ONE Transformers ‘The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field and without a change in the frequency. The electric circuit which receives energy from the supply mains is called primary winding and the other circuit which delivers electric energy to the load is called the secondary winding. Actually, the transformer is an electromagnetic energy conversion device, since the energy received by the primary is first converted to magnetic energy and it is then reconverted to useful electrical energy in the other circuits (secondary winding circuit, third winding circuit etc.). Thus primary and secondary windings of a transformer are not connected electrically, but are coupled magnetically. This coupling magnetic field allows the transfer of energy in either direction, from high-voltage to low-voltage circuits or from low-voltage to high-voltage circuits. If the transfer of energy occurs at the same voltage, the purpose of the transformer is merely to isolate the two electric circuits and this use is very rare in power applications. If the secondary winding has more turns than the primary winding, then the secondary voltage is higher than the primary voltage and the transformer is called a step-up transformer. In case the secondary winding has less turns than the primary winding, then the secondary voltage is lower than the primary voltage and the transformer is called a step-down transformer. Note that a step-up transformer can be used as a step-down transformer, in which case the secondary of step-up transformer becomes the primary of step-down transformer. Actually, a transformer can be termined a step-up or step-down transformer only after it has been put into service. Therefore, when referring to the windings of a particular transformer, the terms high-voltage winding and low-voltage winding should be used instead of primary and secondary windings. A transformer is the most widely used device in both low and high current circuits. As such, transformers are built in an amazing range of sizes. In electronic, measurement and control circuits, transformer size may be so small that it weighs only a few tens of grams whereas in high voltage power circuits, it may weigh hundreds of tonnes. In a transformer, the electrical energy transfer from one circuit to another circuit takes place without the use of moving parts—it has, therefore, the highest possible efficiency out of all the electrical machines and requires almost negligible amount of maintenance and super- vision, Insulation considerations limit the generation of alternator (ac generator or synchronous generator) voltages from about 11 to 22 kV. By means of transformers, this voltage is stepped up to higher economical transmission voltage, 400 kV or even higher, in order to reduce the transmission losses. Wherever the electrical energy is required, transformers are installed to step down the voltage suitable for its utilisation for motors, illumination purposes etc. Thus the transformer is the main reason for the widespread popularity of a.c. systems over d.c. systems:2 ‘Electrical Machinery Urey : ay Y Jn addition to its use in power systems, transformers are widely uséd in other iy mics of electrical engineering. In communication systems, input transformers Connegy “tt microphone output to the first stage of an electronic amplifier. Interstage and outpys ¢ te formers are used extensively in radio and television circuits. In, electronic and.contro} cin cate transformers are used for impedance matching for maximum power transfer from Source tot load. Pulse transformers find wide applicatien in radar, television and digital computey power electronics, transformers are extensively used (i) for gate-pulse triggering and (i) | synchronizing the pulse gating signals with the ae supply voltage given to the Main poy circuit. In general, important tasks performed by transformers are : "1 {} for decreasing or increasing voltage and current levels from one circuit to another cra (or circuits when there are 2 or more output windings) in low and high current circuits ; (di) for matching the impedance of a source and its load for maximum Power transfer j, electronic and control circuits, and (di) for isolating d.c, w hile permitting the flow of a.c. between two circuits or for isolating one circuit from another. rear ansformer is, therefore, an essential piece of apparatus both for high and low curren circuits, } An clectromechanical energy conversion device is one which converts energy from lected fo mechanical or from mechanical to electrical. The coupling between the elestrlec era mechanical sysvems is through the magnetic field. In a transformer also, the coupling between the primary Gad secondary windings is by means of the magnetic field: Both in electremecheart ot energy Thera ievices and transformers, the coupling magnetic field behaves in a like men qnetefore, the fundamental principles involved in the analysis of a transformer arson mar common in the analysis of electromechanical energy conversion devices The transformer is a static Piece of electric machinery and concepts about its behaviour can be understood in a comparatively simpler manner. In view of the above, the analysis @ study of its behaviour is justified, 1.1. Transformer Construction There are two general types of transformers, the core type and the shell type. These two types differ from each other by the manner in which the windings are wound arcnnd the mag netic core. ‘The magnetic core is a stack of thin silicon-steel laminations about 0.35 mm thick for 50 Ht transformers. In order to reduce the eddy current losses, these laminations me insulated from one another by thin layers of varnish. For reducit their magnetic core made from cold-rolled grain-oriented sheet-stee] (C.R.G.0.). This material, when magnetized in the rolling direction, has low core loss and high permeability. In the core-type, the windings surround a considerable part of steel core as shown in Fig 1.1 (a). In the shell-type, the steel core surrounds a major part of the windings as shown in Fig: 1.1 (6). For a given output and voltage rating, core-type transformer requires less iron but mor’ conductor material as compared to a shell-type transformer. The vertical portions of the cat are usually.called limbs or legs and the top and bottom portions are called the yoke. This me that for single-phase transformers, core-type has two-legged core whereas shell-type has thre legged core. FsTransformers 3 Art, 11] (@) @) Fig. 1.1. Constructional details of single-phase (a) core-type transformer (b) shell-type transformer. In iron-core transformers, most of the flux is confined to high permeability core. There is, however, some flux that leaks through the core legs and non-magnetic material surrounding the core. This flux, called leakage flux, links one winding and not the other. A reduction in this leakage flux is desirable as it improves the transformer performance considerably. Consequently, an effort is always made to reduce it. In the core-type transformer, this is achieved by placing half of the low voltage (L.V.) winding over one leg and other half over the second leg or limb. For the high voltage winding also, half of the winding is over one leg and the other half over the second leg, Fig. 1.1 (a). L.V. winding is placed adjacent to the steel core and HV. winding outside, in order to minimise the amount of insulation required. In the shell type transformer, the L.V. and H.V. windings are wound over the central limb and are interleaved or sandwiched as shown in Fig. 1.1 (b). Note that the bottom and top L.V. coils are of half the size of other L.V. coils, Shell-type transformers are preferred for low-voltage low-power levels, whereas core-type construction is used for high-voltage, high-power transformers. In core-type transformer, the flux has