Anaphy lecture (finals) SOMATIC – voluntary movements via skeletal muscles

AUTONOMIC – involuntary movements

MODULE 3 – Lesson 1
Nervous system DIVISION OF PNS
1. Afferent
FUNCTIONS - away towards the CNS
1. Sensory input (sensory receptors respond to 2. Efferent
external and internal stimuli) - brain to peripheries
2. integration (brain and spinal cord processes
stimuli – combine, coordinate with other DIVISIONS OF EFFERENT (MOTOR)
system) 1. AUTONOMIC – automatic, controls smooth
3. control of muscles and glands, mental activity muscles, cardiac muscles and glands
(brain) 2. SOMATIC – voluntary and controls skeletal
4. homeostasis (+ endocrine system, controlling,
regulatory communication in the body) AUTONOMIC
- Sympathetic – “fight or flight”, adrenaline rush,
*external stimuli – touch, taste, smell and sight epinephrine, norepinephrine
*internal stimuli – BP, O2 levels, unconscious levels - Parasympathetic – “rest and digest”, high
secretions, acetylcholine
MAIN DIVISION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CNS – brain, spinal cord SYMPATHETIC RESPONSE
PNS – all neurons outside CNS - Pupils dilate
- Dilates bronchioles
BRAIN - Increases heart rate
1. Cerebrum - Constricts heart rate (high blood pressure)
- largest part of the brain - Relaxes smooth muscles of GI tract
- DIVIDED LENGHTWISE INTO TWO - Relaxes uterine muscles
- Right hemisphere – for coordination, arts, - Mydriasis
creativity, intuition, thoughts and imagination
- Left hemisphere – reasoning, science, logic, PARASYMPATHETIC RESPONSE
math, speech - Constricts pupil
- Pag daw nastroke ka sa right, di magalaw yung - Constricts bronchioles and increases sections
left - Decreases heart rate
- LOBES OF THE BRAIN - Dilates blood vessels
 Frontal – personality traits, smell processing - Increases peristalsis
 Parietal – near the middle, interprets pain - Contracts bladder
and sensation, processes spatial (space) - Increases salivation
relationship - DUMBELS – diarrhea, miosis (contstriction of
 Temporal – side of the hemisphere, short pupils), bronchoconstrictions, mesis,
term memory and musical rhythm lacrimations and salivations
 Occipital – vision processing
ANS NEUROTRANSMITTERS
2. Cerebellum – small brain, motor control - Adrenergic (sympathetic)
3. Diencephalon - Cholinergic (parasympathetic)
- Thalamus – sensory perception, motor function
and sleep cycle CHOLINERGIC TRANSMISSION
- Hypothalamus – control center of the 1. Synthesis of acetylcholine
autonomic functions and release hormones 2. Uptake unto storage vesicles
4. Midbrain 3. Release of neurotransmitters
- Mesencephalon – “mesos” = middle, 4. Binding to a receptor
“enkephalos” = brain 5. Degradation of acetylcholine
- Vision, hearing, motor control and arousal 6. Recycling of choline
5. Pons
- Latin for bridge
- Connects cerebral cortex with medulla ADRENERGIC TRANSMISSION
oblangata 1. Synthesis of norepinephrine
6. Medulla oblongata 2. Uptake unto storage vesicles
- Lowest part of the brain 3. Release of neurotransmitters
- For breathing, digestion, heart functions, 4. Binding to a receptor
sneezing and swallowing 5. Removal of norepinephrine
6. Metabolism
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
- Consists of all neurons outside brain and spinal NEURON CHARACTERISTICS
cord - Nerve cells
- Collects input from different sources, relays - require oxygen and glucose
input to CNS, and performs action - Receives input, process input and produce a
response
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
NEURON STRUCTURES
 - Dendrites – receives stimuli from other neurons
or sensory receptors
- Cell body – processes stimulus, contains a
nucleus
- Axons – transmits stimulus to a gland, muscle,
organ or other neuron

MYELIN SHEATH
- Fatty protective wrapping around axons and
excellent insulator
- NODES OF RANVIER: gaps in myelin sheath
where action potentials develop
- SALTATORY CONDUCTION: jumping of action
potentials

*Myelinated axons conduct action potentials more

quickly (3-15 meters/sec) than unmyelinated due to
Nodes of Ranvier.

MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS – disease of myelin sheath that

causes loss of function

TYPES OF NEURONS
- Multipolar – many dendrites, single axon (CNS,
motor neurons)
- Bipolar – one dendrite, one axon (ex. Eye and
nasal cavity)
- Pseudo-unipolar – one axon and no dendrites
(ex. Sensory neurons)

ELECTRICAL SIGNAL PATHWAYS

Resting membrane potential

- Outside of cell is more sodium
- Inside of cell is more on potassium
- Leak ion channels – always open (K channels)
- Gated ion channels – closed until opened by
specific signal (Na channels)

Action potential
- Electricity that causes depolarization and
repolarization
- Changing resting membrane potential by
activating gated ion channels
- Local current – movement of sodium which
causes inside of cell to be more positive
(depolarized)
- If enough Na+ enters then threshold is reached
and more Na+ channels open
- Once threshold is reached all or none law
applies
- Action potentials continue until Na+ channels
close, K+ channels open, and repolarization
occurs
- Sodium/potassium pump restores

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
- Low acetylcholine – alzheimer’s disease
- High Serotonin – Schizophrenia
- Low dopamine – Parkinson’s disease
(bradykinesia)
Module 1 – Lesson 1
Endocrine system HOW DOES IT WORK
1. Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands
FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM directly into blood stream
1. Controls homeostasis (regulating and releasing 2. Hormones travel to all parts of body
hormones) 3. Hormones (key) bind to receptor site (lock) on
2. Maintains water balance (antidiuretic target tissue
hormones) 4. Response occurs
3. Controls uterine contractions (oxytocin – milk
let down) HOW TO HORMONES CAUSE CHANGE
4. Controls milk production (prolactin) • Alter cell activity of target tissues by increasing
5. Regulation ions such as Ca (parathyroid or decreasing cell’s normal processes
hormone), Na (aldosterone), K (aldosterone) • Change permeability of cell membrane by
6. Regulates metabolism and growth (in thyroid – opening or closing ion channels
thyroxin) • Synthesis of proteins
7. Regulates heart rate and blood pressure
(adrenal gland) TYPES OF HORMONES
8. Monitors blood glucose levels (insulin and  Water soluble
glucagon) - Proteins, peptides, amino acids
9. Aids the immune system (thymus; t-cells – killer - Most common
/ cytotoxic, b-cells – specific antibodies) - Growth hormones, antidiuretic, prolactin
10. Reproductive functions (ovary – progesterone  Lipid hormones
and estrogen and testes – testosterone) - includes steroids and eicosanoids
- Ex. LH, FSH, androgens
COMPONENTS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Endocrine glands – secretes product directly into blood REGULATION OF HORMONES
stream  Blood levels of chemicals – blood glucose levels
Chemical signals – molecules that are released from one (insulin)
location, move to another location, and produce a  Other hormones – TSH signals thyroid gland to
response release thyroid hormone (thyroxin)
 Nervous system – epinephrine and fight or flight
TYPES OF CHEMICAL SIGNALS response
 Intracellular – produces in one part of a cells  Negative feedback – tells body when
and moves to another part of same cells homeostasis is reached (temperature
(within) regulation; high temp. – sweat and dilate, low
 Intercellular – released from one cell and bind temp. shivering and contraction)
to receptors on another cell (other)
I. PITUITARY GLAND
TYPES OF INTERCELLULAR SIGNALS - Small gland in brain
 Autocrine - Controlled by hypothalamus
- Released by cells and have a local effect on - Divided into 2 regions: anterior and
same cell type posterior
- Ex. Eicosanoids (released in response to - Secretes at least 6 hormones
inflammation)
 Paracrine Anterior pituitary gland
- Released by cells that affect other cell types A. Growth hormone
in close proximity - Targets most tissues
- Ex. Somatostatin (inhibits insulin secretion) - Functions: stimulates growth of bones,
 Neurotransmitter and neuromodulators muscles and organs
- Secreted by nerve cells - Abnormalities
- Ex. Nervous system functions o High GH = gigantism
 Pheromones o Low GH = pituitary dwarfism
- Secreted into environment and modify B. Thyroid-stimulating hormone
behavior and physiology of other individual - Targets thyroid gland
in same species - Functions: regulates thyroid gland
- Ex. Women and menstrual cycles secretions
 Hormones and neurohormones - Abnormalities:
- Secreted into blood and bind to receptor o High TSH – thyroid gland enlarges
sites o Low TSH – thyroid gland shrinks
- Ex. Epinephrine and insulin - Thyroxine – high iodine – cretin – cretinism
- T3 – triiodothyronine
COMPONENTS OF HORMONES - T4 – thyroxine
 Receptor sites – location of cell where hormone C. Gonadotropins
binds a) LH (Luteinizing) for females
 Target tissues – groups of cells o Targets the ovaries
 Specificity – specific hormones bind to specific o Function: promotes ovulation and
receptor sites progesterone production

