relation for steel.

• Stress at point “E” is the Ultimate tensile strength (St)

• Stress at point “B” is the Yield strength (Se). The lowest stress that
produces permanent deformation.
• Stress at point “F” is rapture strength (Sr).

Fig 1.7: Stress – Strain relation for steel

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 ➢ Definitions

Strength ‫ القوه‬: A component should not fail or have residual deformations

under the effect of the forces that act on it. This is satisfied if the induced stress
is smaller than the material strength.

Rigidity ‫صالبه‬: is the ability of parts to resist deformations under the action of
forces. Proper rigidity is necessary to ensure that machine as a whole and its
elements operate effectively.

Wear Resistance ‫ مقاومة التآكل‬: Wear is the principal cause of putting machine
elements out of commission. It results in frequent stops, loss of machine
accuracy etc.
Heat resistance ‫ مقاومة الحراره‬: The heat involved in the working process or
sometimes due to friction between moving surfaces, causes the components of
some machines to operate under conditions of increased temperature. An
increased temperature (> 100° C) impairs the lubricating ability of oils;
Continuous operations involving temperatures > 300-400° C causes slow plastic
deformations called creep.
Resistance to vibrations ‫ مقاومة اإلهتزازات‬: The term implies the ability of a
machine to operate at the assigned speeds and loads without impermissible
oscillations.

➢ Design Criteria
Basic assumptions ‫إفتراضات عند بدأ التصميم‬
»Material is continuous, homogenous and isotropic
»Material is linearly elastic, or Hook’s law is valid
»There are no internal stresses prior to loading
»Load is static

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Factor of safety
It is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.
Mathematically,
Max stress
Factor of safety =
design stress
In case of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly
defined, the factor of safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such cases,
Yield stress
Factor of safety =
design stress

In case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as
for ductile materials, Therefore,
Ultimate stress
Factor of safety =
design stress

Some guiding values are given in table 1.1

Table 1.1: Factor of safety for the different types of loads

Material Steady load Variable load Shock load
Cast iron 5 to 6 8 to 12 16 to 20
Steel 4 8 12 to 16
Soft material and alloys 6 9 15
Timber 7 10 to 15 20

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 Lecture Note 2: Shafts

➢ Material
- Material strength to resist loading stresses affects the choice of materials.
- Many shafts are made from low carbon, cold-drawn or hot-rolled steel.
- A good practice is to start with inexpensive, low, or medium carbon steel
for the first time through the design calculations.
- Shafts usually don’t need to be surface hardened unless they serve as
journal bearing surface.
- Stainless steel may be appropriate for some environments.

➢ Reason for shaft failure

• Precence of cyclic loads
• Stress concentration
• wrong design of forms ( pulleys, keyways, bores, ….)
• Wrong adjustment of bearingd
• Unsufficient clearance

➢ Steps of shaft design

Steps in the shaft design are:
1. Define shaft topology

2. Specify driving elements and shaft arrangement. This is important

since the size of the rotating parts affects the design

3. Free body diagram. This means replacing the actual elements by line
diagram showing the forces, torques, reactions at bearings and then the
bending moment and torsional moments.

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 4. Select bearings

5. Consider shaft deflection and stress

6. Check for critical speed

7. Specify connections

8. Dimensions

➢ Shaft (layout) topology

- Between two bearings, fig 2.1 a, and carries load in between
- Between two bearings, fig 2.1 b, and carries integrated pinion in between
- Two bearings with the shaft extended as cantilever, fig 2.1 c, carrying
fan or pulley…
- Runs inside sleeves, fig 2.1 d

Fig 2.1: shaft layout

➢ Shaft arrangement
The shafts are designed to carry rotating parts mounted by keys, or clamp
collars, or press fitted or taper pins. The rotating parts such as gears,
pulleys, and others. A typical arrangement is shown in fig 2.2.

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 Fig 2.2: shaft arrangement

If the shaft is transmitting torque then it uses keys, or splines or set screws or
pins or force and shrink fit. The torque transmitted by a shaft of radius r (mm)
rotating at n (r.p.m), carries power of P (W) is given by, fig 2.3:

Torque (T) = (P * 60) / (2л * n) N.mm

Tangential force (F) = T / r mm

Torque (N.mm)
n (rpm)

Tangential force (Newton)

Fig 2.3: torque on shaft

➢ Draw the free body diagram

This is representing the solid shape of the shaft arrangement by line scketches
showing the applied forces, reaction, torque diagram and bending momemt
diagram. fig 2.4 shows the free body diagram for the shaft given.

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 Gear Driving pulley

76 76 45

Fig 2.4: shaft topology

a) Force and torque diagram:

b) Moment diagram

c) Load digram

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 d) Torque diagram

Fig 2.4: Free body diagram

➢ Bearing assembly
- The inner race ususally press fitted on the shaft and sided to a shoulder,
fig 2.5, in the shaft. The outer race is either press fitted to outer casing or
located by screws.
- The shoulder is designed to stress relief the stress concentration, fig 2.6.
This is done by machining undercut, or groove or recess. Avoid sharp
corners.