a single path around the legs or yokes, Fig. 1.1 (a). In the shell-type transformer, the flux in the central limb divides equally and returns through the outer two legs as shown in Fig. 1.1 (6). There are two types of windings employed for transformers. The concentric coils are used for core-type transformers as shown in Fig. 1.1 (a) and interleaved (or sandwiched) coils for shell-type transformers as shown in Fig. 1.1 (b). One type of laminations for the core and shell type of transformers is illustrated in Fig. 7:2. @) and (b) respectively. The steel core is assembled in such a manner that the butt joints in adjacent layers are staggered as illustrated in Fig. 1.2 (c). The staggering of the butt joints avoids continuous air gap and, therefore, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is not increased, At the same time, a continuous air gap would reduce the mechanical strength of the core and, therefore, the staggering of the butt joints is essential, During the transformer construction, first the primary and secondary windings are wound, then the laminations are pushed through the coil openings, layer, by layer and the steel core 'S prepared. The laminations are then tightened by means of clamps and bolts. Low power transformers are air-cooled where: in oil for better coolin, insulating medium. as large power transformers are immersed g- In oil-cooled transformers, the oil serves as a coolant and also as an4 Electrical Machinery Butt Butt joints; | joints y nd, 4th, 6th..layers 2nd, 4th, 6th. Butt joints Burt Ty layers INT! Butt joints NM Ast, 3rd, Sthlayers ‘Ist, 3rd, Sthlayers (@) ) © Fig. 1.2. Two adjacent layers for (a) core and (b) shell type of transformers (©) arrangement of butt joints in a magnetic core. For power frequency range of 25 to 400 Hz, , transformers are constructed with 0.35 ma thick silicon-steel laminations. For audio-freque ney range of 20 to 20,000 Hz, iron core wit 1.2. Principle of Transformer Action A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction between two (or mor coupled circuits or coils. According to this principle, an e.m.f. is induced in a coil if it links! changing flux. In core-type transformer, half of the L.V. (and HLV.) winding is on one limb and the other half is on the second limb. In shell-type transformer, the L.V. and H.V. wintlings are sandwiched, How- ever, for simplifying the drawing and analysis of + both these types of transformers, th schematic == Loa —— diagram is as shown in Fig. 1.3. The primar . “adi winding P is connected to an alternating voltage Fig. 1.3. eas Siagram ofa two-winding source, therefore, an alternating current J, starts anand flowing through N, turns. The alternating mmf NJ; sets up alternating flux which is confine’ to the high permeability iron path as indicated in Fig. 1.3. The alternating flux induces volta £, in the primary P and E, in the secondary S. If the load is connected across the secondary: load current starts flowing. . In addition to the secondary winding, there may be a third (or tertiary) winding on the ion core. The emf induced in the secondary or tertiary winding is usually referred to as the {ores Af asi? exifart. 13) ‘Transformers 5 jue to transformer action. Thus the transformer action requires the existence of alternating fnutual flux linking the various windings on a common magnetic core, ‘Atransformer having primary and secondary windings is called a two-winding transformer whereas a transformer having primary, secondary and tertiary windings is known as a three-winding transformer. As stated before, primary is connected to source whereas the secondary and tertiary windings feed the load. 1.8, Ideal Two-winding Transformer In the beginning, a transformer is assumed to be an ideal one, merely for obtaining an easier explanation of what happens in a transformer. For a transformer to be an ideal one, the various assumptions are as follows : A. Winding resistances are negligible. 2, All the flux set up by the primary links the secondary windings, i.. all the flux is confined to the magnetic core, “6. The core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) are negligible. “A, The core has constant permeability, i.e. the magnetization curve for the core is linear. Ata later stage, the effect of these assumptions will be taken up one by one. It has been stated before that the words primary and secondary should not be used with the two windings of transformer. However, it has been found convenient to use these terms during the transformer analysis. But it should be kept in mind that these are arbitrary terms as explained before. Hence forth, sub-scripts 1 and 2 would be associated respectively with the primary and secondary windings of a transformer. Let the voltage V, applied to the primary of a transformer, with secondary open-circuited, be sinusoidal (or sine wave). Then the current J, due to applied voltage Vj, will also be a sine wave. The mmf Ny, and, therefore, the core flux 4 will follow the variations of I, very closely. That is, the flux @ phase with the current J, and varies sinusoidally. If [, is zero, 6 is zero and if, is maximum positive, 4 is also maximum positive and so on. Therefore, if the applied voltage V, has sine waveform, the flux ¢ must also have a sine waveform. Let the sinusoidal variation of flux > be expressed as = Omar Sin wt (11) where Ongr is the maximum value of the magnetic flux in webers and w= 2r f, is the angular frequency in rad/sec and fis the supply frequency in Hz. The emf e in volts, induced in the primary JV, turns by the alternating flux @ is given by \ (1.2) = y0%nas Sin (« -= Its maximum value, E; pa, occurs when sin (« 7 3] is equal to 1. E\ mar = Nima and 1 = Ey pax 8 o-§)6 __ Electrical Machinery lan, ; a 4s * Rims value of emf Z; induced in primary winding is given by Ei max _ 2m By =e = BN ibnax Ey =V20fN4 Omar The current J, in the primary is assumed to flow along the path abcda, Fig. 1.4, The ¢1 induced in N, turns must be in such a direction as to oppose the cause, i.e. J,; as per Lenz’s law. Therefore, the direction of e; is as shown by the arrows in the primary Nj turns and it is seen to oPPose vy. Since primary winding resistance is_ negligible, eyat every instant, must be equ : opposite tov, vo are (4 emg. Fig. 1.4, Ideal transformer on load. ie. igh lL a {Vi The emf induced in the secondary is ep=-N, N2.©bmae COS (ot =N20Onae Sin («« - 5) = Eo max Sin | wt “5 wAL6) +, Rms value of emf Ey induced in secondary winding is given by Ee max By = 2B = V2 REN ma ae From Eqs. (1.4) and (1.7), , or Neo EF nas ae h i.e. emf per tt primary per. turn. in the secondary. The relation expressed by Eq. (1.8) is very significant and must always be kept in mind. ; For drawing the phasor diagram of an ideal transformer at no load, the waveforms # $, e,.and eg are drawn in Fig. 1.5 (6), with the help of Eqs. (1.1), (1.3) and (1.6) respestive At time ¢= 0, the flux is zero, therefore, it is drawn horizontally, Fig. 1.5 (a). Note ae vertical projection of a phasor in the phasor diagram must be equal to its value in Cte “i diagram. The values of e, and e, are maximum negative at t = 0, these are therefore, jence and: downward along the vertical axis. Here N, and Nz are assumed equal for convent therefore, E, = £2. The applied voltage V, is equal and opposite to E, and it is acco oe drawn opposing Hy, It is seen from Fig. 1.5, that ems. E, and E» lag by 90° the mutu: > aaron them. The applied voltage V, leads the flux 6 by 90°.