Lakes & Reservoirs: Research and Management 2012 17: 25–33

Three-dimensional numerical modelling of the flushing

process of the Kali Gandaki hydropower reservoir
Stefan Haun* and Nils Reidar B. Olsen
Department of Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Trondheim, Norway

Abstract
Sediments filling reservoirs is a common problem in the world today, with an estimated 1% of the capacity of hydro-
power reservoirs being lost annually through sedimentation. One of the most used techniques for reducing this prob-
lem is reservoir flushing. During a flood, the water level is drawn down, causing increased velocities, therefore
facilitating erosion and sediment transport. During the flushing, water from the reservoir will be lost, resulting in signif-
icant economic implications for the reservoir owner. The success of reservoir flushing depends on several parameters,
including water discharge, sediment properties and reservoir geometry. This study describes the use of Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) as a modern method to predict the reservoir flushing process. A three-dimensional numerical
model (SSIIM 2), with an adaptive, non-orthogonal and unstructured grid has been used. Through the application of
special modified algorithms (e.g., wetting ⁄ drying, free water surface), numerical modelling of sediment movement can
be an alternative for planning and optimizing the flushing process for complex reservoir geometries. The numerical
model was tested against data from a physical model study of the Kali Gandaki hydropower reservoir in Nepal. The
total quantity of flushed out sediments, and the bed deformation in six cross-sections, were compared, highlighting a
good correspondence between the results. These include the cross-sectional shape of a 90-degree bend, for which sec-
ondary currents influenced the results. The study indicates that numerical models might become a useful tool for reser-
voir flushing predictions.

Key words
hydropower, numerical modelling, reservoir flushing, reservoirs, sediments.

INTRODUCTION (e.g., Norway), where glaciers have removed the upper

When water enters a reservoir, the flow velocity will
decrease, along with the turbulence and bed shear stress.
Sediment particles in the water will settle, resulting in
alluvial deposition in the reservoirs. The subsequent loss
of water storage volume and potential energy output rep-
resents a common problem today. Mahmood (1987) esti-
mated that 1% of the capacity of the world’s hydropower
reservoirs is lost annually because of sedimentation. Fur-
thermore, this problem does not only affect the hydro-
power industry. The loss of water storage volume, for
example, it is also a problem regarding irrigation. Sedi-
ment transport in natural rivers, however, is not uniform,
differing strongly between different catchments and cli-
mates. Examples include ice-age influenced countries
*Corresponding author. Email: stefan.haun@ntnu.no
Accepted for publication 30 May 2011.
layer of soil. As a result, the sediment yield in this area is
almost zero. Different values of decreased water storage
volume found in the scientific literature for different
regions in the world are summarized in Table 1
(Shen 1999).
Sediment deposition affects hydropower reservoirs in
the following three ways:
• Loss of storage capacity (in some cases, a reservoir
might fill up completely).
• Increased flood risk caused by the reduction of
retention volume (due to higher bed levels).
• Sediment entering power intakes (abrade the tur-
bine) or completely blocking the waterway.
Reservoir flushing is a possibility to advance sediment
removal from hydropower reservoirs. The reservoir water
level is drawn down by opening the flushing gates during
flood events. The water velocities and the turbulence will