*lock and key theory – there’s a specific partner b) LH (Luteinizing) for males
 o Targets testes
o Function: sperm production and
testosterone
c) FSH (Follicle-Stimulating) for females
o Targets follicles in ovaries
o Function: follicle maturation and estrogen
secretion
d) FSH (Follicle-Stimulating) for males
o Targets seminiferous tubules (testes)
o Function: sperm production
ADRENAL MEDULLA (inner)
D. Prolactin
- Targets mammary glands and ovaries
- Function: milk production
- High calcium = low PTH = low osteoclasts =
high calcium by kidneys
- Vitamin is the precursor for K and P
- Low calcium = high PTH = high osteoclasts =
low calcium by kidneys
IV. ADRENAL GLANDS
- on kidneys
- two regions: Medulla and cortex
- Epinephrine / norepinephrine
o Targets heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells
o Functions: released as part of fight or flight

Posterior pituitary gland ADRENAL CORTEX (outer)

A. Antidiuretic hormone - Aldosterone
- Targets kidneys o Types of mineralocorticoids
- Function: conserves water o Target kidneys
- Diabetes insipidus o Functions: causes Na+ and H2O to be
o Low ADH retained and K+ to be secreted, indirectly
o Kidneys to produce large amounts of involved with blood pressure and blood
dilute watery urine volume
o Can lead to dehydration and thirst
Angiotensin I – constricts blood vessels
B. Oxytocin Angiotensin II – potent vasoconstrictors
- Targets uterus (Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor)
- Functions: increases uterine contractions during ACE I - holds back your angiotensin I to stop from
labor, milk “let down” forming to angiotensin II.

II. THYROID GLAND CORTISOL

- One of the largest glands - Type of glucocorticoids
- Requires iodine to function - Target tissues: most
- Thyroid hormones - Functions:
o Targets most tissues o increases breakdown of fat and protein for
o Function: regulates metabolic rates energy uses
and is needed for growth o reduces inflammatory and immune
responses
ABNORMALITIES OF THYROID GLAND
• Hypothyroidism: ANDROGENS
- Decreased metabolism - targets most tissues
- Weight gain, reduced appetite, fatigue - functions:
- Low temp. and pulse o Males: secondary sexual characteristics
- Dry, cold skin o Females: sex drive
- Myxedema in adults
- Cretinism in infants V. PANCREAS
• Hyperthyroidism: - Organ in abdomen
- Increased metabolism A. Insulin
- Weight loss, increased appetite, o Made from beta cells
nervousness o Targets liver, skeletal muscle, adipose
- Higher temp. and pulse tissue, and satiety center of hypothalamus
- Warm, flushed skin o FUNCTIONS:
- Graves’ disease (leads to goiter)  Regulates blood glucose levels
 After a meal glucose levels are high and
CALCITONIN insulin is secreted
- Targets bones  Extra glucose is stored in form of
- Function: secreted when blood calcium glycogen (for glucagon)
levels are high - Abnormalities: diabetes mellitus
o CAUSES: too little insulin or faulty
III. PARATHYROID GLAND insulin receptors
- Target bones and kidneys o SYMPTOMS: exaggerated appetite,
- Function: Regulates blood calcium levels excess urine, dehydration, thirst and
(more than calcitonin) fatigues
- If Ca 2+ is low then osteoclasts break down o TYPE I: insulin dependent (daily
bone matrix and less Ca 2+ is lost in urine. injections required)
- If Ca 2+ is high then osteoclasts don’t break o TYPE II: insulin independent, often
down bone matrix and more Ca 2+ is lost in found in obese people, can be treated
urine. with diet but can turn to Type I
 B. Glucagon ACTION POTENTIALS IN CARDIAC MUSCLES
- Targets liver - Changes in membrane channels’ permeability
- Functions are responsible for producing action potentials
o regulates blood glucose levels and is called pacemaker potential.
o between meals glucose levels drop and 1. Depolarization phase:
glucagon is secreted - Na+ channels open
o glucagon allows glycogen to be broken - Ca2+ channels open
down into glucose 2. Plateau phase:
- Na+ channels close
VI. TESTES - Some K+ channels open
- Testosterone - Ca2+ channels remain open
o Targets most tissues 3. Repolarization phase:
o Function: aids in sperm and reproductive - K+ channels are open
organ development and function - Ca2+ channels close
- Plateau phase prolongs action potential by
VII. OVARIES keeping Ca2+ channels open.
- Estrogen / progesterone - In skeletal muscle action potentials take 2 msec,
o Targets most tissues in cardiac muscle they take 200-500 msec.
o Functions: involved in uterine and
mammary gland development and SKELETAL MUSCLE
menstrual cycle Depolarization phase
- Na channels open, potassium channels open
VIII. Thymus gland Repolarization
- Thymosin - Na channels close, k channels opens causing
o Targets immune system tissues repolarization and k channels close at the end
o Function: promotes immune system of repolarization and return the membrane
development and function potential to its resting value