‘ Transformers 7 Art. 1.3] (a) ) Fig. 1.5. Ideal transformer (a) phasor diagram and (b) time diagram. In Fig. 1.4, if the switch $ is closed, a load impedance Z, gets connected across the secondary terminals. Since the secondary winding resistance is zero] V = E,| According to Lenz's law, the direction of secondary current I, should be such that’the secondary mmf Fy (Nj) is opposite to mutual flux 4 in the core. For Fy to be directed against 6, the current Iz must leave the terminal n, pass through the load and enter the terminal m, Fig. 1.4. The secondary winding behaves like a voltage souree, therefore, terminal n must be treated as positive and terminal m as negative. This means that when terminal b is positive with respect toc in Fig. 1.4, terminal n is positive with respect to m at the same time. This forms the basis for polarity markings in transformers, Art. 1.11. If secondary winding is wound in a manner opposite to that shown in Fig. 1.4, terminal m would be positive with respect to terminal n. This shows that polarity markings of the windings in transformers depend upon the manner in which the windings are wound around the legs with respect to each other. VAG Fig. 14, the secondary mmf F being opposite to 6, tends to reduce the alternating mutual flux 6. Any reduction in 9 would reduce E,, For an ideal transformer, V; =~ E,. If the applied voltage V; is constant, Ey’and, therefore, mutual flux ¢ in the core must remain constant, as per Hq, 1.4, This ean happen only if the primary draws more current I,’ from the souree, in order to neutralise the demagnetizing effect of F,. In this manner, I, causes the primary to take more current, 1’, in addition to J, such that . | 1’ Ny=1 Np or Compensating primary mmf;F,= Secondary mmf, Fy (19) Any change in the secondary current is at once reflected by a corresponding automatic change in the primary current so that core flux remains unaltered. In the above expression, I,’ is called the load component of seen that core flux in an ideal trans! current. Assuming J, to lag behind V, by an angle 0, transformer can be drawn as shown in Fig. 1.6. core in opposite directions, they are shown in pl imary current J,. It is thus former remains constant and is independent of the load the phasor diagram under load for an ideal Since mmfs F, and F, tend to magnetize the hase opposition in Fig. 1.6. The total primary current J; is the phasor sum of Ii‘and I h-Ty +], \é8 ___ Electrical Machinery Urey 5 i a The power factor on the primary side of the ideal transformer is cos 0). If the magnetizing current I, is neglected, then Eq. (1.9) becomes LN=LN, , (1.10) ie, Primary ampere-turns = Secondary ampere-turns. Thus for an ideal transformer with I, =0, we have vi _ Ey _N, viet sas (LIL Va Ey No Ty oy) and E,1,= Ey Ip or fw T=Vol | --(1.12) ie. Primary volt-amperes = Secondary volt-amperes. In Eqs. (1.11) and (1.12); V;, Vo, ly, Iz have rms values. From Eq, (1.5), =n, 2% 7 =F en Fig. 1.6. Phasor diagram of an Similarly vg =Np % ideal transformer for inductive lead Nem (L129) Eq. (1.10) in terms of instantaneous value is { tN, = tN (1.12.8) Multiplication of Eqs. (1.12 a) and (1.12 8) gives, Vy ty = Ugig (LJ) | ‘This means that instantaneous power input into primary equals the instantaneous powet + output from the secondary. This relation is a consequence of the assumptions (1)_(3) made fot an ideal transformer. Tf Kirchhoff voltage law is applied to the primary winding circuit abeda of Fig. 1.4, the? terminal 6 must be positive with respect to terminal c, since current J. can flow from 8 high potential to a lower potential only. +. For the cireuit abeda, the Kirchhoffs voltage law gives, 1-2 =0 Yi=e de 4) From Eq. (1.5), nM, a=, 2 (Ll Here the emf. e; is treated as a voltage drop in the direction of current J, and i instantaneous value is given by Eq. 1.14. In Fig. 1.4, current J, flows from to c, through the primary winding, If J, and thereon flux 6 is increasing, then e.m-f. e, induced in the primary should be in such a direction tha e1 acted alone, it would establish a current opposite to Z, as per Lenz’s law. ‘Accordingly direction of ¢; is indicated by arrows in the primary winding, terminal b is again positive oArt. 13] Transformers 9 respect to terminal c and e; is seen to'be acting opposite to v,. This physical fact is written in mathematical form as de vie-e= B where ¢; is treated as a reaction e.m-f,, counter e.m-f. or generated e.m.f. ‘The approach which led to the relation e, = Ny 4° is usually referred to as the cirouit view point. The second approach which gave the relation e, = N, 42s referred to asthe field or flux view-point. Any of the two view-points may be followed. Since the field view-point gives better physical concepts of the internal behaviour of a transformer, itis adopted in this book. Impedance Transformation. A schematic diagram for an ideal transformer is shown in Fig. 1.7 (a). A load impedance Z, is connected across the secondary side. Dot points marked on the primary and secondary windings indicate terminals of the corresponding polarity at any instant. For example, if dotted terminal of primary winding is positive with respect to undotted terminal at any instant, then dotted terminal of secondary winding is also positive with respect to.undotted terminal at the same instant. 2 (rise a k hh h. Oar i 7 OF T 4 Lk vs v0! y, el | =F be i. Ny: Np Ny: Np (@ ® © Fig. 1.7. Transfer of impedance in an ideal transformer. a Ve p For the secondary circuit, 5? = 2, load impedance, ; 2 For an ideal transformer, from Eq. (1.11), Vo Nand =1, Np or v.15) 7 Wo Cve end | Tp. q +} (1.16) Division of Bq, (1.15) by Eq. (1.16) gives effective input impedance at the primary terminals and as YM M q Nik 4 : : = (Na) Vo_ (Ni): ; -{i] BslR] a=2s (LIT)10 Electrical Machinery Une 14 This shows that as far as effect of Z, on primary side is concerned, impedance z, Secondary circuit can be replaced by an equivalent impedance Z,’ in the prim: 2 N; Zy= Fal Z This is shown in Figs. 1.7 (b) and (c). . Thus, the three circuits shown in Fig. 1.7 are identical as far as their Performance view, _ from terminals a and b is concerned. Similarly, an impedance %, in the primary circuit can be transferred to (or referred ty secondary side as 2 Ny (R) A= 2i Transferring an impedance from one side of a transformer to the other i the impedance to the other side. Similar of transformer by means of Eq, (1.11), side can be evaluated. For an ideal transformer, it may be summarized that (i) voltages are transferred in the direct ratio, (i) currents in the reverse ratio, (iii) impedances in the divce ratio squared and (iv) power and volt-amperes remain unchanged. Eq. (1.17) illustrates the impedance-modifying Property of a transformer. In Practice, this | Property is exploited for matchii i ary circuit in ec ) s called referring ly, voltages and currents can be referred to either vide In this manne, resultant voltage and current on thet Purpose of maximum power transfer from source to lo, transformer of suitable turns ratio between the load and the source. 