Fig 2.5: locating bearings on the shaft

Fig 2.6: relieving the stresses at the shoulder

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 ➢ Shaft deflection and stress – minimum diameter
This is difficult to calculate exactly. The reasons for complexity are:
• Variable shaft diameter

• Undercuts and grooves – stress concentration points

• Type of load – axial, radial, torsional, bending, static, dynamic …

Case 1: if the shaft is subjected to torque only, then:
For solid shaft T = (л * τ * do3) / 16
For hollow shaft T = (л * τ * do3) * (1 – k4) / 16
k = di / do
Case 2: if the shaft is subjected to bending moment only, then:
For solid shaft M = (л * σb * do3 ) / 32
Case 3: if the shaft is subjected to both bending moment and torque, then:
Get the equivalent bending moment Me = 0.5 * [M + √(M2 + T2)]
Then, For solid shaft, Me = (л * σb * do3 ) / 32
Or may be calculated from the equivalent torque Te = √(M2 + T2)
Then, for solid shaft Te = (л * τ * do3 ) / 16
Also, for hollow shaft, Me = (л * σb * do3 ) * (1-k4) / 32
Or calculated from the equivalent torque Te = (л*τ*do3)*(1–k4) / 16

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 Lecture Note 3: Keys and splines
➢ Keys
• Keys and pins, fig 3.1, are used on shafts to secure rotating elements,
such as gears, pulleys, or other wheels.
• Keys are used to enable the transmission of torque from the shaft to the
elements.
• Pins are used for axial positioning and for the transfer of torque or thrust
or both.

Round key Square key Round Pin taper pin

Fig 3.1: Keys and pins

➢ Types of keys

The main types of keys are in fig 3.2:

• Parallel keys are of square or rectangle cross section and of constant

height and width along its length. If axial play exists, it requires retaining
rings or anything else.
• Taper keys are of constant width, but its height varies with a linear taper.
This type may not have a head or have a head to facilitate removal. This
type locks the hub axially on the shaft. Table 3.1 gives some standard
sizes.
• Woodruff keys are semicircular in plan and of constant width, table 3.2.

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 Fig 3.2: types of keys

Table 3.1: Some standard sizes for parallel and taper keys

Shaft dia. Key Key Shaft dia. Key Key

(mm) = > width thickness (mm) = > width thickness
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
6 2 2 58 18 11
8 3 3 65 20 12
10 4 4 75 22 14
12 5 5 85 25 14
17 6 6 95 28 16
22 8 7 110 32 18
30 10 8 130 36 20
38 12 8 150 40 22
44 14 9 170 45 25
50 16 10 200 50 28

Table 3.2: Some standard sizes for woodruff keys

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 ➢ Forces acting on a Sunk Key
When a key is used in transmitting torque from a shaft to a rotor or hub, the
following two types of forces act on the key :
1. Forces (F1) due to fit of the key in its keyway. These forces produce
compressive stresses in the key.
2. Forces (F) due to the torque transmitted by the shaft.
These forces produce shearing and compressive (or crushing) stresses in the
key.
In designing a key in fig 3.3, forces due to fit of the key are neglected and it is
assumed that the distribution of forces along the length of key is uniform.

Fig 3.3: key - calculation

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Let T = Torque transmitted by the shaft,
F = Tangential force acting at the circumference of the shaft,
d = Diameter of shaft,
L = Length of key,
w = Width of key.
t = Thickness of key, and
τk and σc = Shear and crushing stresses for the material of key.
τs = Shear stress for the material of shaft
Considering shearing of the key, the tangential shearing force acting at the
circumference of the shaft,
F = Area resisting shearing × Shear stress = L × w × τ
Torque transmitted (T) = F * d/2 = L * w * τk * d / 2

Torsional shear strength of the shaft T = (л * τs * d3) / 16

Then, L * w * τ * d / 2 = (л * τs * d3) / 16

Always take w = d / 4

Then, L = 1.571 * d * (τs / τk)

If the material of the key is the same as of the shaft, then, L = 1.571 * d
Considering crushing of the key T = L * (t / 2) * σc * d / 2

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 ➢ Splines
Sometimes, keys are made integral with the shaft which fits in the keyways
broached in the hub. Such shafts are known as splined shafts as shown in
fig.3.4.

Fig 3.4: spline shaft

These shafts usually have four, six, ten or sixteen splines. The splined shafts
are relatively stronger than shafts having a single keyway.

The splined shafts are used when the force to be transmitted is large in
proportion to the size of the shaft as in automobile transmission and sliding gear
transmissions. By using splined shafts, we obtain axial movement as well as
positive drive is obtained.