IX. Pineal gland CARDIAC MUSCLE

- Melatonin (pag di makatulog patient) Depolarization phase
o Targets hypothalamus - Na channels and calcium channels open
o Function: plays a role in onset of puberty Plateau phase
and controls circadian rhythms. Light affects - Na channels close, some k channels open, ca
its functions. channels open
Repolarization phase
Module 1 – Lesson 2 - K channels open, ca channels open
Cardiovascular system
Skeletal – sodium and potassium
FUNCTIONS Cardiac – sodium, potassium and calcium
1. Regulates blood supply
2. Generates blood pressure CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF THE HEART
3. Routes blood - Contraction of atria and ventricles by cardiac
4. Ensures 1 way blood flow muscle cells
- SINOATRIAL NODE
HEART CHARACTERISTICS o in right atrium
- Size: size of a fist and weighs less than 1lb o where action potential originates
- Location: between lungs in thoracic cavity o functions as pacemaker
- Orientation: apex (bottom) towards left side o large number of Ca2+ channels

BLOOD FLOW THROUGH HEART PATH OF ACTION POTENTIAL THROUGH HEART

1. Right atrium 1. SA node
2. Tricuspid valve 2. AV node (atrioventricular)
3. Right ventricle 3. AV bundle
4. Pulmonary semilunar valve 4. Right and Left Bundle branches
5. Pulmonary trunk 5. Purkinje fibers
6. Pulmonary arteries
7. Lungs ELECTROCARDIOGRAM
8. Pulmonary veins - record of electrical events in heart
9. Left atrium - diagnoses cardiac abnormalities
10. Bicuspid valve - uses electrodes
11. Left ventricle - contains P wave, QRS complex, T wave
12. Aortic semilunar valve
13. Aorta COMPONENTS OF ECG OR EKG
14. Body P WAVE – depolarization of atria
QRS complex – depolarization of ventricles, contains
*Pulmonary artery – only artery with deoxygenated QRS waves
blood T WAVE – repolarization of ventricles
*pulmonary vein – only vein with oxygenated blood
CARDIAC CYCLE - baroreceptors monitor blood pressure in aorta
- heart is two side by side pumps: left and right and carotid arteries (carry blood to brain)
- ATRIA: primers for pumps - changes in blood pressure cause changes in
- VENTRICLES: power pumps frequency of action potentials
- CARDIAC CYCLE - involves medulla oblongata
o repetitive pumping action which includes
contraction and relaxation CHEMICAL REGULATION: CHEMORECEPTOR REFLEX
o Cardiac muscle contractions produce - chemicals can affect heart rate and stroke
pressure changes within heart chambers. volume
o Pressure changes are responsible for blood - epinephrine and norepinephrine from adrenal
movement. medulla can increase heart rate and stroke
o Blood moves from areas of high to low volume
pressure. - excitement, anxiety, anger an increase cardiac
output
Atrial systole – contraction of atria - depression can decrease cardiac output
Ventricular systole – contraction of ventricles - medulla oblongata has chemoreceptors for
Atrial diastole – relaxation of atria
changes in pH and CO2
Ventricular diastole – relaxation of ventricles
- K+, Ca2+, and Na+ affect cardiac function
Systolic pressure – contraction
Diastolic pressure – relaxation
NOTES:
• Sympathetic – high lahat, adrenal gland
Heart sounds
• Parasympathetic – low slight
- Stethoscope is used to hear lung and heart
• B1 – hearts
sounds
• B2 – lungs
- First sound is lubb, second is dupp
• High blood = high pH
- Sounds result from opening and closing valves
- Murmurs are due to faulty valves
HEART ATTACK
Thrombus
REGULATION OF HEART FUNCTION
- Blood clot blocks coronary blood vessel causes
• Stroke Volume:
heart attack
- volume of blood pumped per ventricle per
- Daily aspirin can prevent by thinning blood
contraction
Infarct
- 70 ml/beat
- Area that dies from lack of oxygen
• Heart Rate:
- number of heart beats in 1 min.
HEART PROCEDURES
- 72 beats/min.
Angioplasty – procedure opens blocked blood vessels
• Cardiac Output:
Stent – structures inserted to keep vessels open
- volume of blood pumped by a ventricle in 1
Bypass – procedures reroutes blood away from blocked
min.
arteries
- 5 L/min.
• Cardiac output = Stroke Volume x heart rate
DISEASES
Angina pectoris
INTRINSIC REGULATION OF HEART
- chest pains due to low oxygen level
- Mechanisms contained within heart
- stable angina – knows already
- VENOUS RETURN: amount of blood that returns
- unstable angina – there’s a block
to heart
- prinzmetals – there’s a muscle spasm
- PRELOAD: degree ventricular walls are
- decubitus – recumbent position
stretched at end of diastole
Cardiac arrhythmias – incorrect beat (ex. 59 below, 100
- Venous return, preload, stroke volume are
above)
related to each other
Hypertension
- STARLINGS LAW OF THE HEART:
Situation Systolic Diastolic
o relationship between preload and stroke
Normal <120 <80
o volume
Pre- 120-139 80-89
o influences cardiac output
hypertension
o Ex. Exercise increases venous return,
Stage I 140-159 90-99
preload, stroke volume, and cardiac output
- AFTER LOAD: pressure against which ventricles Stage II >160 >100
must pump blood