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Doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1770.2012.00491.x Journal compilation  2012 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
26
Table 1. Sedimentation rates for different regions in the world
as a percentage of the total reservoir volume
Location Sedimentation rate (%) Literature
World 1.0 Mahmood (1987)
Tunisia 2.3 Abdelhadi (1995)
China 2.3 Morris and Fan (1998)
Turkey 1.2 Morris and Fan (1998)
Morocco 0.7 Abdelhadi (1995)
India 0.5 Morris (1995)
USA 0.2 Crowder(1987)
increase when water levels are lowered. The increased
shear stress at the channel bed causes erosion. The high
turbulence during flushing will keep sediments in suspen-
sion, allowing them to more easily negotiate the reservoir
outlet. An example of a successful application of reservoir
flushing is the Mangahao reservoir in New Zealand, where
59% of the original storage volume was lost after 45 years
of operation. With the first flushing, 75% of the deposited
sediments were removed within 1 month (Jowett 1984).
As a result of the small ratio of water volume to annual
water inflow, flushing could often be efficient and is very
common for run-off of the river reservoirs. The success of
reservoir flushing, however, depends on several parame-
ters, making it difficult to predict the effects of an antici-
pated flushing. The location and size of the bottom outlets
are among these parameters. An inadequate design of the
bottom outlets would result in significant erosion down-
stream. If the scour causes problem for dam safety, flush-
ing is not feasible (Morris & Fan 1998).
One of the main questions facing reservoir owner is
whether or not the benefits of flushing the reservoir are
in accord with the anticipated costs, as related to the
quantity of water lost from the reservoir. Information on
whether the erosion takes place in the whole reservoir,
or just in a small part of the reservoir, also is important,
an illustrative example being the Cachı̀ Reservoir in
Costa Rica. As a result of its significant width, a narrow
erosion channel is formed during the flushing (Jansson
& Rodriguez 1992). During subsequent flushings, erosion
will take place in the same erosion channel, whereas the
sediments will continuously accumulate in the other
regions of the reservoir (Morris & Fan 1998). Accord-
ingly, the volume of removed sediments will decrease
over time, despite the flushings. A second important
aspect is the environmental implications of the flushing.
A poorly conceived flushing can result in fairly high sedi-
ment concentrations, influencing downstream habitats
and killing fish.
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Journal compilation  2012 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
S. Haun and N. R. B. Olsen
The availability of an accurate tool to estimate costs
and benefits of reservoir flushing would be very useful for
reservoir managers. Physical models are currently the
most applied method for predicting the flushing process.
The water discharge is normally scaled using the Froude
law in a physical model. Calibration of the roughness is an
important task for correct modelling of the energy slope.
This is frequently done by using measurements from the
prototype, or data from historical events. Model-prototype
comparisons often provide useful predictions of the mod-
elled water flow and water level. Secondary currents
cannot be modelled correctly, if the model must be con-
structed in a distorted scale. This is because the velocity
profiles in the cross-sections of the physical model are not
comparable with the velocity profiles, as measured in nat-
ure. Physical modelling of sediment transport is more diffi-
cult because of different scaling laws for suspended
sediments and erosion ⁄ bed load transport (Kobus 1978).
It also is difficult to scale the finer particles down because
of the influence of cohesive forces occurring when the
sand particles are very small. The magnitude of bed forms
is almost impossible to properly scale in a physical model.
This study utilizes a three-dimensional CFD model
used to simulate reservoir flushing. The numerical model
SSIIM 2 was chosen for the simulation (Olsen 2009).
SSIIM 2 has already been used for sediment calculations
for self-meandering channels (Ruether & Olsen 2007)
and for estimating local scour depths (Olsen & Kjellesvig
1998). It has also been used for a two-dimensional calcu-
lations of reservoir flushing (Olsen 1999). This study
clearly illustrates the weaknesses of two-dimensional
models for modelling bends in the reservoir. One of the
problems was the difficulty of replicating the cross-sec-
tional shape of the bed geometry in a bend, with experi-
ments indicating the deepest point of the bend was at the
outside of the curve. The two-dimensional model, how-
ever, computed the deepest point to be on the opposite
side, being attributed to its inability to replicate the sec-
ondary currents in bends. In contrast, the model selected
for this study considers three-dimensional effects such as
secondary currents, a very important aspect for complex
reservoir geometries. Through the application of an adap-
tive grid and implemented sediment algorithms, numeri-
cal modelling of sediment erosion can be an alternative
way to predict the success of a forthcoming reservoir
flushing. Its application in an early stage of the design
phase also is possible, and might help plan and optimize
the reservoir sediment management. Accordingly, the
main purpose of the present study is to test the accuracy
of a numerical model in predicting the effects and suc-
cess for an upcoming reservoir flushing.
3D modelling of reservoir flushing 27