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 Lecture Note 4: Flat and V - Belts
1. Flat Belts
➢ Introduction
The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by
means of pulleys which rotate at the same speed or at different speeds.
The amount of power transmitted depends upon the following factors :
1. The velocity of the belt.
2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys.
3. The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.
4. The conditions under which the belt is used.
It may be noted that
(a) The shafts should be properly in line.
(b) The pulleys should not be too close together.
(c) The pulleys should not be so far apart.
(d) A long belt tends to swing from side to side, causing the belt to run
out of the pulleys.
(e) The tight side of the belt should be at the bottom.
( f ) In order to obtain good results with flat belts, the maximum distance
between the shafts should not exceed 10 meters and the minimum should
not be less than 3.5 times the diameter of the larger pulley.

➢ Types of Belt Drives

The belt drives fall in three groups:
1. Light drives. These are used to transmit small powers at belt speeds
up to about 10 m/s as in agricultural machines and small machine tools.
2. Medium drives. These are used to transmit medium powers at belt
speeds over 10 m/s but up to 22 m/s, as in machine tools.
3. Heavy drives. These are used to transmit large powers at belt speeds
above 22 m/s as in compressors and generators.

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 ➢ Types of Belts
The main types are:
1. Flat belt. The flat belt, fig 4.1, is used to transmit moderate amount of
power from one pulley to another when the two pulleys are not more than
8 meters apart.

Flat belt. V-belt Circular bely

Fig. 4.1: Types of belts

2. V- belt. The V-belt is mostly used where a great amount of power is

to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are
very near to each other.

3. Circular belt or rope. The circular belt or rope is used where a great
amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when
the two pulleys are more than 8 meters apart.
If a huge amount of power is to be transmitted, then more than one belt is used.

➢ Material used for Belts

1. Leather belts. The most important material for flat belt is leather.
The ultimate strength of leather belt varies from 21 to 35 MPa and a
factor of safety may be taken as 8 to 10.
2. Cotton or fabric belts. Most of the fabric belts are made by folding
canvass or cotton duck to three or more layers. They mostly used in farm
machinery, belt conveyor etc.

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 3. Rubber belt. The rubber belts are made of layers of fabric
impregnated with rubber. These belts are found suitable for sawmills,
paper mills where they are exposed to moisture.
4. Balata belts. These belts are like rubber belts except that balata gum
is used in place of rubber. These belts are acid proof and waterproof and
it is not affected by animal oils or alkalis. The balata belts should not be
at temperatures above 40°C because at this temperature the balata begins
to soften and becomes sticky.
Belt Speed
The belt speed varies from 20 m/s to 22.5 m/s.

➢ Coefficient of Friction between Belt and Pulley

The coefficient of friction, table 4.1, between the belt and the pulley depends
upon the following factors:
1. The material of belt.
2. The material of pulley.
3. The slip of belt.
4. The speed of belt.
Table 4.1: Coefficient of friction

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Standard Belt Thicknesses and Widths
The standard flat belt thicknesses are 5, 6.5, 8, 10 and 12 mm. The preferred
values of thicknesses are as follows:
(a) 5 mm for nominal belt widths of 35 to 63 mm,
(b) 6.5 mm for nominal belt widths of 50 to 140 mm,
(c) 8 mm for nominal belt widths of 90 to 224 mm,
(d) 10 mm for nominal belt widths of 125 to 400 mm, and
(e) 12 mm for nominal belt widths of 250 to 600 mm.

➢ Type of connections
Several connections may be used, fig 4.2 & fig 4.3:

a) Open belt drive is used for parallel shafts and running at the same
direction.
b) Crossed belt drive is used for parallel shafts and running in opposite
direction.
c) With idler pullets this is used to maintain tension in long belts
d) Stepped pulleys this is used to change the speed ratio between driving
and driven shafts
e) Loose pulley this is used to stop the driven shaft but keeping the driving
shaft running.

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Fig 4.2: connections of belts

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 Fig 4.3: connections of belts

➢ Velocity ratio, N2 / N1

The velocity ratio between two pulleys of diameter D1 and D2 and belt
thickness (t) is: N2 / N1 = (D1 + t) / (D2 + t)
in most cases (t) can be neglected.

➢ Slip in belts

Belts may slip over the pulley if less friction exists between them, resulting
in reducing the driven speed. If s1 and s2 are the slip percentage over the driving
and driven pulleys, then.