EXTRINSIC REGULATION OF HEART

- mechanisms external to heart
- nervous or chemical regulation

NERVOUS REGULATION: BARORECEPTOR REFLEX

- mechanism of nervous system which regulates
heart function
- keeps heart rate and stroke volume in normal
- range
Module 2 – Lesson 1
Reproductive system
Functions
1. Production of gametes (egg cells and sperm cells)
2. Fertilizations (when gametes meet)
3. Development and nourishment of new individuals
(zygotes)
4. Production of sex hormones
Formation of sex cells
 Gametes
- Sex cells
- Sperm in males
- Oocytes (eggs) in females
- Zygotes
 Mitosis
- Reproduction of new cells due to damaged cells
- Growth
 Meiosis
- Special type of cell division that leads to
formation of sex cells
*each sperm cell and each oocyte contains 23
chromosomes
Fertilization – union of sperm and oocyte, 1-3 days after
Zygote – develops into an embryo 3-14 days after
fertilization
Embryo – 14-56 days after fertilization
Fetus – 56 days after fertilization
Functions of male reproductive system
- produce sperm cells (sex cells)
- produce male sex hormones (testosterone)
- transfer sperm cells to female
I. MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
A. Scrotum
- contains testes
- contains dartos muscle that moves scrotum and
testes close to and awaty from bvody
depending on temperature
- sperm must develop at temperature less than
body temperature
- cold – tightened during penile erection
B. Testes
- primary male reproductive organ
- produces sperm in scrotum
- seminiferous tubules – where sperm is
produces
- interstitial cells – secretes testosterone
- germ cells – begin on sperm cells
- sustentacular cells – nourish germ cells and
produces hormones
C. Epididymis
- thread-like tubules on side of each testis
• where seminiferous tubules empty new
sperm
• where sperm continue to mature
develop its ability to swim and bind to
oocytes
D. Ductus deferens or Vas deferens
- Extends from epididymis and joins seminal
vesicles
- Cut during a vasectomy
E. Urethra
- Extends from urinary bladder to end of penis
- Passageway for urine and male reproductive
fluids (not at the same time)
F. Penis
- 3 columns of erectile tissues
• Corporus cavernosum
• Corpus spongiosum
• Spongy urethra
- Transfer sperm from male to female
GLANDS
 Seminal vesicles – next to ductus deferens, helps
from ejaculatory duct
 Prostate gland – surrounds urethra
 Bulbourethral gland – small mucus secreting glands
near base of prostate gland
SECRETIONS
 Semen
- mixture of sperm and secretions from glands
- provides a transport medium and nutrients that
protect and activate sperm
- distribution:
• 60% fluid from seminal vesicles
• 30% fluid from prostate gland
• 5% fluid from bulbourethral gland
• 5% fluid from testes (sperm cells)
 Seminal vesicles
- Provides fructose
- Contains prostaglandins which decrease mucus
thickness around cervix and uterine tubes
- Helps sperm move through female reproductive
tract
- Contains coagulant that help semen into female
 Prostate gland
- Contains enzymes to liquefy semen after it is
inside female
- Neutralizes the acidity of the vagina
 Bulbourethral gland
- Neutralize acidity of male urethra and female
vagina
 Testicular secretions
- Include sperm and small amount of fluid
Notes:
- 2-5mL of semen is ejaculated each time
- 1 mL of semen contains 100 million sperm
- Sperm can live for 72 hours once inside female
PATH OF SPERM