PHYSICAL MODEL STUDY

Kali Gandaki Reservoir is located on the Kali Gandaki
River in the western part of Nepal (Syangja) (Fig. 1). The
reservoir has a planned volume of 6.9 million m3. The
volume will decrease to 5.2 million m3 after the dead stor-
age (the volume between the natural riverbed and the
bottom outlets) fills with sediments. The reservoir sur-
face occupies an area of about 65 ha, with an average
depth of about 12 m. The Kali Gandaki hydropower plant
was projected as a run-off of river plant, with a capacity
of 144 MW, and a rated design discharge of 141 m3 s)1.
The sediment problem was detected at a very early plan-
ning stage, with a predicted sediment inflow of 60 million Fig. 2. Photograph of the physical model of the Kali Gandaki
tonnes per year being predicted (22.6 million m3). Most hydropower reservoir; The photo is used with permission of SIN-
of the sediments will enter the reservoir during the wet TEF, Trondheim.
season, which occurs during a very short period (some
weeks). A preliminary study indicated the reservoir
Table 2. Sediment characteristics for the physical and the
would fill with sediment in only a few years.
numerical model
A physical model test was carried out in 1994 at the
Norwegian Hydrotechnical Laboratory (NHL) in Trond-
Sediment size (m) Fall velocity (m ⁄ s) Sediment fraction (%)
heim. The objective was to show the effects and the
general success of flushing the Kali Gandaki Reservoir. 0.0033 0.4 25
The model was constructed of concrete at a scale of 0.0017 0.24 25
1:50. The total length of the physical model was 12 m 0.00085 0.13 25
and the width 6 m. Figure 2 illustrates the physical 0.00035 0.05 25
model, with the inflow at the top of the photograph and
the outflow at the bottom left corner.
The modelled part of the reservoir had a length of that time, the flow became supercritical in the right area
12 m, and a width between 1.7 m at the outflow boundary upstream of the dam. The flushing was stopped after
and 3.2 m in the bend. The corresponding average length 9000 s, as the erosion rate had decreased to a small
to width ratio was between 8:1 and 4:1. The depth to value. The water level then reached 0.05 m above the
width ratio was between 1:7 at the dam site and 1:13 in spillway. The sediment sizes, fall velocities and the corre-
the bend. A constant discharge of 28 L s)1 was used in sponding sediment fractions are summarized in Table 2.
the flushing study. The bed levels were measured after the flushing in six
At the beginning of the flushing test (all gates closed), cross-sections (A–E) (Fig. 3). The total quantity of
the sand reached up to 0.14 m and the water 0.35 m eroded and flushed out sediments was 1.363 m3. No sedi-
above the spillway. After opening all gates, the water was ments were introduced into the physical model during
drawn down to 0.15 m above the spillway within 300 s. At the flushing study.

NUMERICAL SIMULATION
The fully three-dimensional numerical program SSIIM 2
was chosen for the computations in this study. SSIIM is
an abbreviation for ‘Sediment Simulation In Intakes
with Multiblock’ option. The numerical program was
chosen because of its large number of available algo-
rithms for sediment computations. A simulation of water
and bed elevation changes, and a computation of com-
plex bed geometries in the reservoirs, also is also possi-
ble (Olsen & Kjellesvig 1999). An introduction to the
code and the basic equations are provided in the follow-
Fig. 1. Location of the Kali Gandaki hydropower reservoir. ing section.

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Journal compilation  2012 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
28 S. Haun and N. R. B. Olsen

Fig. 3. Sketch of the reservoir with

cross-sections A-F for the bed-level
measurements.