(D1+t) S
N2 / N1 = * (1 – )
(D2+t) 100

S is the slip = s1 + s2

Power transmitted by the belt

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To calculate the power transmitted by the belt, we need to know the tension in
the tight side (T1) and in the slack side (T2) of the belt, fig 4.4. The relation
between T1 and T2 is:

2.3 * log (T1 / T2) = μ * ɵ

Where: μ is the coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley

and ɵ is the angle of contact between the belt and the pullet in radian

then, the Power transmitted by the belt (P) = (T1 – T2) * v W

where, v is the linear velocity of the belt = л * d * n / 60 mm/sec

d diameter (mm) T1 taught side

T2 Slack side

Fig 4.4: Tight and slack sides of belts on pulley

Sometimes, we need to know the max tension the belt can stand. This may be
calculated from getting the cross-section area (a) of the belt = width *
thickness mm2 and multiply it be the allowable tensile strength of the belt.

i.e., max. tension T = σ * a = σ (N/mm2) * b (mm) * t (mm)

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also, to get the effect of the centrifugal force on the belt , we need to get the
mass of the belt (m) = cross section area of the belt (a) * density

i.e., m = a (m2) * l (m) *ρ (kg/m3) kg/1 meter length

then Centrifugal tension (Tc) = m * v2

Know that: T1 = T - Tc

2. V- Belts

The V-belts are made of fabric and cords molded in rubber and covered with
fabric and rubber as shown in fig. 4.5. These belts are molded to a trapezoidal
shape and are made endless. The included angle for the V-belt is usually from
30° to 40°.

Fig 4.5: V- Belt

➢ Types of V-Belts
According to some Standards, the V-belts are made in five types i.e. A, B, C, D
and E. The dimensions for standard V-belts are shown in Table 4.2. The pulleys
for V-belts may be made of cast iron or pressed steel. The dimensions for the
standard
V-grooved pulley may be taken according to Table 4.3.
Table 4.2 : V - belt sizes
Type Power (kW) Top width Thickness (t) mm Min. pitch dia. Of
(b) mm pulley (mm)
A 0.7 – 3.5 13 8 75
B 2 – 15 17 11 125
C 7.5 – 75 22 14 200
D 20 – 150 32 19 355
E 30 – 350 38 23 500
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Table 4.3: V – pulleys for V – Belts (all dimensions are in mm)
Type w D f E No. of grooves Angle
A 11 12 10 15 6 32, 34, 38
B 14 15 12.5 19 9 32, 34, 38
C 19 20 17 25.5 14 34, 36, 38
D 27 28 24 37 14 34, 36, 38
E 32 33 29 44.5 20 -

The face width of the pulley = (no. of grooves -1) * e + 2 * f

➢ Advantages and Disadvantages of V over Flat Belt Drives

Advantages
1. gives compact length due to the small distance between centers of
pulleys.
2. the slip between the belt and the pulley groove is negligible.
3. It provides longer life, 3 to 5 years.
4. It can be easily installed and removed.
5. The operation of the belt and pulley is quiet.
6. The belts could cushion the shock when machines are started.
7. The high velocity ratio (maximum 10) may be obtained.
8. the power transmitted by V-belts is more than flat belts.
9. The V-belt may be operated in either direction, with tight side of the
belt at the top or bottom. The center line may be horizontal, vertical, or
inclined.
Disadvantages
1. The V-belt drive cannot be used with large center distances.
2. The V-belts are not so durable as flat belts.
3. The construction of pulleys for V-belts is more complicated than pulleys of
flat belts.
4. Since the V-belts are subjected to certain amount of creep, therefore these
are not suitable for constant speed applications.
5. The belt life is greatly influenced with temperature changes, improper belt
tension and mismatching of belt lengths.
6. The centrifugal tension prevents the use of V-belts at speeds below 5 m/ s
and above 50 m / s.

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 Lecture Note 5: Bolt

1) A screw thread is formed by continuous helical groove on a cylindrical

surface, is known as single
2) A screwed joint is mainly composed of two elements i.e., a bolt and nut.
3) The screwed joints are widely used where the machine parts are required
to connect or disconnected without damage to the machine, this may be for the
purpose of holding or adjustment.

➢ Form of Screw Threads:

The following terms used in screw threads, as shown in fig. 5.1

Fig.5.1 Form of Screw Threads

1. Major diameter. It is the largest diameter of an external or internal screw

thread.
2. Minor diameter. It is the smallest diameter of an external or internal
screw thread.
3. Pitch diameter. It is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder, the surface of
which would pass through the thread at such points as to make equal the
width of the thread and the width of the spaces between the threads.
4. Pitch. It is the distance from a point on one thread to the corresponding
point on the next.
Pitch = 1/no. of threads

29
5. Lead. It is the distance between two corresponding point on the same
helix.
6. Crest. It is the top surface of the thread.

7. Root. It is the bottom surface created by the two adjacent flanks of the thread.

8. Depth of thread. It is the perpendicular distance between the crest and root.

9. Flank. It is the surface joining the crest and root.

10. Angle of thread. It is the angle included by the flanks of the thread.

11. Slope. It is half the pitch of the thread.

➢ Standard of thread:
1. British standard Whitworth (B.S.W.) thread, fig 5.2

Fig. 5.2 British standard Whitworth

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 2. Metric thread, in fig 5.3

Fig. 5.3 Metric thread

➢ Common Types of Screw Fastenings

1. Through bolts. A through bolt (or simply a bolt) It is a cylindrical bar with
threads for the nut at one end and head at the other end. The cylindrical part of
the bolt is known as shank.

