Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Concrete Retaining Structures - Segmental Concrete Gravity Retaining Walls
Concrete Retaining Structures - Segmental Concrete Gravity Retaining Walls
Structures
Concrete Retaining
Segmental Concrete
Gravity Retaining Walls
Design and Construction Guide
Preface
Standards Australia has published AS 4678–2002
Concrete Masonry for the design of earth retaining structures, which
Association of include segmental concrete gravity retaining walls. It
Australia Limited encompasses the following features:
ABN 33 065 618 840 ■ Limit state design
Level 6, 504 Pacific Highway ■ Partial loading and material factors
St Leonards NSW 2065 ■ Compatibility with the general approach in
(P0 Box 572 St Leonards NSW 1590) AS 1170 SAA Loading code(Note1)
Telephone: 02 9903 7760 ■ Compatibility with the structures standards such
Facsimile: 02 9437 9703 as AS 3600 Concrete structures and AS 3700
E-mail: info@cmaa.com.au Masonry structures.
Internet: www.cmaa.com.au This Guide provides Australian designers and
contractors with a comprehensive approach to the
design and construction of segmental concrete gravity
retaining walls based on:
The following organisations are recognised for their ■ The design and construction rules set out in
support and financial contribution towards this AS 4678-2002
publication. ■ An analysis method developed by the Concrete
Bayer Chemicals Pty Ltd Masonry Association of Australia (CMAA) to fit
www.bayerchemicals.com Australian experience.
Cement Concrete & Aggregate Australia It includes:
www.concrete.net.au ■ A description of the principal features of the
Colombia Concrete Block Machine Pty Ltd Australian Standard
www.colmac.com ■ A description of the analysis method
MANUFACTURERS: ■ A design example which demonstrates the use of
the Australian Standard and analysis method
Baines Masonary Blocks
www.bainesmasonary.com.au ■ A site investigation check list
Best Masonry Bricks and Pavers Pty Ltd ■ A detailed construction specification.
www.bestbrickspavers.com.au
Boral Masonry Pty Ltd www.boral.com.au
C&M Brick Pty Ltd www.cmbrick.com.au
Erosion Control Systems Pty Ltd
www.erosioncontrol.com.au
GB Masonry Pty Ltd www.gbmasonry.com.au
Gympie Blockworks
www.gympieblockworks.com.au
Island Block and Paving Pty Ltd
www.islandblock-paving.com.au
Master Masonry www.mastermasonry.com.au
Modular Masonry (WA) Pty Ltd
www.modularmasonry.com.au
Nubrik Pty Ltd www.nubrik.com.au
Hanson Building Products
www.hanson.biz/au/buildingproducts
LICENSORS:
Allan Block Corporation www.allanblock.com
Anchor Retaining Wall Systems
www.anchorwall.com
Norfolk and Tasman Retaining Walls
www.islandblock-paving.com.au
NOTES:
Keystone Retaining Wall Systems 1 When published in early 2002, AS 4678 included load
www.keystonewalls.com factors which were compatible with the load factors on the
version of AS 1170 that was then current. However, changes
Rockwood Retaining Walls, Inc to AS 1170 in late 2002 have meant that exact similarity of
www.rockwoodretainingwalls.com load factors no longer exists.
2
INSTRUCTIONS Segmental Concrete
Gravity Retaining Walls
You may click on anything
shown in RED to go to it.
Contents
1 Introduction 4
1.1 General 4
1.2 Scope 4
1.3 Glossary 4
1.4 Behaviour of Segmental Concrete Gravity Retaining Walls 5
1.5 Importance of a Geotechnical Report 6
1.6 Safety and Protection of Existing Structures 6
1.7 Global Slip Failure 6
1.8 Differential Settlement 7
1.9 Importance of Drainage 7
1.10 Passive Pressure 7
2 Design Considerations 8
2.1 Scope 8
2.2 Limit State Design 8
2.3 Partial Loading and Material Factors 8
2.4 Load Combinations and Factors for Stability 8
2.5 Load Combinations and Factors for Strength of Components 9
2.6 Live Loads 9
2.7 Earthquake Loads 10
2.8 Wind Loads 10
2.9 Hydraulic Loads 10
2.10 Drained Vs Undrained Parameters 10
2.11 Capacity Reduction Factors 10
2.12 Soil Analysis Model 10
2.13 Active Pressure 11
2.14 Pressure at Rest 11
2.15 Passive Pressure 11
2.16 Bearing Failure 12
2.17 Sliding Failure 12
2.18 Overturning 13
2.19 Global slip 13
2.20 Foundation Material 13
2.21 Lean Back 13
3 Appendices 13
Appendix A – Design Example 14
Appendix B – Site Investigation 21
Appendix C – Construction Specification 23
Appendix D – Height Table for Walls 800 to 1200 mm High 26
Appendix E – Details for Walls up to 800-mm High 28
3
Segmental Concrete
Contents
Gravity Retaining Walls
4
Segmental Concrete
Contents
Gravity Retaining Walls
5
Segmental Concrete
Contents
Gravity Retaining Walls
6
Segmental Concrete
Contents Gravity Retaining Walls
Global
slip plane
Secondary
global slip
plane
Primary
global slip plane
Limit steps to
Wall a maximum of
height, 200 mm to reduce
H differential settlement
200 max
200 max
7
Segmental Concrete
Gravity Retaining Walls Contents
2.2 Limit State Design ■ Sliding resistance of the foundation under the
base(Note 4).