1.4. Transformer Phasor Diagrams diagram must be of the same frequency, these higher order hacen fdd multiples of fundamental frequency) can't be represented 4 Jinear magnetization curve for the transformer core will continne The phasor diagram of a transfo nies (whose frequencies are in the phasor diagram. So 4 to be assumed. mer is now developed, first at no load and then under load. 1.4.1. Transformer phasor diagram at no load. The magnetic flux being common to both the primary and secondary, is drawn first. The indu i shown accordingly in Fig. 1.8 (b). The voltage — E, is being replaced by Vy’ just for convenience. Al tematively V,’ may be treated as a voltage drop in the Primary, in the direction of flow of primary current. The various imperfections in a real transformer are ner (a) Effect of transformer core loss, Th. The current.in the primary is alternati, _varying from one positive valuesay Hy to corrTransformers 11 Art. 1.4] yj Hysteretic NYO angle,« ‘< wt, wy (a) ) © Fig. 18. () Hysteresis loop for transformer core (b) exciting current and core flux waveforms and (©) no-load phasor diagram of a transformer. When the magnetizing force is - H,, the flux density is maximum negative equal to OM. _ As the magnetizing force decréaies from - H,, the current I, decreases and becomes zero for a flux density, or flux, equal to ON. When the current J, becomes positive and equal to OP, the flux is reduced to zero but it is going to become positive. The traverse of the loop along the arrows involves time. When i, is crossing zero positive (passing through zero and becoming positive), the core flux is negative and is equal to ON in Fig. 1.8 (a). This is shown in Fig. 1.8 (0) at instant wry, where waveforms are assumed sine waves. When i, is positive and equal to OP, Fig. 1.8 (a), the flux is crossing zero and becoming positive ; this is shown in Fig. 1.8 (6) at instant wt, It is seen from Fig. 1.8 (6) that exciting current i, leads the magnetic flux 6 (or $ lags i.) by some time angle a. This angle of lead, or lag, being dependent on the hysteresis loop, is called the hysteretic angle. In Fig. 1.8 (c) I, is shown leading 4, or 6 is shown lagging I,, by hysteretic angle o.. The no-load primary current J, is called the exciting current of the transformer and'can be resolved into two components. The component J,, along 6 is called the reactive or magnetizing current, since.its function is to provide the required magnétié fli Xx. The second component along Vj’ is J, and'this component is called the core:loss ‘Component, or power component, of 14; sine®T, When multiplied by V;’ gives the total core loss B,. ve WiTe= Pe From Fig. 1.7 (6), it is seen that L=Nigeai (1.18) Note that in an ideal transformer, core-loss current [, = 0 and therefore exciting current J, = magnetizing current I,y.a 12 __ Electrical Machinery (are . 4 (6) Effect of transformer resistance. The effect f pri tance rj can be ACcounteg by adding to V1’, a voltage drop equal to rf as shown in Fig. 1.8 6). Noté that rr ig a with Z, and is drawn parallel to J, in the phasor diagram. - Ra (c) Effect of leakage flux. The existence of electric potential difference is essential for establishment of current in an electric circuit, Similarly the magnetic potential differenge™ necessary for the establishment of flux in a magnetic circuit, eis For the direction of current J, in the primary, Fig. 1.9, the point A is at a higher magnet potential than point B. This magnetic potential difference establishes : (i) the mutual flux, linking both the windings and (ii) the : primary leakage flux. ¢);, which links only the primary winding. The distinc- tive behaviour of the mutual flux 6 and the primary leakage flux 4, must be carefully understood. The mutual flux 4 exists entirely in the ferromagnetic core and, therefore, involves hysteresis loop. The current J, that establishes $ must lead it by some hysteretic angle. On the other hand, the primary leakage flux ,; exists largely in air. Although ¢,; does pass through some iron, the reluctance offered ty $n is mainly due to air. Consequently $); does not involve any hysteresis loop’and it can be taken tobein phase with the current, that produces it, Fig. 1.8 (c). In the primary winding, ¢inducs an emf E) lagging it by 90°; similarly the primary leakage flux $y, induces an e.m.f. Ey, in the primary winding and lagging it (i.e. 6) by 90°. Since I, leads E,, by 90°, it is possible to write Eq==J1. x, The primary applied voltage V; must have a component, I, x;, equal and opposite to E,1. Here x; has the nature of reactance and is referred to as the primary leakage reactance in ohms. It may be noted that 2, is a fictitious quantity merely introduced to represent the effeds of primary leakage flux. The total voltage drop in primary at no load is (ry +x) = I, zy, where 2 is the primary leakage impedance. Therefore, Fig. 1.8 (c) gives the phasor diagram of a transformer at no load, where Nj is assumed to be equal to N2. The primary voltage equation at no load can be writtet as Fig. 1.9. Transformer at no load. Waa Vi'therrte) [ 119) The primary leakage impedance drop shown in Fig. 1.8 (c), is drawn to a larger scale, : comparison with Vj‘ or Vj, just for the sake of clarity. At no load Vy’ and V, are very nea! i equal. Even at full load, primary leakage impedance drop in power transformers, is about 2 5% of Vj, so that the magnitude of V;’ or E, (and therefore, as per Eq. (1.4)) does not chang? appreciably from no load to full load. X It may be noted that the total primary flux is the phasor sum of ¢y, and ¢, therefore, phasor is a little ahead of ¢. 4 1.4.2, Transformer phasor diagram under load. The secondary circuit of the 30 formoria considered first and then the primary cizcut, for developing the shecce vam of i | former under load. gram 4 0 Wh switch S is closed, secondary current I, starts flowing from terminal n to the sanz Sescril ed in Art. 1.3 ( Assume the load to have a lagging power factor so th esTransformers 13 Fig. 1.10. Transformer under load. secondary load voltage V» by an angle 0). At, first Vp is drawn with J, lagging V, by thi secondary p.f. angle 0,, Fig. 1.11 (a). ‘The. leakage flux and is in phase with J,, for the same reason that 4), isin phase with/, in Fig. 18 (c). The secondary leakage flux induces em/f. E,g in the secondary winding, lagging * 1) dn by 90°. The secondary no load voltage E, must have a component equal and opposite to ~ jt, Tp, Thus the phasor sum of Vp , Ipr, and (a) - JIgta gives the secondary induced e.m.f. Ey as Fig. 1.11. Transformer phasor diagram for (a) lagging p-f. load and (6) leading p.f. load. shown in Fig. 1.11 (a). The voltage equation for the secondary circuit can now be written as ‘ Ey = Va Te (ra + J.) = Vo + Ty 22 (1.20) where 2» is the secondary leakage impedance of the transformer. Further the mutual flux @ is drawn leading E, by 90° and exciting current J, is drawn leading @ by the hysteretic angle a. Note ths.‘ the phasor V, has purposely been taken to the left ofvertical line, so that Ep is vertically downward and the mutual flux 4 is horizontal. The component of the primary current which neutralises the demagnetizing effect of Iy is 11 (iN = LN, and is drawn opposite to,, The phasor sum of Iy’ and I, gives the total oN current I; taken from the supply mains. The primary leakage impedance drop T(r, +jx;) is depicted as explained earlier. The voltage equation for the primary circuit under load can be written as Va Vy + Try tiny = Vy +7, 2, +121) where z, is the primary leakage impedance of the transformer, Note that the angle 0, between V, and J; is the primary power-factor angle under load. If the secondary load current J, leads the voltage V, such that the load pf. is leading, then the phasor‘diagram for the transformer is as shown in Fig. 1.11 (6). The entire procedure for drawing the phasor diagram is the same as explained for Fig. 1.11 (@).14 __ Electrical Machinery Can 1, It may be seen that the development of transformer phasor diagram of Fig. 111, giy, better physical picture of what happens in the primary and secondary windings ofa treet former and its core. But this phasor diagram is helpful only (i) when a transformer is to, studied alone and (ii) when the internal behaviour of the transformer is to be underst; * ‘ood, When the transformer is a part of the large power system network, the phasor diagran a Fig. 1.11 should not be used, Instead, the transformer equivalent circuit is used 1.4.3. Leakage flux. In a transformer, as secondary (or load) current is increased, ¢ magnetic potential of point X rises above the magnetic potential of point Y, Fig. 1.10. Thi, results in an increase in the secondary leakage flux $. Here points X and Y' are on the ling where secondary winding is wound. With increase of secondary current, the Primary corey, also rises and this causes point A to attain a magnetic potential higher than that of point g As a result, primary leakage flux $n increases. This shows that leakage fluxes in a transforme, are dependent upon the currents in the windings. ———~—=—S—S —— Core flux in-a transformer depends upon the emf induced in the primary winding. With increase of primary current, E, = V, ~ I (7; + jr) does reduce and likewise core flax ie reduced, But this reduction in Z, and likewise in core flux is quite small. Thus it may be stated that core flux in a transformer depends upon the applied voltage and may be treatéd as constant fromm load to full load. In the following article, equivalent circuit of the trans! circuit is obtained. 