2. Tap bolts. A tap bolt or screw differs from a bolt. It is screwed into a
tapped hole.
3. Studs. A stud is a round bar threaded at both ends. One end of the stud
is screwed into a tapped hole of the parts to be fastened, while the other end
receives a nut on it.
4. Cap screws. The cap screws in fig.5.4 are like tap bolts except that they
are of small size and a variety of shapes of heads are available.

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 Fig 5.4 Types of Screw

5. Machine screws. These are like cap screws with the head slotted for a
screwdriver. These are generally used with a nut.
6. Set screws. The set screws are shown in Fig.5.5 These are used to
prevent relative motion between the two parts. A set screw is screwed
through a threaded hole in one part so that its point (i.e., end of the screw)
presses against the other part.

Fig.5.5 Set screws

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The diameter of the set screw (d) may be obtained from the following
expression:
d = 0.125 D + 8 mm
Where D is the diameter of the shaft (in mm) on which the set screw is pressed.
The tangential force (in newton’s) at the surface of the shaft is given by

F = 6.6 (d )2.3
• The torque transmitted by a set screw
T = F x D/2 N-m [1]
• And power transmitted (in watts),
P = 2πNT/60, where N is the speed in r,p,m

➢ Locking Devices

1. Jam nut or lock nut. A most common locking device in fig.5.6 is a jam, lock
or check nut. It has about one-half to two-third thickness of the standard nut.

Fig.5.6 Jam nut or lock nut

2. Castle nut. It consists of a hexagonal portion with a cylindrical upper part

which is slotted in line with the center of each face, as shown in fig.5.7.
The split pin passes through two slots in the nut and a hole in the bolt, so
that a positive lock is obtained unless the pin shears.

3. Sawn nut. It has a slot sawed about halfway through, as shown in fig.5.8.
After the nut is screwed down, the small screw is tightened which
produces more friction between the nut and the bolt. This prevents the
loosening of nut.
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4. Penn, ring, or grooved nut. It has an upper portion hexagonal and a
lower part cylindrical as shown in fig.5.9. It is largely used where bolts pass
through connected pieces reasonably near their edges such as in marine type
connecting rod ends. The bottom portion is cylindrical and is recessed to
receive the tip of the locking set screw.

Fig.5.7 Castle nut Fig.5.8 Sawn nut Fig.5.9 Ring, or grooved nut

5. Locking with pin. The nuts may be locked by means of a taper

pin or cotter pin passing through the middle of the nut as shown in
Fig.5.10 (a). But a split pin is often driven through the bolt above the nut,
as shown in Fig.9 (b).

(b)
Fig.5.10 Locking with pin

6. Locking with plate. A form of stop plate or locking plate is

shown in fig.5.11. The nut can be adjusted and subsequently locked
through angular intervals of 30° by using these plates.

Fig.5.11 Locking with plate

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 ➢ Standard Dimensions of Screw Threads
The design dimensions of I.S.O. threads for screws, bolts, and nuts are in Table
5.1.

Designation Pitch d = D) (dp ) (dc ) mm Depth of Stress

mm thread mm area mm2
mm mm
Coarse series Bolt Nut
M 0.4 0.1 0.400 0.3 0.27 0.292 0.061 0.074
M 0.6 35 7
0.15 0.600 0.438 0.092 0.166
M 0.8 0.5 0.41
0.2 0.800 0.584 0.123 0.295
03 6
M1 0.25 1.000 0.729 0.153 0.460
0.6 0.55
M 1.2 0.25 1.200 70 5 0.929 0.158 0.732
M 1.4 0.3 1.400 0.8 0.69 1.075 0.184 0.983
38 3
M 1.6 0.35 1.600 1.221 0.215 1.27
1.0 0.89
M 1.8 0.35 1.800 1.421 0.215 1.70
38 3
M2 0.4 2.000 1.567 0.245 2.07
1.2 1.03
M 2.2 0.45 2.200 05 2 1.713 0.276 2.48
M 2.5 0.45 2.500 1.3 1.17 2.013 0.276 3.39
73 1
M3 0.5 3.000 2.459 0.307 5.03
1.5 1.37
M 3.5 0.6 3.500 2.850 0.368 6.78
73 1
M4 0.7 4.000 3.242 0.429 8.78
1.7 1.50
M 4.5 0.75 4.500 40 9 3.688 0.460 11.3
M5 0.8 5.000 1.9 1.64 4.134 0.491 14.2
08 8
M6 1 6.000 4.918 0.613 20.1
2.2 1.94
08 8

2.6 2.38
75 7
35
3.1 2.76
M7 1 7.000 6.3 5.77 5.918 0.613 28.9
50 3
M8 1.25 8.000 6.647 0.767 36.6
7.1 6.46
M 10 1.5 10.000 8.876 0.920 58.3
88 6
M 12 1.75 12.000 10.106 1.074 84.0
9.0 8.16
M 14 2 14.000 26 0 11.835 1.227 115

