Evolve.

CHAPTER 1
Adapt.
Overcome.
CEFI is now ready.

CONCEPTS, THEORIES, AND

PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
CRIM 103 – HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

NOEMI ROSALES
College of Criminology and Criminal Justice
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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Human development is a process in which a progressive series of changes occur because of
maturation and experience. According to Newman and Newman (2015), human development
emphasizes the patterns of “constancy and change across the life span” and identifies the
processes that account for such patterns. They argue that development implies a process that
happens over time and has a specific direction.

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DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES
The goal of developmental changes is to enable people to adapt to the environment in which
they live, through a process called self- realization or self-actualization (DeRobertis, 2008). Given
that self- realization plays an important role in ensuring one’s mental well—being, individuals who
make good personal and social adjustments must seek opportunities to express their interests and
desires in ways that yield personal satisfaction while conforming to accepted standards at the same
time. The absence of these opportunities can lead to frustration and generally negative attitudes
toward people and even life in general

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SIGNIFICANT FACTS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT (Gines, et al., 1998)

Early foundations are critical. Essentially, attitudes, habits, and patterns of behavior that have been
established in the early years of one’s life largely determine the success of individuals in adjusting to
life as they grow older.
Roles of maturation and learning in development. Maturation refers to the process by which an
individual’s inherent traits are developed. Learning is the product of the exercise and effort spent by an
individual to achieve development. In relation to this, maturation provides the raw material for learning
and determines the general patterns and sequences of one’s behavior.

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Development follows a definite and predictable pattern. According to previous works, there are
patterns of physical, motor, speech and intellectual development, and such development follows a
pattern similar for everyone, unless there are extenuating factors that hamper this process.
All individuals are different. No two individuals can be 100% biologically and genetically similar,
even in the case of identical twins. Such difference increases as children develop from childhood,
move on to adolescence, and eventually to old age.

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Each phase of development has a characteristic behavior. This means that every stage of
development includes a set of behaviors that can only be observed in a particular stage.
Each phase of development has hazards. Each stage in the life span of an individual can be
associated with specific developmental hazards—be they psychological, physical, or environmental;
such hazards may involve adjustment problems.
Development is aided by stimulation. A large part of human development occurs as a product of
maturation and environmental experiences, and in relation to this, much can be done to aid
development so that it will reach its full potential. This can be achieved by stimulating development
by directly encouraging an individual to utilize an ability. which is in the process of development.

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There are social expectations for every stage of development. All cultural groups expect their
members to formularize themselves with essentials skills and acquire certain approved behavioral
patterns at various ages during one’s lifetime.
There are common traditional beliefs about people of all ages. Beliefs concerning physical and
psychological characteristics do affect the judgment of others and their subsequent self-evaluations.

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PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Let us examine various psychological theories one human development, which can provide
basic frameworks through which we can better understand human growth, development, and
learning. It in important to study these theories because, through these, we can identify the main
factors or conditions that motivate human thoughts and behaviors (Theories of Development,
2016).
Psychoanalytic Theories
As one of the most popular theories of development, Psychoanalytic theory originated with
the work of Sigmund Freud, who argued that childhood. experiences and unconscious desires
ultimately influence our behaviors as adults. Since then, neo—Freudians have proposed different I
theories of their own, including Erik Erikson, who introduced his eight-stage theory of psychosocial
development.

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Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development

The theory of psychosexual development was first proposed by the famous psychoanalyst
Sigmund Freud. This controversial theory describes the process by which human personality is
developed throughout one’s childhood. Based on observations he recorded while treating his
patients, he was able to develop a theory that explained human behavioral development in terms of
a series of so—called “psychosexual stages,” in which conflicts that arise in each developmental
stage may have a lifelong influence on one’s personality and behavior (Cherry, 2015a).