Governing Equations The Grid

The Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations are The model used an unstructured, non-orthogonal and
solved in three-dimensional, together with the continuity adaptive grid. The grid was comprised of a mixture of tet-
equation, to compute the water motion for turbulent flow, rahedral and hexahedral cells. This type of grid was use-
as follows: ful when a movement of the bed or water level was
predicted. The CFD model also included an algorithm for
@Ui
¼ 0 ð1Þ wetting ⁄ drying, wherein the number of vertical cells
@xi
depends on the water depth. Thus, only one cell was span-
with i = 1, 2, 3. ning the water depth in shallow areas, and a two-dimen-
   sional calculation was done. Up to 11 cells were generated
@Ui @Ui 1 @ @Ui @Uj
þ Uj ¼ Pdi j þ qm þ ð2Þ (chosen in the input file) in deep areas. The limits in this
@t @xj q @xj @xj @xi
study were 0.02 m for a two-dimensional calculation, and
where U = velocity averaged over time t; x = spatial geo- 0.04 m for a three-dimensional calculation. No cells were
metrical scale; q = water density; P = pressure; d = Kro- generated for depths smaller than 0.02 m. Thus, the cells
necker delta; and m = kinematic viscosity. dried up and disappeared from the grid in areas where
As a discretization scheme, the finite-volume method sediments were deposited. Through application of an
is used to transform the partial differential equation into adaptive grid, the number of cells might change after
an algebraic equation. Thus, the value in a given cell is a each time step. Another advantage of the adaptive grid
function of the neighbouring cells. The turbulence is pre- was that only the water phase is modelled because the
dicted by the standard k-e model (turbulent kinetic grid moves together with the water surface elevation.
energy [k] and its dissipation, epsilon [e], which uses the
constant empirical values of Launder and Spalding Sediment transport
(1972). The pressure is calculated according to the SIM- Computation of the sediment transport in the reservoir
PLE method (Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked will be contributed in the numerical model by suspended
Equations) (Patankar 1980). and bed load sediment transport. The suspended sedi-
A zero gradient boundary condition was used at the ment transport was computed by solving the transient
outflow. Wall laws were used for the bed and the sides convection-diffusion equation:
(Schlichting 1979), as follows:  
@c @c @c @ @c
  þ Uj þ w ¼ C ð4Þ
U 1 30y @t @xj @z @xj @xj
¼ ð3Þ
u k ks
where U = water velocity; w = sediment fall velocity;
where U = velocity; u* = shear velocity, k = constant with a value C = turbulent diffusity; and c = sediment concentration
of 0.4; y = water depth; and ks = equivalent sand roughness. over time t, and over the spatial geometrical scales, x and z.

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Journal compilation  2012 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
3D modelling of reservoir flushing
To calculate the sediment concentration, the formula
by Van Rijn (1984b) was used as a boundary condition
for the cell closest to the bed, as follows:
 
ssc;i 1:5
di sc;i
cbed;susp:load;i ¼ 0:015   1=3 0:3
a
di ðqs =ðqmw2 1Þ g
where cbed,susp.load,i = concentration of suspended load at
the bed for the ith fraction; di = diameter of the ith frac-
tion; a = equal to the height of the bed cell; s = shear
stress; di,sc,i = critical shear stress for di, which was cal-
culated by an analytical formula from the Shields curve;
qs = sediment density; qw = water density; g = acceleration
of gravity; and m = kinematic viscosity.
The bed load was calculated with an empirical formula
from Van Rijn (1984a), as follows:
 
ssc;i 2:1
q sc;i
qb;i
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0:053  0:1
ðqs qÞ g
di1:5 q di0:3 ðqs qÞ g
q m2
where qb,i = transport rate of ith fraction of bed load per
unit width; di = diameter of ith fraction; s = shear stress;
di,sc,i = critical shear stress for di, which was calculated
by an analytical form from the Shields curve; qs = sedi-
ment density; qw = water density; g = acceleration of grav-
ity; and m = kinematic viscosity.
Modelling of multiple sediment sizes was also was a
component of the numerical model. The roughness at the
bed corresponded to the grain-size distribution and bed-
form height. Where the grain-size distribution was known
from the physical model study, the bed-form height was
calculated from the formula of Van Rijn (1984c), as follows:
 0:3  ! 
ssc;i
D d50 0:5 sc;i
¼ 0:11 1e
y y
where D = bed-form height; y = water depth; d50 = charac-
teristic sediment size; s = shear stress; and sc,i = critical
shear stress for each fraction.
The bed-form height was converted into the bed
roughness (ks) with the following formula:
 