M 16 2 16.000 10. 9.85 13.835 1.227 157

863 8
M 18 2.5 18.000 15.294 1.534 192
12. 11.54
M 20 2.5 20.000 701 6 17.294 1.534 245

M 22 2.5 22.000 14. 13.54 19.294 1.534 303

M 24 3 24.000 701 6 20.752 1.840 353

M 27 3 27.000 16. 14.93 23.752 1.840 459

376 3
M 30 3.5 30.000 26.211 2.147 561
18. 16.93
M 33 3.5 33.000 376 3 29.211 2.147 694

M 36 4 36.000 20. 18.93 31.670 2.454 817

M 39 4 39.000 376 3 34.670 2.454 976

M 42 4.5 42.000 22. 20.32 37.129 2.760 1104

051 0
M 45 4.5 45.000 40.129 2.760 1300
25. 23.32
M 48 5 48.000 051 0 42.587 3.067 1465

M 52 5 52.000 27. 25.70 46.587 3.067 1755

M 56 5.5 56.000 727 6 50.046 3.067 2022

M 60 5.5 60.000 30. 28.70 54.046 3.374 2360

727 6
Note: In case the table is not available, then the core diameter (dc) may be taken as
0.84 d, where d is the major diameter. 33. 31.09
Fine series
402 3
M8×1 1 8.000 6.918 0.613 39.2
36. 34.09
M 10 × 1.25 1.25 10.000 8.647 0.767 61.6
402 3
• Stresses in Screwed Fastening due to Static Loading

➢ Stresses due to screwing up forces,

➢ Stresses due to external forces.

Stresses due to Screwing up Forces

The stresses are induced in a bolt, screw, or stud when it is screwed up tightly.

1. Tensile stress due to stretching of bolt. Since none of the above-

mentioned stresses are accurately determined, therefore bolts are designed
based on direct tensile stress with a large factor of safety to account for the
indeterminate stresses.

The stress area may be obtained from Table 5.1, or it may be found by using the
relation:
π
Stress area = [(dp + dc)/2]2
4

Where dp = pitch diameter

dc = minor diameter
2. Shear stress across the threads. The average thread shearing stress
for the screw (τs) is obtained by using the relation:

P
τs =
π dc b n
Where b= width of the thread section of the root

The average thread shearing stress for the nut is:

P
τn=
πdbn
Where d = Major diameter
3. Compression or crushing stress on threads. The compression or crushing
stress between the threads (σc) may be obtained by using the relation :

P
σc =
T [d2 - dc2] n
Where d = Major diameter

dc = minor diameter

n = number of threads
4. Bending stress if the surfaces under the head or nut are not perfectly
parallel to the bolt axis. When the outside surfaces of the parts to be
connected are not parallel to each other, then the bolt will be subjected to
bending action. The bending stress (σb) induced in the shank of the bolt is
Given by
xE
σb =
2l
Where x = Difference in height between the extreme corners of the nut
or head,
l = Length of the shank of the bolt, and

E = Young’s modulus for the material of the bolt.

Stresses due to external forces

1. Tensile stress. The bolts, studs and screws usually carry a load in the
direction of the bolt axis which induces a tensile stress in the bolt.
Let dc = Root or core diameter of the thread, and
σt = Permissible tensile stress for the bolt material.

We know that external load applied,

π 4P
P = (dc)2 σt or dc = √
4 πσ
 2. Shear stress. The bolts are used to prevent the relative movement of two or
more parts, as in case of flange coupling, then the shear stress is induced in
the bolts. The shear stresses should be avoided as far as possible
Let d = Major diameter of the bolt, and
n = Number of bolts.
∴ Shearing load carried by the bolts,
π 4P
P = d2 τ n or d = √
4 πτn

3. Combined tension and shear stress. When the bolt is subjected to both
tension and shear loads, as in case of coupling bolts or bearing, then the
diameter of the shank of the bolt is obtained from the shear load and that of
threaded part from the tensile load

Maximum principal shear stress

τ max = ½√((σt)2 + 4τ2)

And maximum principal tensile stress,

σTmax = σt/2 + ½√((σt)2 + 4τ2)

 Lecture 6: Power screws

The power screws (also known as translation screws) are used to convert rotary
motion into translator motion.

➢ Types of Screw Threads used for Power Screws:

Following are the three types of screw threads mostly used for power screws:
1. Square thread. A square thread, as shown in fig.6.1 (a), is adapted for the
transmission of power in either direction. This thread results in maximum
efficiency and minimum radial or bursting.