1.5. Rating of Trarisformers the rating of transformers is discussed. After this, an exact former is developed first from which its approximate equivalent losses depend on transformer voltage (VY and current Uy and -are almost matiovted iy tis Tid pf, the transformer rated output is expressed in VA (V XJ) or in KVA and not in kW. For et ample, a transformer working on rated voltage and rated current with load pf equal to zero hes tated losses and rated kVA output but delivers zero power to load. This shove tivac transform®! rating must be expressed in kVA. For any'transformer : (Rated input in kVA at] (Rated output in kVA at the primary terminals)} = |the Secondary terminals)! + Losses (cos 8) (cos 6,) Since the transformer operates at a vi r losses may be ignored. Furth Pf. cos @ are nearly equal. Therefore, the rate’ ' primary winding and the secondary winding are equal, ~~ The voltage 3300/20 V refers to the desi, 0 “csign voltages of the two windings. Either of the may serve as primary or secondary. If it is a zs step down. transformer, then 3300 V is the *A terminal is that part of an olectrical engineering device, which ction intended to reseive the external connect"Transformers 15 Art, 1.5) ; tage and refers to the voltage applied to the primary winding. The voltage of 220 V primey eenondary village and weiss ae voltage developed between output terminals at no load, with rated voltage applied to the primary terminals, Rated primary and secondary currents are calculated from the rated kVA and the cor- responding rated voltages. Thus Rated (or full-load) primary current = 000 =6.06 A. Rated (or full-load) secondary current = Be.o00 =90.91A. Note that the rated primary and secondary currents refer to the currents for which the windings are designed. Rated frequency refers to the frequency for which the transformer is designed to operate. E, __N, . . The ratios Ez and re are called the voltage ratio and turns ratio respectively. These two 2 2 ratios are equal as seen from Eq, 1.8, At no load, V, and E, are nearly equal in magnitude for large transformers, therefore, their no-load voltage ratio is VM ie, Rated primary voltage _Ni Ey” Ny’ ““* Rated secondary voltage ~ Np" xample 1.1. The emf per turn for a single phase, 2310/220 V, 50 Hz transformer is ap- proximately 13 volts. Calculate (a) the number of primary and secondary turns and (b) the net cross-sectional area of the core, for a maximum flux density of 1.4 T. Solution, Emf per turn £, = 13 volts, (a) Number of secondary turns = Secondary voltage i Np= 0 = 16.92, Now the number of turns can't be a fraction, therefore, Ny = 17 (nearest whole number), For Np=17, Number of primary turns 2a10 220 This shows that Np can't be equal to 17 turns. The other nearest Preferable to take Ny = 18. . N, = 18(10.5) = 189 turns, Thus the required values of N and N; are 189 and 18 turns respectively, Vv, M=Ny, Hen sas, integers are 16 or 18. It is (6) New value of em. per turn E, = a volts, The net core area can be obtained from the relation, V2Kf Ona = Ey or Vonf B,, A; =z, Here B,, = maximum value of flux density in Wb/m? or teslas and A; = Net core area.16 _ Electrical Machinery td k 220 2 V2n(50) (1.4) A; aac 393 cm”. It may be seen that if Np is taken equal to 16, the emf per turn increases and net cor, is more, which is not desirable. x Example 1.2. A single-phase 50 Hz transformer has three windings : a 220-V prim, 600-V secondary and a centre-tapped 11-0-11 V tertiary. For a net core area of 75 om?, calay: the number of turns in the three windings. The maximum value of flux density is 1.27. ay Solution. Emf per turn E, = V2n f B,A; = V2n (60) (1.2) (75) x 10” * = 2.00 volts. par 1 :. Number of turiis in each half of the tertiary winding, N3 = 5" = 5.5 turns So take Ng = 6 turns Total number of turns in tertiary = 2 x 6 = 12. :. Turns in the 600 V secondary winding = 600 x 2 = 327, 220x6_ Ur a ample 1.3. (a) A 2200/220 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer has exciting current ofl “A and a core loss of 361 watts, when its h.v. side is energised at rated voltage. Calculate the tu components of the excitirig current. (b) If the transformer of part (a), supplies a load current of 60 A at 0.8 p.f. lag on its lv. si then calculate the primary current and its power factor. Ignore leakage impedance drops. Solution, (a) Exciting current I, = 0.6 A Supply voltage Vy’ = 2200 V; Core loss P, = 361 watts. _ Pe _ 861 ++ Core loss component: I.= y= G95 = 0-164 A. and in-the 220 V primary winding = 120. From Eq. (1.18), Magnetising component/,, = WZ - 2 = V(0.60)" = (0.164)? = 0.577 A. _ @) The primary current component 1’, required to neutralise the effect of secondary current I, = 60 A, is given by ~ TN, =1,N oA ¢ 220 or 229000 =6A. 4 Va _ No Note that v, ™ ‘The currents J,, J2, hy’ and I are indicated in the phasor diagram of Fig. 1.12. The vertical component of I, The horizontal component of EM, oo I, =Im = 0.577 A. Fig. 1.12, Phasor diaat =0.164A for Example 13.El Transformers 17 art 15) ~ vertical component of J, = Iyeos 0, = Iy'cos 0, + I, ; = 6X 0.8 + 0.164 = 4.964 A, Horizontal component of fy =I, sin 0, = Ly si 0,4 Iq i =6X0.6+0.577= 4.177 A, Primary current — 1,= (I, cos 0)+ Gy sin 0,7 = V(4.964)" + (4.1777 = 6.488 A, \ Primary power factor = cos 0, = Hise es 22064 0.766 lagging. 7 6.47 Example 1.4. A transformer is designed to have hot-rolled steel laminations, with a flux density of 1.2 T and the weight of core and wire is found to be 100 kg and 80 kg respectively. If the transformer is redesigned with cold-rolled grain oriented (CRGO) steel laminations, which permit a higher flux density of 1.6 T ; find the saving in core and wire materials. The two types of core materials have the same densities and the total flux remains the same. Make suitable assumptions wherever required. Solution. With hot-rolled steel laminations: ‘Total flux max = Flux density B,,, x Area Ay 4 or max = 1.24, or A= 222m? ‘The diameter of the circle around the core is given by Ly=nd,=n- With CRGO laminations : = 164, or Ay=—e m? max Diameter of the circle around the core is dy Length of the turn around the core is L,="d,="- Now for laminations, Weight of CRGO laminations (Ws) _ (Core volume), (Density) Weight of h.r. laminations (W;) ~ (Core volume), (Density) _ (As) Height of the limb) Ging:/1.6 1.2 ~ (Ay Geight of the limb) ~ 9371. W, =3 (100) = 75 kg, 3 418 Electrical Machinery Lary «. Percentage saving in core material 100 - 75 =T00 * 100 = 25%. Height of the limbs are assumed equal in both cases. Now for wire, Weight of wire when using CRGO laminations (ws) Weight of wire when using h.r. lamination (w;) (Lo) Wi ection) (Turns) “LC ection) (Turns) m4 O/16 _ V3 TNT Onn712 ~ 2 ~ 9-866 ce we = 80 x 0.866 = 69.28 kg. +. Percentage saving in wire material 80 - 69.28 _ =o % 100= 13.4%. ‘ire cross-section and the number of turns are assumed equal in both the cases, A 1.5. A single phase transformer is designed to operate'at 240/ 120 V, 50 Hz. 0, fate the secondary no load voltage and its frequency if the h.v. side of the transformer ist nected to: (a) 240 V, 40 Hz; (b) 120 V, 25 Hz; (c) 120 V, 50 Hz; (d) 480 V, 50 Hz; (e) 240 V, de. Solution. Primary voltage V, at frequency f; is € ~ Vie V2 A omar M1 Let the primary voltage at frequency f, be V;; so that / Vi = N28 fe bax 4 Var _ fo 9maxe Wy FO mas “240 _ (40) (mara) 240 ~ (50)(bmaxt) ~\9max2 = 1.25 Omaci- Secondary no load voltage at frequency f, is Ey=V2 Tf mae No and at frequency fis Ex2= V2 fy Omaxo No Ex _ fo 9max2 - Ez fidmaxt 40 x 1.25 4, i i Fn 20 x Oaet ie | i ‘This shows that the magnitude of the secondary voltage remains unaffected, ¢ve" supply frequency changes. », 120 _ (25) (max2) (b) From Eq. (i), 240 ~ (50) (max) Fb maxe = Yar 25) (mas From Eq. (ii), Ho2= 120 oes = 60 volts at 25 Hz. (a) From Eq. (i), or Q }- 120 volts at 40 Hz.