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Stages of Psychosexual Development

Stage 1: Oral stage (Birth to 18 months)
During this stage, an infant’s main source of interaction occurs through the mouth, and as such,
rooting and sucking are especially important in this stage. It is said that the infant derives pleasure
from oral stimulation by performing gratifying activities, such as sucking. The infant may also develop
a sense of trust and comfort with an adult who is providing this kind of oral stimulation (e.g., feeding
the child).
Conflict occurs during the weaning process, and at this point, the child must become less
dependent upon his/ her caretakers; otherwise, fixation may occur. If this fixation is not resolved,
then the child may grow up with issues concerning binge eating, drinking, nail biting, or smoking. The
individual may also have problems related to dependency and aggression (Cherry, 2015a).
Oral traits may be expressed as opposites. Hence, oral types may be unhealthily pessimistic or
healthily optimistic, gullible, or suspicious, manipulative or passive, and prone to admiration or envy,
to name a few (Furnham, 2015).

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Stage 2: Anal stage (18 months to 3 years)

During this stage, a child becomes aware of correct bowel control and experiences pleasure in
eliminating or retaining feces. Some parents praise and reward children who show correct behavior
in this sense. These children eventually grow up to become productive and confident.
When a child becomes fixated in the pleasure obtained through these stimulants (i.e.,
controlling and eliminating feces), then he/she becomes obsessed with perfection, order,
cleanliness, and control as an adult. When a person is prone to this tendency then he/ she is called
anal retentive, and its opposite is called anal expulsive. Compared with anal retentive individuals,
anal expulsive individuals are extremely disorganized and chaotic (Cherry, 2015a).
The well-known anal traits also include stinginess, stubbornness, meticulousness, and an
unhealthy obsession with punctuality, precision, and perfection (Furnham, 2015).

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Stage 3: Phallic stage (3 to 6 years)

The phallic stage is mainly characterized by a child’s focus on sexual interests, stimulation, and
excitement in relation to the genital area. This is an important part of the development process as it
lays the foundation of one’s gender identity. According to Freud, the patterns of identification arising
from the phallic stage primarily determine the development of human character (McLeod, 2008).
Common phallic traits are expressed in opposites, just like in the other stages. These traits
typically include vanity versus self-hatred, brashness versus bashfulness, pride versus humility, gaiety
versus gloom and gregariousness versus isolation, to name a few (Furnham, 2015).

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Stage 4: Latency stage (5 or 6 years to puberty)

This development stage begins around the same time when children enter school and
become more focused on their peer relationships, personal interests, and hobbies, along with
greater social exposure. Hence, this is a period of exploration and plays an important role in the
development of confidence as well as social and communication skills (Cherry, 2015a).
Stage 5: Genital stage (Puberty to adulthood)
During this period, a child undergoes the physiological maturation of systems of sexual
functioning and associated hormonal systems, thus leading to intensified drives and impulses. The
main objective of this phase is the eventual separation from one’s attachment to his / her parents
and the achievement of mature relationships as well as adult roles and duties.

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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

One of the best-known theories of personality in the field of psychology, Erikson’s theory of
psychosocial development describes the influence of social experience on our development across
the whole human lifespan. A major element of this theory is the “ego identity,” which is the
“conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction” (Cherry, 2015b). According to
Erikson, this ego identity constantly changes due to new information and experiences we
accumulate through our daily interactions with others. As we face each new stage of development,
we confront a new challenge that can help further develop or hinder the development of our identity.

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Stages in the Human Lifespan

A. Prenatal period - This period begins at conception and ends at birth. It occurs within about 270
to 280 days or nine calendar months.
B. Infancy — This period occurs from birth to the end of the second week. It is the shortest of all
developmental periods and is considered a time of extreme adjustments, thus making it a
hazardous period.
C. Babyhood — This period occurs from the end of the second week until the end of a child’s
second year. It is said to be the period of the true foundation of age and marks the beginning of
socialization and creativity. This period is also a time of increased individuality, decreasing
dependency, and rapid growth and change, making it a hazardous period as well.

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D. Early Childhood -— This period lasts from 2 to 6 years and is considered by many parents as
a problematic or troublesome age. For educators, this is considered the preschool age.
E. Late Childhood — This period occurs from 6 to 10 or 12 years or the so-called elementary
years. For parents, they consider it also as a troublesome age, especially since, ‘according to
psychologists, this is the “gang” age or the time at which children seek conformity and become part
of groups.
F. Puberty or Preadolescence — This period lasts from 12 to 13 or 14 years. It is a short,
overlapping period that is subdivided into several stages, namely, prepubescent, pubescent, and
post—pubescent stages. This is a period of rapid growth and change and occurs at a variable age.