Fig 6.1 Types of Screw Threads

2. Acme or trapezoidal thread. An acme or trapezoidal thread, as shown in

fig.6.1 (b), is a modification of square thread. The slight slope given to its sides
lowers the efficiency slightly than square thread and it also introduce some
bursting pressure on the nut but increases its area in shear. It is used where a
split nut is required and where provision is made to take up wear as in the lead
screw of a lathe. Wear may be taken up by means of an adjustable split nut. An
acme thread may be cut by means of dies and hence it is more easily
manufactured than square thread
.
3. Buttress thread. A buttress thread, as shown in Fig.6.1 (c), is used when large
forces act along the screw axis in one direction only. This thread combines the
higher efficiency of square thread and the ease of cutting and the adaptability to
a split nut of acme thread. It is stronger than other threads because of greater
thickness at the base of the thread. The buttress thread has limited use for power
transmission. It is employed as the thread for light jack screws and vices.
 ➢ Torque Required to Raise Load by Square Threaded Screws

The torque required to raise a load by means of square threaded screw may be determined
by
considering a screw jack as shown in fig.6.2. The load to be raised or lowered is
placed on the head of the square threaded rod which is rotated by the application of
an effort at the end of lever for lifting or lowering the load.

Fig 6.2: Screw jack

Fig 6.3: Screw jack

Let p = Pitch of the screw,

d = Mean diameter of the screw,
α = Helix angle,
P = Effort applied at the circumference of the screw to lift the load,
W = Load to be lifted
μ = Coefficient of friction, between the screw and nut
= tan φ, where φ is the friction angle.
From the geometry we find that tan α = p / π d
Since the principle, on which a screw jack works is like that of an inclined plane,
therefore the force applied on the circumference of a screw jack may be horizontal
as shown in Fig.1. Since the load is being lifted, therefore the force of friction
(F = μ.RN) will act downwards. All the forces acting on the body are shown in
Fig.6.3. Resolving the forces along the plane,
P cos α = W sin α + F = W sin α + μ.RN
Resolving the forces along the plane,
P cos α = W sin α + F = W sin α + μ.RN
And resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane,
RN = P sin α + W cos α
Substituting the value of μ = tan φ in the above equation, we get
Or P = W × sin α + tan φ cos α
cos α − tan φ sin α
Torque required to overcome friction between the screw and nut,
d
T 1= P
2
When the axial load is taken up by a thrust collar as shown in Fig. 17.2 (b), so that
the load does not rotate with the screw, then the torque required to overcome
friction at the collar
2
T2 = µ1 W (R1)3- (R2)3
3
(R1)2- (R2)2

= µ1 W R1 + R2 = µ1 W R
2

Where R1 and R2 = Outside and inside radii of collar,

R = Mean radius of collar R1 + R2
2
μ1 = Coefficient of friction for the collar.

Total torque required to overcome friction (i.e., to rotate the screw),

T = T1 + T 2

If an effort P1 is applied at the end of a lever of arm length l, then the total torque
required to
overcome friction must be equal to the torque applied at the end of lever, i.e.
d
T = P = P1 l
2
Notes: When the nominal diameter (do) and the core diameter (dc) of the screw is
given, then
Mean diameter of screw d = d0 + dc = d0 – P = dc + P
2 2 2

➢ Torque Required to L o w e r L o a d by Square

Threaded Screws
A little consideration will show that when the load is being lowered, the force of
friction (F = μ.RN) will act upwards. All the forces acting on the body are shown
in Fig.6.4.
Resolving the forces along the plane,
P cos α = F – W sin α
= μ RN – W sin α
And resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane,
RN = W cos α – P sin α

Multiplying the numerator and denominator by cos φ, we have

Torque required to overcome friction between the screw and nut,

Note: When α > φ, then P = W tan (α – φ).

Fig.6.4: Forces acting on the body

 Lecture Note 7 Pulleys

➢ INTRODUCTION

The pulleys are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of flat
belts, V-belts, or ropes. Since the velocity ratio is the inverse ratio of the diameters
of driving and driven pulleys, therefore the pulley diameters should be carefully
selected to have a desired velocity ratio. The pulleys must be in perfect alignment
to allow the belt to travel in a line normal to the pulley faces.
The pulleys may be made of cast iron, cast steel or pressed steel, wood and paper.
The cast materials should have good friction and wear characteristics. The pulleys

made of pressed steel are lighter than cast pulleys, but in many cases, they have
lower friction and may produce excessive wear.

➢ TYPES OF PULLEYS
Following are the various types of pulleys for flat belts :

1. Cast iron pulleys, 2. Steel pulleys, 3. Wooden pulleys, 4. Paper pulleys, and 5.
Fast and loose pulleys.

• Cast Iron Pulleys

The pulleys are generally made of *cast iron, because of their low cost. The rim is
held in place by web from the central boss or by arms or spokes. The arms may be
straight or curved as shown in fig. 7.1 (a) and (b) and the cross-section is usually
elliptical.
 Fig 7.2: Solid cast iron pulleys

• Steel Pulleys
Steel pulleys are made from pressed steel sheets and have great strength and
durability. These pulleys are lighter in weight (about 40 to 60% less) than cast iron
pulleys of the same capacity and are designed to run at high speeds. They present a
coefficient of friction with leather belting which is at least equal to that obtained by
cast iron pulleys. Steel pulleys are generally made in two halves which are bolted
together. The clamping action of the hub holds the pulley to its shaft; thus, no key
is required except for most severe service. Steel pulleys are generally equipped
with interchangeable bushings to permit their use with shafts of different sizes.