‘ tT \ Art. 1.5) ‘ Transformers 19 120 _ (50) nasa) From Ea, 349 = GO) (Omacs) 8 nase = 0.5 past 50x 0.5 5 = mast From Bq. (ii), — Ey. = 120 GO) % Grae) = 60 V at 50 Hz. BOX Ona) 8 Smaet = pat For the same core area, the flux density is doubled, the magnetizing current becomes quite large (refer to B-H curve) and the transformer may get damaged. 0, Further the counter emf. Ey, which 148 also zero: Therefore, the primary no load current is limited only by the primary winding resistance 7}. Since r, is quite small, the current 240/r, will be tremendously high and transformer will definitely get burnt, Example 1.6. An ideal transformer has three windings : 100 turns on primary winding P, 160 turns on secondary winding S and 60 turns on tertiary winding T, Fig. 1.13 (a). Winding S feeds 10 | Atoaresistive load whereas a pure-capacitance load across winding T takes 20 A. i (a) Calculate the current in the Primary winding and its pf in case transformer magnetizing current is neglected. (6) With the polarity markings on P as shown, mark the polarities on windings S and T also, . Solution. Applied voltage V, and mutual flux § are shown in the phasor diagram of Fig. 1.18 (c). Emfs induced in windings $ and T are indicated as E, and By respectively, Current 1,=10A and therefore secondary winding mmf Fy = Ip N, = 10 x 160 = 1600 ATs is shown in phase with E, because load is resistive in nature. Likewise, current Iy = 20 A and therefore tertiary winding mmf F; = I, 3 = 20 x 60 = 1200 AT's must lead E by 90° as the load is a pure capacitance. Resultant of load mmfs F; and Fy gives Fy; = (1200" + 1600” = 2000 ATs. Fig. 1.13. Pertaining to Example 1.6, Principle of transformer action requires that primary winding must balance the oad mmf Fa produced by the combined action of currents in two windings S and T. - +: Primary winding mmf, F, = Fy3 = 2000 ATs+ 20 Electrical Machinery U 4 ; . F, _ 2000 Current in primary winding, J, = = 700 = 204 1 , Fy _ 1600 ; Power factor on the primary side = cos 0, = o = 5900 = 0-8 leading. (®) Polarity markings and direction of currents are indicated on the secondary ang terten windings in Fig. 1.13 (6). 7 1.6. Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer The equivalent circuit for any electrical engineering device can be drawn if the equati describing its behaviour are known. If any electrical device is to be analysed and investigats further‘ for suitable modifications, its appropriate equivalent circuit is necessary. Th, "equivalent circuit for electromagnetic devices consists of a combination of resistances, indy. tances, capacitances, voltages etc. Such an equivalent circuit (or circuit model) can, therefore | be analysed and studied easily by the direct application of electric circuit theory. As stated above, equivalent circuit is simply a circuit representation of the equations describing the performance of the device.-Eqs. (1.20) and (1.21) describe the behaviovs of tte transformer under load. These equations are, therefore, helpful in arriving at the transforms + cauivalent circuit of Fig. 1.14 (a). In this equivalent circuit, (r; +jx,) and (r, + je are te leakage impedances of the primary and secondary windings respectively. The voltage Vi'is treated as a voltage drop in the direction of /,. Recalll that the magnitude of V,’ does not chans appreciably from no load to full load in large transformers. The magnitude of V;-dependson{ 1 and Gnaas Since [Vy] = [EI The primary current J, consists of two components, see Fig. 1.11(a). One component If # the load component and counteracts the secondary m.m-f. I, Nz completely. The other com ponent is exciting current I, which is composed of J, and I, . The current T, is in phase wit The resistance R, in parallel with Vy repre Vy’ in Fig. 1.8(6) and product Vy I, gives core loss7 sents the core loss P,, such that n2 ' Pa BR = VI =O | R a vy a and Rat The current J, lags V;’ by 90° and this can, therefore, be represented in the equivalest circuit by a reactance X,, such that vy LT ae T, wb R, and X,, are shown in Fig. 1.14 (b), which is the exact equivalent circuit of a transform The resistance R, and reactance X,, are called core-loss resistance and magnetizing reactass ‘Fespectively. —— r ' ; For minor changes in supply voltage and frequency, which is common under norm | operation, R, and X,, are treated constant, ; a In Fig. 14 a) and (0), the ideal transformer has been introduced to show the transi" tion of voltage and current between primary and secondary windings. Even at this stage" transformer magnetization curve is assumed linear, gj Y can't be represented in the equivalent circuit. : Xn21 srt. 1.6] ‘Transformers Ideal transtormer (6) Exact equivalent cire ny ixt al transformer (d) Referred to secondary. Fig. 1.14, Development of the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer, In transformer analysis, it is usual to transfer the secondary quantities to primary side or Primary quantities to secondary side. Secondary resistance drop I,r, when transferred to Primary side, must be multiplied by the turns ratio N,/Np, +: Secondary resistance drop, when transferred to primary = tara Mm )M =|h- Ny,” |N, Putting Ip = Ae22 Electrical Machinery Wee 2 3 N, F =i (e) “| =Lyr, 2 ‘N; where rian: |e | 2 If resistance ry’ is placed in the primary circuit, then the relation between voltages y, A . 1 ang V, is uneffected. This resistance ry’ is called the secondary resistance referred to Primary. Ther fore, the total resistance in the primary circuit is 2 Tea Sry tre ™ =rtry (1.24) Hence r,, is called the transformer equivalent (or total) resistance refered to prinay «(No winding. Similarly the primary resistance referred to secondary is ry (k] and the equivalen (or total) resistance referred to secondary is ‘N2Y rasrtrs li on AC1.25) ” Fig. 1.14. (¢) Equivalent circuit in a general form. | | Secondary leakage reactance drop Iz%2, when transferred to primary is 2 M M 2 rn Bases s. The quantity x,’ is called the secondary leakage reactance referred to primary. Tol primary leakage reactance is 2 Ny ) Xe =X +X_ (x =x, +x «(128 where x1 is called the equivalent or total leakage reactance referred to primary. Likewise, equivalent or total leakage reactance referred to secondary is 2 \ N; 7 1) sanatns[E] meta wag The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to primary is Ze = Te tier ‘The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to secondary is 20 = Ten theaTransformers 23 Art. 1.6] Following the above procedure, it can be shown that (OY, and z ox (My a= |, | 22 and 2e= yy, | 7 Simplification of the exact equivalent circuit. The equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.14 (b) can be simplified by referring all the quantities to primary or secondary and at the same time, moving the ideal transformer to one side. If the secondary quantities are referred to primary, the equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.14 (c) is obtained. Since it is usual to omit the ideal transformer, itis shown dotted in Fig. 1.14 (c) for the sake of completeness. When the primary quantities are referred to the secondary side, the equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.14 (d) is obtained. Note that 2 2 N; and Xp =Xmnq vs . The exact equivalent circuits of Fig. 1.14 (c) and (d) are