The design limit states to be considered are:
(i) 1.25 GC + 1.5 QC < 0.8 GR + (Φ R)
■ strengths of the various components subject to
ultimate factored loads; (ii) 1.25 GC + ψc QC + WuC < 0.8 GR + (Φ R)
■ stability of the structure as a whole subject to (iii) 1.25 G + ψc Q + 1.0 Feq < 0.8(G + ψcQ)R + (Φ R)
C C C
8
Segmental Concrete
Contents Gravity Retaining Walls
FeqC = parts of the earthquake load tending to Designers are strongly advised to consider the
cause instability. validity of this approach, and modify it as considered
For earthquake categories Ae and Be, appropriate. In particular, they should consider
design for static loads without further whether it is appropriate to:
specific analysis is deemed adequate. ■ factor the forces first and then resolve into
For earthquake category Ce, a dead load components, or
factor of 1.5 (instead of 1.25) should be
■ to resolve the unfactored forces into components
used and specific design for earthquake
first and then apply different factors.
may be neglected.
For earthquake categories De and Ee, the
structures should be designed and Note: The vertical friction is calculated from a
analysed in accordance with the detailed conservative design internal friction angle, φ, which
method set out in AS 4678 Appendix I. has been factored down from the characteristic
(conservative estimate of the mean) value of internal
GR = parts of the dead load tending to resist friction angle.
instability.
This includes the self weight of the
structure and the weight of soil in front of 2.5 Load Combinations and
the structure.
ΦR = the factored design capacity of the
Factors for Strength of
structural component. Components
This includes calculated bearing capacity, The following load combinations and factors should be
sliding resistance, calculated pull-out applied when checking the strength of the structure
strength, etc. components, including strength of any associated
ψc = live load combination factor. concrete, masonry and reinforcement.
This is taken as 0.4 for parking or storage
(i) 1.25 G + 1.5 Q
and 0.6 for other common applications on
retaining walls. (ii) 1.25 G + Wu + ψc Q
(iii) 1.25 G + 1.0 Feq + ψc Q
Factoring of Loads
(iv) 0.8 G + 1.5 Q
In this Guide, the following approach has been
adopted. (v) 0.8 G + Wu
Overturning live loads (imposed loads) include active (vi) 0.8(G + ψc Q) + 1.0Feq
soil loads resulting from point live loads, line live loads Where:
and uniform live load surcharges. G = dead load
Overturning dead loads (permanent loads) include Q = live load
active soil loads resulting from the weight of the soil fill
and from parts of the structure that are forward of the Wu = wind load
point of rotation. Feq = earthquake load
Overturning live loads and overturning dead loads are ψc = live load combination factor taken as
factored generally in accordance with the principles of 0.4 for parking or storage and 0.6 for
AS 4678, except as qualified below. other common applications on
If a live load is capable of being present in a location retaining walls.
that causes net overturning, while simultaneously
being absent from another location that causes net 2.6 Live Loads
stability, the respective parts are factored by 1.5 and
zero. This corresponds to the principle described The appropriate values for live load must be
in AS/NZS 1170.0 and known as “chequer board” determined by the design engineer. AS 4678–2002
loading. specifies a minimum live loading of 5 kPa for walls of
any height of Structure Classifications C and B.