kS ¼ 3:0 d90 þ 1:1D 1:0  e ð 7:3y Þ
25D
where d90 = characteristic sediment size; D = bed-form
height; and y = water depth.
A correction for sloping bed was used to calculate the
bed-sediment concentration (Brooks 1963). The rough-
29
ness was chosen at 0.005 m, and the active layer thick-
ness at 0.01 m. No sediments were added to the model
during the numerical calculation.
Other algorithms
ð5Þ To calculate the free water surface, SSIIM 2 uses an algo-
rithm based on the computed pressure field. Thus, the
location of the water level is calculated with the Bernoulli
equation, as follows:
@p @z
¼ qg ð9Þ
@xi @xi
where p = pressure; q = density; g = acceleration of grav-
ity; x = spatial geometrical scale; and z = water level eleva-
tion.
An iterative method, with a time step of 1.0 s, is used
for producing a stable calculation of the free water sur-
face (Olsen & Haun 2010). A depth-averaged pressure
was used for the computations. The water level in the
ð6Þ
surface cells was smoothed by the following equation to
prevent instabilities through steep water levels in the cal-
culation:
z ¼ z0 ð1  rÞ þ r znb ð10Þ
where z = water level after the smoothing; z0 = water
level before the smoothing; r = chosen relaxation factor
(a value of 0.3 is used); and znb = water level of the four
neighbouring cells before the smoothing.
As a calibration result, the value for the fraction of
compacted sediments was chosen to be 58%. In addition,
a sand slide algorithm was used, wherein the tangent of
the angle of repose was set to 0.69.
The calculations were realized on an IBM cluster by
  using 16 cores with 1.9 GHz, with a computational time
s  sc;i of approximately 8.5 h.
25 
sc;i
ð7Þ RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results from the computations in this study were
compared with the total quantity of eroded sediments,
and with the measured cross-sections from the physical
model. Figure 3 illustrates the chosen grid at the begin-
ning of the flushing simulation. The six cross-sections
where bed level measurements were taken are also are
included in the figure.
ð8Þ Figures 4–6 illustrate the movement of the adaptive
grid during the flushing simulation. After 3000 s (Fig. 4),
the first part dries up at the right side upstream of the
weir. After another 3000 s (Fig. 5), a large area of the
reservoir is dried up, and after 9000 s (Fig. 6), a narrow
channel is formed at the outside of the bend.
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Journal compilation  2012 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
30
Fig. 4. Grid after 3000 computation seconds.
Fig. 5. Grid after 6000 computation seconds.
Fig. 6. Grid after 9000 computation seconds.
The total number of cells at the beginning of the
flushing simulation was 22 256. The grid size was chosen
sufficiently large to reduce the effects of false diffusion.
Further refinement of the grid would only increase the
computation time, not the accuracy of the results. At the
end of the flushing simulation, 11 958 cells were left as a
result of the wetting ⁄ drying algorithm used in the simula-
tion. The number of cells in the vertical direction was
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Journal compilation  2012 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
S. Haun and N. R. B. Olsen
Fig. 7. Water levels from the numerical model after 9000 s with
the higher water level at the outside of the bend (all values are in
cm).
Fig. 8. Velocity vectors at the surface at the end of the
computations.
between six and ten at the beginning, and between one
and eleven at the end of the computations.
The water levels in Figure 7 indicate that, after the
time-dependent water calculations, the water level is
drawn down at the outlet from 0.27 to 0.175 m in the
numerical model.
The computed water level at the end of the calcula-
tions is higher at the outside of the bend. This corre-
sponds to the theoretical water level in a bend, and was
also observed in the physical model study.
The velocity vectors at the surface (Fig. 8) show the
velocity increases in the narrow channel formed during
the drawdown.
As the velocity in this area of the reservoir was much
higher than in the upstream part of the reservoir, the
erosion in this region increased. However, Table 3 shows
that the erosion rate was reduced over time. This was
because the erosion takes place only in a small part of
the reservoir (forming a flushing channel) at the end of
3D modelling of reservoir flushing 31