• Wooden Pulleys
Wooden pulleys are lighter and possesses higher coefficient of friction than cast
iron or steel pulleys. These pulleys have 2/3rd of the weight of cast iron pulleys of
similar size. They are generally made from selected maple which is laid in
segments and glued together under heavy pressure.

• Paper Pulleys
Paper pulleys are made from compressed paper fiber and are formed with a metal
in the center. These pulleys are usually used for belt transmission from electric
motors, when the centre-to-centre shaft distance is small.
 • Fast and Loose Pulleys
A fast and loose pulley, as shown in fig. 7.3, used on shafts enables machine to be
started or stopped at will. A fast pulley is keyed to the machine shaft while the
loose pulley runs freely. The belt runs over the fast pulley to transmit power by the
machine, and it is shifted to the loose pulley when the machine is not required to
transmit power. By this way, stopping of one machine does not interfere
with the other machines which run by the same line shaft.

Fig. 7.3. Fast and loose pulley

➢ Design of Cast Iron Pulleys

The following procedure may be adopted for the design of cast iron pulleys.

1. Dimensions of pulley
1. The diameter of the pulley (D) may be obtained either from velocity ratio
consideration or centrifugal stress consideration. We know that the centrifugal
stress induced in the rim of the pulley,
σt = ρ.ν2
where ρ = Density of the rim material
= 7200 kg/m3 for cast iron
 ν = Velocity of the rim = πDN / 60, D being the diameter of pulley and N is speed
of the pulley.

The following are the diameter of pulleys in mm for flat and V-belts.

20, 22, 25, 28, 32, 36, 40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 71, 80, 90, 100, 112, 125, 140, 160, 180,
200, 224, 250, 280, 315, 355, 400, 450, 500, 560, 630, 710, 800, 900, 1000, 1120,
1250, 1400, 1600, 1800, 2000, 2240, 2500, 2800, 3150, 3550, 4000, 5000, 5400.

The first six sizes (20 to 36 mm) are used for V-belts only.

2. If the width of the belt is known, then width of the pulley or face of the pulley
(B) is taken 25% greater than the width of belt.

∴ B = 1.25 b ; where b = Width of belt.

According to Indian Standards, IS : 2122 (Part I) – 1973 (Reaffirmed 1990), the
width of pulley is fixed as given in the following table 7.1:

Table 7.1. Standard width of pulley.

Belt width Width of pulley to be greater
than belt
in mm width by (mm)
upto 125 13
125-250 25
250-375 38
475-500 50

The following are the width of flat cast iron and mild steel pulleys in mm :

16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 63, 71, 80, 90, 100, 112, 125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 224, 250,
315, 355, 400, 450, 560, 630.
D D
The thickness of the pulley rim (t) varies from + 2 mm to + 3 mm for
300 200
D
single belt and + 6 mm for double belt. The diameter of the pulley (D) is in
200
mm.
2. Dimensions of arms
(i) The number of arms may be taken as 4 for pulley diameter from 200 mm to 600
mm and 6 for diameter from 600 mm to 1500 mm.
Note : The pulleys less than 200 mm diameter are made with solid disc instead of
arms. The thickness of the solid web is taken equal to the thickness of rim
measured at the centre of the pulley face.
(ii) The cross-section of the arms is usually elliptical with major axis (a1) equal to
twice the minor axis (b1). The cross-section of the arm is obtained by considering
the arm as cantilever i.e., fixed at the hub end and carrying a concentrated load at
the rim end. The length of the cantilever is taken equal to the radius of the pulley.
It is further assumed that at any given time, the power is transmitted from the hub
to the rim or vice versa, through only half the total number of arms.
Let T = Torque transmitted,

R = Radius of pulley, and n = Number of arms,

∴ Tangential load per arm,

Maximum bending moment on the arm at the hub end,

and section modulus,

Now using the relation,

(iii) The arms are tapered from hub to rim. The taper is usually1/48 to 1/32.
(iv) When the width of the pulley exceeds the diameter of the pulley, then
two rows of arms are provided, as shown in Fig. 19.4. This is done to avoid heavy
arms in one row.
3. Dimensions of hub
(i) The diameter of the hub ( d1 ) in terms of shaft diameter ( d ) may be
fixed by the following relation :
d1 = 1.5 d + 25 mm

The diameter of the hub should not be greater than 2 d.

(ii) The length of the hub,
L = ×d
The minimum length of the hub is B but it should not be more than
width of the pulley (B).