After an overturning load has been factored (eg by
1.5 if it is a live load or by 1.25 if it is dead load), it is For walls under 1.5 metres high which are of Structure
then resolved into horizontal and vertical components. Classification A, the following minimum live loads are
In particular, after an active soil load (tending to cause applicable.
net overturning of the retaining wall) is factored, Slope of retained soil less than or equal to 1:4 –
it is then split into a horizontal component and a 2.5 kPa
vertical downwards friction component. Because Slope of retained soil greater than 1:4 –
the horizontal component and the vertical friction 1.5 kPa
component can only exist simultaneously, they are
multiplied by the same factor.
9
Segmental Concrete
Gravity Retaining Walls
Contents
11
Segmental Concrete
Gravity Retaining Walls
Contents
12
Segmental Concrete
Contents Gravity Retaining Walls
13
Segmental Concrete
Gravity Retaining Walls Contents
1 Wall Details
Wall slope Limits for determining Structure Classification
ω = 0° 2α + φ
Backfill slope θtm =
3
β = 15.0° (2 x 90°) + 29°
Height of stem above soil in front of wall =
3
H’ = 1.2 m = 70°
Live load surcharge θb = θtf
ql = 1.5 kPa
2α + 3φ
Dead load surcharge =
5
qd = 0 kPa
(2 x 90°) + (3 x 29°)
Height of water table from top of drainage layer =
Hw = 0 m 5
= 53°
NOTE: Structures beyond the base limit or beyond the
top limits are unlikely to be affected by, or have an affect
NOTE: upon, the structure clasification
Wu and Hu are measured in the horizontal and vertical directions.
If the bedding planes are tilted, due allowance must be made for a There are no major structures located within the limits.
reduction in these dimensions to values less than actual block dimensions Height of structure < 1.5 m
Structure failure results in minimal damage.
Wu Structure Classification = A
Reduction factor
Capping unit
Φn = 1.1
Top limit (live load)
14
Segmental Concrete
Contents Gravity Retaining Walls
15
Segmental Concrete
Gravity Retaining Walls Contents
= 91.3 x 9.81
0.2 x 0.4 x 0.6 x 103
= 18.7 kN/m3
16
Segmental Concrete
Contents Gravity Retaining Walls
NOTE:
1.2
=
The soil analysis model used for these calculations is the Coulomb 3
Method. Alternatively, a Rankine-Bell analysis could be used, to
account for cohesion of the retained soil, provided the precautions = 0.4 m
set out in Clause 2.12 of this Guide are observed. See Alternative
Approach Using Rankine-Bell Method and Cohesion to Calculate Overturning moment due to soil
Horizontal Forces, on page 20. MsHO = PsH ysH
Cohesion is difficult to predict, is variable, may change over = 7.82 x 0.4
time, and is dependent on the effectiveness of surface sealing, = 3.13 kN.m/m
surface drainage and subsurface drainage. It is recommended
that drained and undrained cohesion (as appropriate) should be
assumed to be zero for active forces and a very conservative
value for bearing capacity. Consideration must also be given to
shrink/swell action of clay soils.
17
Segmental Concrete
Gravity Retaining Walls
Contents
18
Segmental Concrete
Contents
Gravity Retaining Walls
2
19 Overturning PH
ζqi = 1 -
Overturning has been checked about a point that is PV + LB2 cf* cot φf*
one-sixth of the base width from the toe and at the 9.02
2
level of the underside of the wall units. = 1-
13.5 + 0.50 x 2.3 x cot 32.2°
Resisting moments
= 0.173
MR = Φn(MuVR + MqVR + MsVR)
= 1.1(2.15 + 0.18 + 1.18) ζqt = [1 - α tan φf*]2
= 3.86 kNm/m = [1 - 0 tan 32.2°]2
= 1.0
Overturning moments
MO = MqHO + MsHO ζc = 1.0
= 0.72 + 3.13 1 - ζqi
= 3.85 kNm/m ζci = ζqi -
Nc tan φf*
< 3.86 kNm/m OK
1 - 0.17
= 0.17 -
20 Bearing at Underside of Bearing Pad 36.2 x tan 32.2°
Depth of embedment, He = He2 = 0.15 m = 0.13
Actual width of base, B = B1 + He2 + He2 1 - ζqt
= 0.6 + 0.15 + 0.15 ζct = ζqt -
Nc tan φf*
= 0.9 m
1 - 1.0
Ratio of horizontal loads to vertical loads = 1.0 -