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G. Adolescence — This period occurs from 13 or 14 to 18 years. It is an important transitional

period that is characterized by significant change. Others consider it a problem or dreaded age,
during which the child ‘searches for his / her identity and is about to cross over into adulthood.
H. Early Adulthood — This period lasts from 18 to 40 years. This is the productive age, a period
of dependency for most, and a period of emotional tension or even social isolation. In addition, it is
a time of commitment, a time at which one’s values change, which can lead to changes in lifestyle
choices.
I. Middle Age — This period occurs from 40 to 60 years. Many people dread this stage because it
is a time of stress and transition. Others may feel bored with their lives at around this age and may
feel awkward or inadequate when comparing themselves with others and evaluating their lives
against them.

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J. Old Age or Senescence — This period lasts from 60 years to one’s death. This is considered
a period of decline, during which people are judged by different criteria based on prevalent
stereotypes of old people. People in this age group have varying social attitudes towards old age
and may feel that they are part of a minority. As aging requires role changes, some may not be
so successful in making the proper adjustments. Still, the desire for rejuvenation is widespread in
old age.

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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
Purposes of Developmental Tasks
Development tasks serve as guidelines that enable individual to know what society
expects of them at any given age. Such tasks motivate individuals to do what their respective
social groups expect them to do at certain ages during their lives. Finally, these tasks show
individuals what lie ahead and the corresponding expectations of what they need to do when
they reach their next stage of development.

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Developmental Tasks During Each Stage of the Lifespan (Gines, et al, 1998)
1. Babyhood and Early Childhood
 Learning to take solid foods
 Learning to walk and talk
 Learning to control the elimination of body waste
 Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
 Getting ready to read
 Learning to distinguish between right and wrong and beginning to develop a conscience

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2. Late Childhood
 Learning physical skills that are necessary for ordinary games
 Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself as a growing individual
 Learning to get along with peers with the same age
 Beginning to develop appropriate social roles depending on one’s gender
 Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
 Developing concepts and skills that are necessary for everyday living
 Developing a conscience, a sense of morality, and a scale of values
 Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions
 Achieving personal independence

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3. Adolescence
 Achieving new and more mature relations with peers from both sexes
 Achieving masculine or feminine social roles
 Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body effectively
 Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behaviors
 Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults
 Preparing for an economic career
 Preparing for marriage and family life
 Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to one’s behavior
 Acquiring beliefs and a set of ideologies

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4. Early Adulthood
 Getting started in an occupation
 Selecting a partner
 Learning to live with a marriage partner
 Starting a family
 Rearing children
 Managing a home
 Taking on civic responsibilities
 Finding a social group with whom one shares the same interests

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5. Middle Age
 Achieving adult civic and social responsibilities
 Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
 Developing adult leisure-time activities
 Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
 Accepting and adjusting to physiological changes of middle age
 Reaching and maintaining a satisfactory performance in one’s occupation and career
 Adjusting to aging parents

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6. Old Age
 Adjusting to decreasing physical health
 Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
 Adjusting to the death of a spouse
 Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of one’s peer group
 Establishing a satisfactory and safe physical living arrangement
 Adopting to changing or reduced social roles in a flexible way

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FACTORS INFLUENCING THE MASTERY OF DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Handicaps to Mastery
• A retarded developmental level
• Lack of opportunities to learn the developmental tasks or
• Lack of guidance in their mastery
• Lack of motivation A
• Poor health condition
• A Physical defects
• A low intellectual level

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Aids to Mastery
• A normal or accelerated developmental level A
• Opportunities to learn the developmental tasks and receiving guidance in mastering them
• Strong motivation to learn and improve
• Good health and the absence of sickness
• A high level of intelligence
• A sense of creativity

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REFERENCE:

1. Castillo, R.V. and Gabao, R.G.2020.Human behavior and victimology. Chapterhouse

Publishing Incorporated. Quezon City
2. Lagumen, D.S.2016. Criminology an introduction to understanding crimes and criminal
behavior. MSEUF. Lucena City

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electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writing from the author or lecturer.
 COLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE
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