1. Sperm develop in seminiferous tubules (testes)
2. Epididymis (mature)
3. Ductus deferens
4. Receive secretions from seminal vesicles,
prostate gland, and bulbourethral gland
5. Urethra where semen (sperm) exit body
SPERMATOGENESIS C. Labia majora
- formation of sperm cells - Larger, outer folds of skin
- begins at puberty - Equivalent to male scrotum
- interstitial cells (in seminal tubules) increase in
- number and size D. Labia minora
- seminiferous tubules enlarge - Thin, inner folds of skin
- seminiferous tubules produce germ cells and
- Sustentacular cells E. Clitoris
- Small erectile structure located in vestibule
PRODUCTION OF SPERM CELLS - Equivalent to male penis
1. Germ cells
2. Spermatogonia (mature cells) F. Prepuce
3. Primary spermatocytes - Where 2 labia minora unite over clitoris
4. Secondary spermatocytes
5. Spermatids G. Vestibule
6. Sperm cells - Space in which vagina and urethra are located

SPERM CELLS STRUCTURE INTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

Head – contains a nucleus and DNA A. Ovaries

Midpiece – contains mitochondria - primary reproductive organ
Tail – flagellum for movement - produces oocytes and sex hormones
- one on either side of uterus
MALE SEX HORMONES a. ovarian ligaments – anchor ovaries to
uterus
Hormone Source Function b. suspensory ligaments – anchor ovaries to
Gonadotropin – Hypothalamus Stimulates pelvic cavity
releasing secretion of LH c. ovarian follicle – cells in ovaries that contain
hormone and FSH oocytes
Luteinizing Pituitary gland Secretion of B. Uterine
hormone (LH) testosterone - Part of uterus which extends toward ovaries
Follicle- Anterior Prompts and receive oocytes
stimulating pituitary spermatogenesis - Fimbriae – fringe-like structures around opening
hormones (FSH) of uterine tubes that help sweep oocyte into
Testosterone Interstitial cells Involved in uterine tubes
in testes development - Tubal ligation – sterilization of female
maintenance of - Ectopic pregnancy – if fertilized oocyte (zygote)
reproductive implants somewhere beside uterus (usually in
organs uterine tube)
C. Uterus
- Pear-sized structure located in pelvic cavity
Male puberty - FUNCTION: receive, retain and provide
- sequence of events in which a boy begins to nourishment for fertilized oocyte, where
- produce male hormones and sperm cells embryo resides and develops
- begins at 12-14 and ends around 18 - Body – main part
- testosterone is major male hormone - Cervix – narrow region that leads to the vagina
- secondary sexual characteristics develop:
o Ex. Skin texture, fat distribution, hair UTERUS LAYERS
growth,  Perimetrium (serous) – outmost layer
- skeletal muscle growth, and larynx changes  Myometrium (muscular) – middle layer, composed
of smooth muscles
II. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS  Endometrium – innermost layer, sloughed off
during menstruation
Functions of female reproductive system
- Produce female oocytes D. VAGINA
- Produce female sex hormones - extends from uterus to outside of body
- Receive sperm from males - female copulation organ that receives penis
- Develop and nourish embryos during intercourse
- allows menstrual flow
EXTERNAL FEMALE GENITALIA - involved in childbirth
- contains very muscular walls and a mucous
A. Vulva membrane
- External female sex organs - very acidic to keep bacteria out
- mons pubis, labia majora and minora, clitoris, - pH vagina = 3.8 and 4.5
and vestibule