the flushing, and not over the whole reservoir width as it sections, where the physical model results were com-
was initially observed. pared with the calculated ones.
Figure 9 illustrates the bed and surface velocity vec- Lacking data on how the inflow area was incorporated
tors. This indicates that the secondary currents in the in the physical model, some assumptions were made. As
bend are taken into account by the numerical model. a result of this inaccuracy, cross-section A indicates a dif-
The bed levels after the flushing were taken at six ferent magnitude and location of the erosion between the
cross-sections (A–F). Figures 10–15 illustrate these cross- physical and numerical model. Cross-sections B and C, in
the bend of the reservoir, however, show that the loca-
Table 3. Erosion in the reservoir over time
tion and magnitude of the erosion correspond well. These
two cross-sections are the most important ones in regard
Eroded Eroded
to proving that the secondary currents in the bend were
sediments sediments Erosion
taken into account by the three-dimensional model. The
physical numerical rate per
results of the two-dimensional calculation are included in
Time (sec) model (m3) model (m3) 3000 s (m3)
cross-section B. The two-dimensional computation gives
0 0 0 0.673 incorrect results regarding the bend. Cross-sections D, E
3000 – 0.673 0.389 and F illustrate slight differences from the measured val-
6000 – 1.062 0.249 ues, indicating the numerical model also works well for
9000 1.363 1.311 – these areas. The difference in the eroded areas of the
cross-sections is between 13 and 27% for the cross sec-
tions B–F. As a result of the assumptions at the inflow
boundary, the difference in the eroded area of cross-sec-
tion A is much larger (141%).
The total quantity of eroded sediments in the numeri-
cal model was about 1.31 m3. This is 3.8% less than
observed for the physical model (1.363 m3).

CONCLUSIONS
An important aspect of reservoir management is to mini-
mize the loss of reservoir volume due to sedimentation
within the reservoir. A three-dimensional numerical
model was used in this study to successfully model the
flushing of sediments from a hydropower reservoir.
Fig. 9. Velocity vectors at the surface (black) and the bed (grey)
The results were compared with a physical model test on
of the reservoir at the end of the computations.
the Kali Gandaki hydropower reservoir in Nepal. The

Fig. 10. Bed levels at cross-section A.

Fig. 11. Bed levels at cross-section B.

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Journal compilation  2012 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
32
numerical model used an algorithm to move the water
surface, which was based on the computed pressure
field. This enabled relatively long time steps, making it
computationally feasible to compute processes taking
place over a considerable time period. The numerical
model also used an adaptive grid wherein the number of
cells in the vertical direction changed, according to
the varying water depth. The wetting ⁄ drying algorithm
removed cells in areas of the reservoir that dried up. The
predicted areas of drying compared well with the obser-
vations in the physical model. A channel formed in the
reservoir as the water surface was lowered, and the sides
of the channel dried up. The results from the numerical
model also compared well with measurements of the
cross-sectional shape of the channel formed after the
flushing. The prediction of the classical channel in a bend
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Journal compilation  2012 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
S. Haun and N. R. B. Olsen
Fig. 12. Bed levels at cross-section C.
Fig. 13. Bed levels at cross-section D.
Fig. 14. Bed levels at cross-section E.
Fig. 15. Bed levels at cross-section F.
was especially successful, wherein the secondary cur-
rents computed in the three-dimensional model resulted
in maximum depths in the outer side of the bend. The
total computed eroded volume also compared reasonably
well with the observations from the physical model, after
calibration of the numerical model.
The study indicates the three-dimensional numerical
model can be an important tool in reservoir management
planning procedures. Both the magnitude of the eroded
sediments and the location of erosion areas were pre-
dicted in this study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author was funded by the Research Council of
Norway, through the RENERGI programme. Some of the
study computations were done on the IBM cluster of the
3D modelling of reservoir flushing
Norwegian University of Science and Technology. We
also thank NOTUR for providing assistance for computer
use and computational time.
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Journal compilation  2012 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd