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Adverbs and Adverbials
Adverbs and Adverbials
Morphologically, we can distinguish three types of adverb, of which two are closed
classes (simple and compound), and one is an open class (derivational):
(a) SIMPLE adverbs, eg: just, only, well, back, down, near, out, under.
(b) COMPOUND adverbs, eg: somehow, somewhere, therefore.
(c) DERIVATIONAL adverbs, eg: odd ~ oddly; interesting ~ interestingly
The majority of derivational adverbs have the suffix –ly, by means of which new
adverbs are created from adjectives (and participial adjectives). Other derivational
suffixes are:
-wise: clockwise, crabwise, moneywise -ways: sideways
-ward(s): northward(s) -style: cowboy-style
-fashion: schoolboy-fashion
The creation of adverbs from adjectives by adding –ly is closely related to the dynamic
use of the adjective; therefore, -ly adverbs are not formed from stative adjectives:
Dynamic: cheerful ~ cheerfully; jealous ~ jealously
Stative: big ~*bigly; tall ~ *tally
ADJUNCTS and SUBJUNCTS are relatively integrated within the structure of the
clause.
Adjuncts have grammatical properties resembling the sentence elements S, C and O:
Slowly they walked back home.
He spoke to me about it briefly.
1
Conjuncts express the speaker’s assessment of how he views the connection between
two linguistic units:
She has bought a big house, so she must have a lot of money.
The candidate has written a successful, lengthy, popular, and in addition highly
original novel.
2
her trip abroad the way ahead
When adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, and other structures function as part of an
element in the sentence structure they cannot be regarded as “adverbials”. Thus the units
very beautifully and in the garage are adverbials in (1) and (2), respectively, but are not
adverbials in (3) and (4), where they operate as part of phrases which realize other
elements in the sentence structure:
Position: Although the position of subjects, objects, complements, and verb phrases
within clauses is quite strictly fixed, adverbials are extremely mobile. For example, the
adverbial, “very probably” can be placed correctly in four different places in the
following sentence (marked by “X”):
Example: [X] The villagers [X] have [X] been going into the woods to hunt [X].
3.1. Adjuncts
There are three distinct types ranging in “centrality” from the obligatory predication
adjunct to the sentence adjunct whose position is more variable and whose presence is
always optional.
Adjuncts have grammatical properties resembling the sentence elements S, C, and O.
(See Greenbaum & Quirk 1990: 162-163)
3
Who(m) did Hilda help? Tony (O)
Why did Hilda help Tony? Because of his injury (A)
(Cf also When, Where, How, How long, How well, etc.)
1. (I looked everywhere for it and eventually) I found the letter in the kitchen.
(Predicational A)
2. (I had totally forgotten about the matter, but then, almost by chance,) I found the
letter (,) in the kitchen. (Sentence A)
3.1.4 The semantic roles of adjuncts
a. Adjuncts of space
They are on the Continent. (Position)
They walked down the hill. (Direction)
They travelled several miles (Distance)
b. Adjuncts of time
We were in France last year. (Position)
They visit her every month . (Frequency)
I shall be in Chicago until Thursday. (Duration)
When did you previously go to the dentist? (Time-relationship)
c. Process adjuncts
She looked at him coldly. (Manner)
He was killed by a terrorist. (Agency)
She influenced me by her example. (Means)
He was killed with a hunting knife. (Instrument)
d. Adjuncts of respect
A neighbour is advising me legally. (“with respect to law”)
She helped me with my research.
e. Adjuncts of contingency
There were many deaths from malnutrition. (Cause)
She’s applying for a better job. (Purpose)
4
Where two or more space adjuncts co-occur at E position, they are ordered as follows:
distance-direction (source, goal)-position:
She walked a few steps (A1) towards him (A2) in the darkened room (A3)
Space and time adjuncts can be in hierarchical relation, usually with the one denoting
the longer or superordinate period coming second:
Many people eat in restaurants (A1) in London (A2)
I’ll see you at nine (A1) on Monday (A2)
The doctor wants to see you again (A1) afterwards (A2)
3.2 Subjuncts
Subjuncts have a subordinate role in comparison with other clause elements. They are
chiefly related to the predication or to a particular part of the predication.
Emphasizers
Emphasizers have a reinforcing effect on the value of the clause or part of the clause to
which they apply.
I just/really/simply can't believe a word he says!
Intensifiers
Intensifiers are broadly concerned with the semantic category of degree, indicating an
increase or decrease of the intensity with which a predication is expressed.
Amplifiers:
They fully appreciate the problem.
Downtoners:
They have practically forced him to resign.
Focusing subjuncts
Focusing subjuncts draw attention to a part of a sentence.
Restrictive:
I merely wanted to know his name. (“I didn’t want to know anything else”)
Additive:
Fred has also invited his mother-in-law. (ie in addition to others)
3.3 Disjuncts
A disjunct indicates the speaker’s viewpoint on what he is saying.
5
Mark passed his driving test, amazingly.
3.4 Conjuncts
Conjuncts are more like disjuncts than adjuncts in having a relatively detached and
“superordinate” role as compared with other clause elements. But they are unlike
disjuncts in not typically filling the semantic roles characteristic of adjuncts.
Conjuncts serve to conjoin two utterances or parts of an utterance, and they do so by
expressing the semantic relationship obtaining between them.
Conjuncts may be grouped into four types: additive, adversative, resultative and
summative. (See Mackenzie & Martínez Caro 2012: 217-219)