B. Mons pubis
- Fatty layer of skin covering pubic symphysis
FOLLICLE AND OOCYTE DEVELOPMENT ovaries endometrial
lining of uterus,
Oocyte Follicle breasts,
Fetus Ooganium Primordial regulates
follicle secretions of LH
Primary oocyte Primordial and FSH
follicle Progesterone Ovaries Affects
Puberty to Primary oocyte Primary follicle endometrial
menopause Primary oocyte Secondary lining of uterus,
follicle secretions,
Primary oocyte Mature follicle breasts, affects
Secondary Mature follicle LH and FSH,
oocyte secondary sexual
characteristics
OVULATION
- when a mature follicle ruptures forcing oocyte MENSTRUAL CYCLE
into peritoneal (pelvic) cavity - Series of changes that occur in sexually mature,
- due to LH (on the anterior pituitary gland) non-pregnant females
- Corpus luteum - MENSES – time when endometrium is shed from
• Mature follicle after ovulation uterus
• Degenerates I egg is not fertilized - Average is 28 days and results from cyclical changes
that occur in endometrium
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM FACTS
- Females are born with all of their oogonia (2 STAGES OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE
million), unlike males that only begin to produce
sperm during puberty.  Days 1-5 Menses
- At puberty about 300,000-400,000 oogonia are left. - Ending of endometrium
- Puberty to menopause, FSH stimulates several - Menstrual bleeding (menses)
follicles to begin developing during each menstrual - Estrogen and progesterone levels are low
cycle but only 1 follicle should be ovulated. - Follicle begins to mature
- Oocytes are swept into one of uterine tubes by
fimbriae.  Days 6-13 Proliferative
- If sperm is present in uterine tube during ovulation - Between end of menses and ovulation
oocyte could be fertilized. - Endometrium rebuilds
- If fertilization occurs then zygote implants in - Estrogen levels begin to increase
uterus. - Progesterone levels remain low
- Oocyte only lives for 24 hours, so if no sperm is - Follicle matures
present at ovulation no zygote develops, and oocyte
dies.  Day 14 Ovulation
- Oocyte is released due to LH
FEMALE PUBERTY - Progesterone levels are increasing
- Begins between 11-13 and is usually completed by - Cervical mucus thins
16
- Menarche first episode of menstrual bleeding  Day 15-28 Secretory
- Vagina, uterus, uterine tubes, and external genitalia - Between ovulation and next menses
to enlarge and fat is deposited in breast and hips - Endometrium is preparing for implantation
- Elevated levels of estrogen and progesterone are - Estrogen levels decrease (low)
secreted by ovaries - Progesterone levels increase (high)
- Cervical mucus thickens
MAMMARY GLANDS
- Organs of milk production in breasts MENOPAUSE
- Modified sweat glands - time when ovaries secrete less hormones and
- Female breasts begin to enlarge during puberty number of follicles in ovaries is low
- Consists of lobes covered by adipose - menstrual cycle and ovulation are less regular
- Lobes, ducts, lobules are altered during lactation to - hot flashes, fatigue, irritability may occur
expel milk - estrogen replacement therapy may be used to
decreases side effects
FEMALE SEX HORMONES
Module 3 – lesson 1
Hormones Source Functions Respiratory system
Gonadotropin Hypothalamus Stimulates
secretion of LH Respiratory system
and FSH - set of organs that allows a person breathe and
LH Anterior Causes ovulation exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide
pituitary gland throughout the body
FSH Anterior Signals follicle in - The integrated system of organs involved in the
pituitary gland ovaries to being intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon
developed dioxide between the body and the environment
Estrogen Follicles of Affects
 and including the nasal passages, larynx,
trachea, bronchial tubes and the lungs
PERFORMS TWO MAJOR TASKS:
1. External respiration – from the environment
2. Internal respiration – exchange between cells
FUNCTIONS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. supplies the body with oxygen and disposes of
carbon dioxide
2. filters inspired air produces contains receptors
for smell
3. Produces sound
4. Contains receptors for smell
5. Rids the body of some excess water and heat
6. Helps regulate blood pH
BREATHING
- Breathing or pulmonary ventilation is consists of
two cyclic phase
- inhalation – inspiration, draws gases into the
lungs
- exhalation – expiration, forces gases out of the
lungs
HOW DO WE BREATHE
- Breathing starts when you inhale air into your nose
or mouth. It travels down the back of your throat
and into your windpipe, which is divided into air
passages called bronchial tubes.
- For your lungs to perform their best, these airways
need to be open. They should be free
from inflammation or swelling and extra mucus.
- As the bronchial tubes pass through your lungs,
they divide into smaller air passages called
bronchioles. The bronchioles end in tiny balloon-like
air sacs called alveoli. Your body has about 600
million alveoli.
- The alveoli are surrounded by a mesh of
tiny blood vessels called capillaries. Here, oxygen
from inhaled air passes into your blood.
- After absorbing oxygen, blood goes to your heart.
Your heart then pumps it through your body to the
cells of your tissues and organs.
- As the cells use the oxygen, they make carbon
dioxide that goes into your blood. Your blood then
carries the carbon dioxide back to your lungs, where
it’s removed from your body when you exhale.
HOW DO LUNGS WORK
1. Air enters through the nose and mouth, both of
which are lined with mucous membranes. Fine hairs
called cilia trap dirt that you breathe in
2. The throat has two passageways: one for air and
one for food.
3. The epiglottis is a flap of tissue that closes over the
trachea when you swallow
4. The larynx is the upper part of the respiratory
system which contains the vocal cords
5. The trachea is a windpipe that directs air to the
lungs
6. The bronchi are passages through which air enters
the lungs
7. In the lungs, oxygen is transferred to the blood and
carbon dioxide is removed from blood
8. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that
separates the lungs from the abdomen.
DISEASES
Asthma
- inflamed and high mucus secretion
COPD
- chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Emphysema
- under COPD
- alveoli is dead, it cannot take air anymore
- you cannot get emphysema if you don’t have
COPD
Tuberculosis
- due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (family of
leprosy = Mycobacterium leprae)
- 6-9 months treatment (RIPE – Rifampicin,
isoniazid, pyrazinamide, ethambutol)
- it is antimicrobial resistant
COVID-19
- SARSCOV2
- Old strain: fever, persistent cough, loss of smell
and taste
- New strain: aches and pains, conjunctivitis,
rashes, headache, discoloration of fingers and
toes, diarrhea and sore throat
COVID THREE STAGES
1. COVID in nose – recovery is half a day, vitamins C,
no fever, asymptomatic
2. COVID in throat – sore throat, recovery time 1 day,
hot water gargle, warm water to drink,
paracetamol, vitamin c, b-complex. If severe,
antibiotic
3. COVID in lungs – coughing and breathlessness, 4-5
days. Vitamin c, b-complex, hot water gargle,
oximeter, paracetamol, cylindrical if severe, lot of
liquid required, deep breathing exercise.
Module 4 – lesson 1
Digestive system
PHASES OF HUMAN DIGESTION
1. Cephalic phase
- Occurs before food enters the stomach
- involves preparation of body for eating and
digestion
- sight and thought stimulate the cerebral cortex
(cravings)
2. Gastric phase
- Takes 3-4 hours
- Stimulated by distention of the stomach and
alkaline pH
- Distention activates long and myentric reflexs
- Activates the release of acetylcholine which
stimulates the release of more gastric juices
- As protein enters the stomach, it binds to
hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the
stomach to an alkaline level.
- This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in
turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete HCl.
- HCl release is also triggered by acetylcholine
and histamine.
HISTAMINE NOTES
H1 = allergies
H2 = receptor blocker like ranitidine (ulcer)
ULCER
- caused by Helicobacter pylori
- damages the linings
- TWO TYPES:
• Gastric ulcer – on the stomach
• Duodenal ulcer – on the duodenum

3. Intestinal phase
- This phase has 2 parts, the excitatory and the
inhibitory.
- Partially-digested food fills the duodenum. This
triggers intestinal gastrin to be released.
- Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei,
activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric
sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from
entering, and inhibits local reflexes.

DISEASE
- GERD – gastro esophageal reflex disease,
heartburn, the contents come back
- Constipation – can’t poop, low amount of water
- Dyspepsia – foods can’t be processed, can be
caused by low pH level
- Diarrhea – caused by bacteria Escherichia coli
and salmonella typhimurium