36.2 x tan 32.2°
PH PqH + PsH
= = 1.0
PV PuV + PqV + PsV
ζγ = 1.0
1.2 + 7.82
= 3
10.75 + 0.36 + 2.36 PH
ζγi = 1 -
= 0.669 PV + LB2 cf* cot φf*
3
9.02
Eccentricity = 1-
B1 MR - Mo 13.5 + 0.50 x 2.3 x cot 32.2°
e = - X’ -
2 Pv = 0.07
0.6 3.86 - 3.85 ζγt = [1 - α tan φf*]2
= - 0.1 -
2 10.75 +0.36 + 2.36 = [1 - 0 tan 32.2°]2
= 1.0
= 0.199 m
Average bearing strength capacity*
Bearing width of stem on bearing pad
PVcap = Φn LB[(cf* Nc ζc ζci ζct) +
LB1 = B1 - 2e
(γf* He Nq ζq ζqi ζqt) + (0.5 γf* B' Nγ ζγ ζγi ζγt)]
= 0.6 - (2 x 0.199)
= 19.2 kN/m
= 0.20 m
Applied vertical force
Bearing width of bearing pad on foundation
PV= 13.5 kN/m
LB = LB2 = LB1 + He2 + He2
< 19.2 kN/m OK
= 0.20 + 0.15 + 0.15
= 0.50 m
* Note: In the formula for average bearing
Bearing capacity factors
strength capacity at the underside of the
Nq = eπ tanφf* tan2(π/4 + φf*/2) bearing pad, LB is the effective width at the
= eπ tan32.2° tan2(π/4 + 32.2°/2) bearing pad/foundation interface,
= 23.8 accounting for eccentricity. B' is the
maximum of B and LB.
Nc = (Nq - 1)cot φf*
= (23.8 - 1)cot 32.2°
= 36.2
Nγ = 2(Nq + 1)tan φf*
= 2(23.8 + 1)tan 32.2°
= 31.2
ζq = 1.0
19
Segmental Concrete
Contents
Gravity Retaining Walls
20
Segmental Concrete
Contents Gravity Retaining Walls
Report
prepared by:
Client:
Project:
Location:
Proximity of other structures and loads to the face of the retaining wall:
Structure or load Distance (m)
Distance of live loads from top of wall
Distance of dead loads from top of wall
Distance of other structures from base of wall
Structure classification:
For guidance refer AS 4678, Table 1.1
Structure Classification Examples
C Where failure would result in significant damage or risk to life
B Where failure would result in moderate damage and loss of services
A Where failure would result in minimal damage and loss of access
21
Segmental Concrete
Contents
Gravity Retaining Walls
Soil Properties
Effective
Density internal angle Cohesion
Soil (kg/m3) of friction (°) (kPa) Soil type*
Insitu foundation
Infill soil
* Please indicate the appropriate type(s) and add any other notes.
Hard rock, sandstone, gravel, sand, silty sand, clayey sand, stiff clay, weak clay, other
Is there ground water seepage present? Now ( yes/no ) After heavy rain (yes/no)
22
Segmental Concrete
Contents Gravity Retaining Walls
23
Segmental Concrete
Contents
Gravity Retaining Walls
24
Segmental Concrete
Contents Gravity Retaining Walls
Foundation:
Density Nuclear densometer – Hold
Friction angle Shear box* – Hold
Cohesion Shear box* – Hold
Levelling pad:
Width Spot check + 10%, - 2% Hold
Depth Spot check + 10%, - 2% Hold
Density Nuclear densometer – Hold
Friction angle Shear box* – Hold
Cohesion Shear box* – Hold
Masonry units:
Type Spot check As specified Hold
Dimensions Spot check As specified Witness
Strength Spot check dockets As specified Witness
Drainage system Visual As specified Witness
Granular fill Visual As specified Witness
Geofabric Visual As specified Witness
Surface sealing and surface drains Visual Located per drawings Witness
* If specified by the engineer
25
Segmental Concrete
Contents
Gravity Retaining Walls
Appendix D Height Table for The limits of application of the Design Table are as
follows:
Walls 800 to ■ All retaining walls are designed to AS 4678
1200 mm High (Including Amendment 1).
■ All retaining walls shall comply with AS 4678
Structure Classification A.
The Table may be used to determine the permissible
■ Heights shall be within the range 800 mm to
height of retaining walls satisfying the following criteria.
1200 mm.
For retaining walls outside these criteria, the design
shall be determined using engineering analysis similar ■ All retaining walls are designed for level backfill.
to that shown in the worked example, Appendix A. If the backfill has a slope greater than 1 in 8, this
Table will not be applicable.