known 1 lM, as T-circhits for a transformer, referred to primary and secondary windings respectively. In the equivalent circuits of Fig. 1.14 (c) and (d), the referred quantities with suitable nota- tion, have been used. A more general equivalent circuit can be drawn as shown in Fig. 1.14 (e), where for simplicity, (i) a particular notation for referred quantities has been dropped (ii) the complex notation (bar over J, j with reactances etc.) has been given up and (iii) the ideal trans- former is not shown. If the general equivalent circuit refers to the primary, one has to keep in mind that the secondary quantities have been referred to the primary side. On the other hand, if the general equivalent circuit refers to the secondary, then the primary quantities must be referred to the secondary side. Thus in the general equivalent circuit of a transformer, one has merely to keep in mind about the side to which all the quantities have been referred. It may be interesting at this stage to draw the phasor diagram for the equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.14 (e) from a knowledge of the electric circuit theory. Assume that the secondary load voltage V>, load current J, and angle @, by which I, lags Vp, are Vy known. First of all draw 7, lagging V, by an angle 6, and then add I, (r+ JX) to Vp to obtain E, or Vy’, Fig. 1.15. It is obvious from Fig. 1.14 (e) that current 7,, due to voltage B, or V;’ must lag it by 90° and further 7, must be in phase with E, or V;’. The phasor sum of, and 1, gives I, and phasor sum of I, and I, gives I;. The volt- age drop T,(r, +x) is now added to V;' to obtain V, as shown in Fig. 1.15. The secondary pf. is cos @, lagging and the primary p-f. is cos 6 lagging. ‘The voltage drops 7,(r1 +,jx1) and To(rp +,jx9) have been drawn toa much larger scale, in comparison with V, or V» for the sake of clarity. Approximate Equivalent circuit. Approximate equivalent _ Fig: 1.15. Phasor diagram for circuit is obtained from the exact equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.14 (e), °@™ alent eituit of Fig. 1.14 (e, ifthe shunt branch (R, and X,, in parallel) is moved to the primary or secondary terminals as shown in Fig. 1.16 (a) and (b) respectively. It may be seen from Fig. 1.16 (a) that the exciting current J, does not flow through r; and x, whereas J, does flow through rand x; in the exact equivalent circuit. Thus the primary leakage impedance drop due to the exciting current, ie., J, (ry +jx1) has been neglected in Fig. 1.16 (a), though it is not so actually. Tt may also be seen from Fig. 1.16 (b) that J, flows through r, and x2, whereas I, does not flow through r, and x, in the exact equivalent circuit, Thus the secondary leakage impedance24__Electrical Machinery Fig. 1.16, (a) anh (6) Approximate equivalent circuits Pa transformer. (©) and (d) Simplified forms of the approximate equivalent circuit. drop due to I,, ie. I, (ro + jx,) has been included, though [, (ry +jx,) is actually zero. Since exciting current is only about 2 to 6 per cent of the rated winding current in power and dist tion transformers, the error introduced by neglecting I, (r, +. Sx) or including I,(r2 +%2)i8 a nificant. However, the computational labour involved is reduced considerably by the us approximate equivalent circuits of Fig. 1.16 (a) and (b). As before, one must keep in mind the side to which all the equivalent-circuit quantities have been referred. eal Still further simplification is achieved by neglecting the shunt branch R, and X,in ae (a) and (6) and this leads to equivalent cireuit of Fig. 1.16 (c). This simplification is tant to neglecting exciting current I, in comparison with rated currents, which is almost j sok! in large transformers, say over 100 kVA or so. For transformers having ratings neat oer tance e Connavanety reaistance ris quite small as compared with equivalent leak tance x,. Consequently r, may be neglected, leading to the equivalent circuit of Fig: va Thus, when a large power system is studied, a transformer is usually replaced by its 64 circuit of the form shown in Fig. 1.16 (d), ‘i i i i i lent cis tigations, the transformer equiva of inter-turn and turn to earth capacitances\ - Transformers 25 prt. 1.6) ‘The equivalent circuit developed in Fig. 1.14 can also be arrived at by following the classical theory of magnetically coupled circuits. This is done in Art. 1.16. | Example 1.7. For a two winding transformer, derive an expression for the total ohmic loss, in terms of the equivalent resistance, referred to either side. Solution. Total ohmic loss in a transformer Py = (Eiry + 1p°r2) watts Expressing J; in terms of I, gives 2 N; N; Poa = Dir + [s ER =f [ +r, [x] | =Tira If P,, is expressed in terms of Jp, then > 2 N, ts [n (r 1 +Br=1,? (es nt “| lyre Thus the total ohmic loss in a transformer = (Equivalent resistance referred to either side) (Square of the current on that side). a 1.8. A 33 RVA, 2200/220 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has the following P. frampélers : fate Primary winding (h.v. side) : resistance r, = 2.4 Q; leakage reactance x, = 6.00 Q. Secondary winding (L.v. side) : resistance rz = 0.03-Q; leakage reactance x2 = 0.07 2. (a) Find the primary resistance and leakage,reactanice referred to secondary.. “ (b) Find the secondary resistance and leakage reactance referred to primary. (c) Find the equivalent resistance and equivalent leakage reactance referred to (i) primary and (ii) secondary. (d) Calculate the total ohmic loss at full load. (e) Calculate the voltage to be applied to the h.v. side, in order to obtain a short circuit current of 160 A in the lv. winding. Under these conditions, find the power input also. Solution. (a) Primary resistance referred to secondary 2 f VE Mm enter, (M2) 2 220 ane aren (r = (2.4) Ea = 0.024 Q. me Mp Primary leakage reactance referred to secondary 2 N, a aa (x =6.00 (i00] = 0.06.9. (6) Secondary resistance referred to primary A a =r{=r Ee] = 0.03 (iar) =3.009, - Secondary leakage reactance referred to primary N, 2 = Hy! = x2 [x] = 0.07 (10)? = 7,00 2.26 Electrical Machinery (©) () Equivalent resistance referred to primary Yaa Era =ry try =2.4+3.00=5.40. Equivalent leakage reactance referred to primary =2_=21 +2) = 6.00+7.00= 139. (i) Equivalent resistance referred to secondary = rep =P_+Py = 0.03 + 0.024 = 0.054 2. Equivalent leakage reactance referred to secondary : May == 4) +2/ = 0.07 + 0.06= 0.13.0. f (d) Primary fall load current I, = Bore =15A. v Secondary full load current I, = 23000 ~ 150 4, . | + Ohmic loss at full load = r,, = (15)? x 5.4 = 1216 watts. Fig. 1.17. Equivalent cirajt or = Bh rep = (150)? x 0.054 = 1216 watts. referred to hy. side, Bs. 18 (e) A current of 160 A in the lv. winding is equivalent to 16 A in the hy. winding. The equivalent circuit of the transformer, referred to h.v. side is illustrated in Fig. 1.17, from whi equivalent leakage impedance referred to hv. side is =21=5.44j13 or 2e1 = V6.4)" + (13) = 14.08 2. +. The voltage to be applied to the h.v. side, V = (16) (¢,,) (16) (14.08) = 225.28 volts. Power input =F ra = (16)? (6.4) = 1382.4 watts or Power input = VI cos @ = (225.28) (16) x os = 1382.4 watts. Example 1.9. A 10 kVA, 2500/250 V, single phase transformer has resistances and leakast reactances as follows : ry=489, — 1r2= 0.0489 4,=1L29, x)=0.1129, Subscripts 1 and 2 denote high voltage and low voltage windings respectively. With primary supply voltage held constant at 2500 V, calculate the secondary termint! voltage, when (a) the l.v. winding is connected to a load impedance of 5 +j 3.5.0. (b) the transformer delivers its rated current at 0.8 pf. lagging on the Lwv. side. ane ide. Solution. (a) All the quantities may be referred to either the h.v. side or the Ley sige this example, Lv. winding is the secondary winding since load is connected across it. With the quantities referred to the L.v. side, the equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.18 (a) is obtained, N, rep = Poth (se) = 0.048448 (is) = 0.096 2 ‘Ney " mp=%et (®) =0.112+112 (3) = 0.2249. andTransformers 27 Art. 1.6) oo96n §— 0-224. 1 = Load (a) () Fig. 1.18. Equivalent circuit for Example 1.9. ‘The transformer leakage impedance r,» + jx, and the load impedance are in series. There- fore, the total impedance in the secondary winding circuit is, 2 = 5.096 +j3.724=6.31 2 36.2°. Bacpo-Dang Hence the load eurrent, Ip = 252 = 99,65'A. ‘The secondary terminal voltage E, is V2 =1,Z;, = (89.65) [N(G)" + (8.5)'1 = (89.65) (6.1) = 242.V. (6) The equivalent circuit with all the quantities referred to Ly. side is given in Fig. 1.18 (6). The rated current on the Lv. side is ’ _ 10,000 Iy= G5 = 404. ‘The phasor diagram for Fig. 1.18 (b) is illustrated in Fig. 1.18 ©). From the geometry of this diagram, OB? = OA? + AB? or 250) =V¥,c08 8 Fra + Wrsin by aaa PISO Phas dae or (250) = V(0.8 Vp + 3.84)" + (0.6 V, + 8.96)" or (250)? = V3 + 16.90V. + 95.55 or V3 + 16.90 V - 62,404 = 0 = 16.90+¥ v= 2690+ is PAD GIS _o4s 55 y, Alternatively, the secondary terminal voltage V; can be obtained as follows: From the phasor diagram, it may be seen that OD is approximately equal to OB = 250 volts. “ V, = OD - CD =250-CD. Now CD =CE+ED = Ipfep C08 9 + Ipxep Sin Oy = (3.84) (0.8) + (8.96) (0.6) = 8.448 = 8.45 volts. +. Secondary terminal voltage, V, = 250 - 8.45 = 241.55 V. The magnitude of the secondary voltage V, turns out to be same in both the methods. How- ever, the computational labour in the second method is less than in the first method, therefore, the second method should be preferred.28 Electrical Machinery Example 1.10. The equivalent circuit referred 02 to the low-tension side of a 250/2500 V single phase transformer is shown in Fig. 1.18 (a). The load impedance connected to the high-tension terminals is 380 +j 230 Q. For a primary voltage \4 500% of 250 V, compute (a) the secondary terminal voltage, (©) primary current and power factor, and (©) power output and efficiency. Fig. 1.19. (a) Transformer equivalent circuit fy Solution. (a) The load impedance referred to Example 1.10. Lt. side is yy T,- 020 o7n +0 2 Z1/ = (380 +j 230) tal =(8.8+j2.3)Q. 2 Transformer leakage impedance 0.2 + J0.7 ohm Vz250V and the load impedance 3.8 + j 2.3 Qare in series as 500 shown in Fig. 1.19 (6). Therefore, total series im. a pedance is 4+j3=5 2 36.9°, ‘Taking V, as the reference phasor, V1 = 2502 0°. 125020? a an = 5 5 gg = 50 2 - 36.9 = 50 (cos 36.9° — j sin 36.9°) = (40 —j 30) A. or Ty=50A = and ha Fig. 1.19. (6) Pertaining to Example 1,10, By p= 50x a5 + Secondary terminal voltage = Ip Z, = 5 [380° + 2307}? = 5 x 444 = 2090 V Vi _ 2502 0° (6) The core loss current c= Be” Booz pF 05 £0°= 0.5470 ii 7. Va _ 250 20° sone The magnetizing current Tq= = POLO = 17 99° 01, -. Exciting current L147, =08-jya, Henee total primary current J, =7,’ +7, = 40 -~J30) + (0.5 -j1) = 40.5731 =51 2-37.42 :. Primary current N=51A and primary p.f. = cos @, = cos 37.4° = 0.794 lagging. (©) Load pf. = cos 380 = 80s " (380%230312 ~ 0-855 Power output = Va Ts cos @, = 2220 x 5 x 0.855 = 9500 watts. Also power output = G1)? Ry = (60)? (3.8) = 9500 watts, (250)? . Core loss Poe R= Gop = 125 watts or Pe=IeR. = (0.5)? (500) = 125 watts,Transformers 29. Art. 171 Ohmic loss Pon = (1)rex = (50)* (0.2) = 500 watts. Power input ay cos ® = (250)(51)(0.794)=10,125 watts. = Power output + Losses = 9500 + 125 + 500 = 10,125 watts. Efficiency = Output _ Input — Losses ‘Also power input Input ~ ‘Input Losses, _500+125 = 1 - bosses _ _ 500+ 125 _ .u. or 93.83%. Input ~~~ yo,1a5 99983 pu. oF 1,7, Open-circuit and Short-circuit Tests ‘These two tests on a transformer, help to determine (i) the parameters of the equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.16, (éi) the voltage regulation and (iii) efficiency. The equivalent circuit parameters can also be obtained from the physical dimensions of thé transformer core and its : winding details. Complete analysis of the transformer can be carried out, once its equivalent circuit parameters are known. ‘The power required during these two tests is equal to the appropriate power loss occurring in the transformer. Open circuit (or No-load) test. The circuit diagram for performing open circuit test on a single phase transformer is given in Fig. 1.20 (a). In this diagram, a voltmeter,-wattmeter and an ammeter are shown connected on the low voltage side of the transformer. The high _ voltage side is left open circitited. The rated frequency voltage applied to the primary, i.e. low voltage side, is varied with the help of a variable ratio auto-transform. When the voltmeter ‘reading is equal to the rated voltage of the |.v. winding, all the three instrument readings are ¥ecorded. 1 = om Auto~ transformer i @ O) Fig. 1.20. (a) Circuit diagram for open-circuit test on a transformer and (6) approximate equivalent circuit at no load. The ammeter records the no-load current or exciting current I,, Since I, is quite small (2 to 6% of rated current), the primary leakage impedance drop is almost negligible, and for all practical purposes, the applied voltage V; is equal to the induced emf. V,’. Consequently, the equivalent cireuit of Fig. 1.14 (e) gets modified to that shown in Fig. 1.20 (6). The input power given by the wattmeter reading consists of core loss and ohmic loss. The exciting current being about 2 to 6 per.cent of the full load current, the ohmic loss in the primary (=1,7r,) varies from 0.04 per cent (its x * x it) 0.36 per cent of the full-load we ae Fy) Varios Mom De ber cent 0.36 per cent of the full-lo Primary ohmic loss. In view of this fact, the ohmic loss durii ig open circuit test is negligible in_comparison with the normal core loss (approximately proportional to the square of the applied voltage). Hence the wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to transformer core loss,30 Electrical Machinery . A negligible amount of dielectric loss may also exist. Error in the instrum, Loe, eliminated if required. Let ent reading, » V, = applied rated voltage on 1.t. side, I, = exciting current (or no-load current), 7 and P, = core loss. Then P, =Vy I, cos 8 P, ly -. No load pf. = 008 = 7 From the phasor diagram of Fig. 1.8 (c), it follows that I, =I, 08 Q and I, =I, Sin 9 From Fig. 1.20(6), 1,= 72 Vy Vv; Vv; Fae’ i el ore loss resistance Rox = 7" = Taos q ove ve = Viheos 6, Pe (1.29 Also 12 Re, =P. P, P. Ro, ===, wl Cu 72- T cos Oo) ee! Magnetizing reactance, y Af LS Xnz T, isin 0 ‘The subscript L with Ro and X,, is used merely to emphasize that these values are for Lt. side. This must be kept in mind that the values of Ro and X,,, in general, refer to the side,t which the instruments are placed (the L.t. side in the present case). A voltmeter is sometin® used at the open-circuited secondary terminals, in order to determine the turns ratio. ‘Thus the open-circuit test gives the following information : (i) core loss at rated voltage! frequency, (ii) the shunt branch parameters of the equivalent circuit, ie. Rc and Xp and @ turns ratio of the transformer. , * Short-circuit test. The low voltage side of the transformer is short-circuited struments are placed on the high voltage.side,.as - illustrated in Fig. 1.21 (a). The applied voltage is adjusted by auto-transformer, to circulate rated current in the high voltage side. In a transformer, the primary m.m_f. is almost equal to the secon winding causes rated current : winding. imary voltage of 2 to 12% ofits rated value ape ed-carrents in both - Les i Mi: is sufficient to-circulate rate i HY.) fe windings. From Fig. 1.21 pp 101, (@) Connection diagram for #” i and A (rit is clear that the secondary leakage im- coe oa a transforme® pédance. drop appears across the exciting. branch : ’ and the