This Table is intended for use only by qualified and
experienced civil or structural engineers with a ■ This Table is only applicable to retaining walls that
comprehensive working knowledge of soil mechanics incorporate an impermeable surface membrane and
and structural analysis and design. drainage system such that there can be no ingress
of any water into the soil behind the retaining wall.
■ Structures that do not incorporate an impermeable
surface membrane and drainage system such that
there can be no ingress of any water into the soil
behind the retaining wall are deemed to be outside
the scope of this Table.
■ Retained soil shall have a Plasticity Index, PI, less
than 20.
■ The Table is applicable to cuts in insitu soils. The
Table is not applicable to cohesive fill.
■ The Table applies to concrete retaining wall units
of depth 280, 300 and 320 mm and a combined
density of block and granular fill of 1860 kg/m3 or
more.
■ All retaining walls are designed for an imposed load
of 2.5 kPa. If imposed loads greater than 2.5 kPa
are expected, these designs will not be appropriate.
■ This Table is based on 0.8 factor on the vertical
component of soil friction, for both permanent and
imposed soil and surcharge loads.
■ The Table applies only where footings consist of
at least 5% cement-stabilised crushed rock with a
minimum width of 600 mm and minimum depth of
150 mm.
■ Before the bottom course is positioned, the footing
should be moistened to ensure bond between the
block and footing.
■ The Table is based on the assumption that, within
the above-mentioned limits, the active pressure
coefficients, Ka, calculated using the Rankine–Bell
Method are conservative for sloping walls.
■ Heights in the Table are derived using the Rankine–
Bell Method assuming no water in the tension
cracks.
■ ✖ in the Table means that the permissible height is
under 800 mm. Structure Classification A retaining
structures under 800 mm high are outside the
scope of AS 4678 and reference should be made
to Appendix E.
■ Commercially-available segmental concrete
retaining wall units may vary in mass, shape and
dimensions from those shown in the Table. This will
result in some variation in the permissible heights.
■ Interpolation of the tabulated heights is permissible.
■ The Table is only applicable for cohesions and
internal friction angles tabulated. Extrapolation is
not permitted.
26
Segmental Concrete
Contents Gravity Retaining Walls
Wall slope,
Infill material or retained soil:
(see Table)
Plasticity Index, PI < 20
Height Characteristic friction angle (see Table)
of wall, Characteristic cohesion (see Table)
H
Includes imposed load of 2.5 kPa
12° 1200 1200 1100 980 1100 960 830 ✖ 970 850 ✖ ✖
18° 1200 1200 1180 1020 1200 1000 820 ✖ 1030 850 ✖ ✖
✖ Refer to Appendix E.
NOTE: Irrespective of the unit depth, cohesion or friction angle, wall heights shall not exceed 1200 mm.
27
Segmental Concrete
Gravity Retaining Walls
Contents
This appendix may be used to determine the Structure Classification A retaining structures under
permissible height of retaining walls satisfying the 800 mm high are outside the scope of AS 4678.
following criteria. For retaining walls outside these Based on industry experience, the following ratios
criteria, the design shall be determined using have been adopted.
engineering analysis similar to that shown in the
worked example, Appendix A, by qualified and Slope of wall, ω Wall height to block depth ratio, H:D
experienced civil or structural engineers with a
comprehensive working knowledge of soil mechanics Vertical to 10° 3:1
and structural analysis and design. Over 10° 4:1
The limits of application of this Appendix are as
follows:
■ All retaining walls shall comply with the conditions Topsoil
of Structure Classification A of AS 4678. Level or 1 in 8 maximum
■ Heights, excluding any capping blocks, shall not Optional capping unit
exceed 800 mm.
■ All retaining walls are designed for level backfill.
Height Drainage material
If the backfill has a slope greater than 1 in 8, this
of wall, Wall (eg blue metal)
Appendix will not be applicable. H slope
■ This Appendix does not apply to terraced retaining Drainage system
walls. Compacted levelling pad
■ This Appendix is not suitable for imposed loads.
If imposed loads are expected, the retaining wall
should be designed by engineering analysis similar Block depth,
to that in the worked example, Appendix A. D
28
Structures
Concrete Retaining
ISBN 0 909407 52 5
CMAA MA53
DESIGNED AND PRODUCED BY TECHMEDIA PUBLISHING PTY LTD +61 2 9477 7766