Incredible

Inoculations:
Vital
Vaccinations

By Joshua Ramcharitar Hampden 8

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 CONTENTS

Headings Page number

Introduction 3
What are vaccinations 3
How are vaccination 3
created
How do vaccines work 5
Types of vaccines 8
Available vaccines for 11
diseases
When to have vaccines 18
Vaccines in developing 20
countries
Diseases that don’t have a 21
vaccine
Conclusion 23
References and time spent 24

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Introduction

In this piece of writing, I will be talking about: what vaccines are, the history
of vaccinations, how vaccines work, the diseases vaccines can be used to
protect people against here and in the rural parts of the world and diseases
vaccines cannot help with.

What are vaccinations?

A vaccine is normally made from weak or inactive versions of the microbe
that causes the illness, these are called pathogens, and different vaccines
are required for different pathogens. Sometimes these are made from cells
which are like the disease-causing microbe but it is not an exact copy of the
microbe that makes us sick. A vaccination could also contain live pathogens
or dead pathogens.
A microbe is short for microscopic organism. This means that it is too small
to be seen by a naked eye so you would then need a microscope to be able
to see it. There are six main types microbes which are: archaea, bacteria,
fungi, protista, viruses and microbial mergers.

How were vaccines created?

Even though Edward Jenner produced the first vaccine using cow pox,
inoculations began before this. For instance, in China, they used a small pox
inoculation or variolation as early as 1000 C.E. this was also practiced in
Africa and Turkey before coming to Europe and the Americas.
However, the first vaccine in the lab was created by someone call Louis
Pasteur in 1879. This was a vaccine for chicken cholera. Pasteur new about
the work by Edward Jenner and how he found a vaccine for smallpox. He
then thought there may be a vaccine for every other disease. However, he

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did not know Edward Jenner’s vaccine worked so he used trial and error to
find the vaccine.
During the summer of 1879, he found the vaccine by chance. Pasteur’s team
member, Charles Chamberland, inoculated some chickens with chicken
cholera germs from an old culture that had been around for a long time and
the chickens did not die. Pasteur then asked Chamberland to repeat the
experiment with fresh chicken cholera germs. Pasteur did this because he
thought that the fresh chicken cholera germs were more potent. He was
right. The old culture vaccinated the chickens against chicken cholera
because they did not die when given the fresh chicken cholera.

Then in 1889, Pasteur created a vaccination for rabies. This opened the
doors to “a dawn of bacteriology”.
During the 1930’s antitoxins and vaccines for tetanus, cholera, typhoid,
diphtheria and many more were developed.

In the mid-twentieth century, this was a great time for vaccine research and
development as they able to find methods for growing viruses in a
laboratory which led to rapid discoveries and innovations. One of these
discoveries was the polio vaccine. Vaccines for other types of childhood
diseases such as rubella, measles and mumps were also created.

In today’s world, innovated techniques continue to challenge vaccine

research. Using recombinant DNA technology and new delivery techniques
are leading scientists in different directions such as vaccines for non-
infectious conditions including addictions and allergies.

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How do vaccines work?

The immune system is made up of cells and organs that fight of infectious
microbes. A large variety of specialized cells does the work of the immune
system. Each cell is designed to fight disease in a particular way.
The first thing that6 invading microbes encounter in the body, is the front
line if the cell army, which includes white blood cells, called macrophages
which are also known as “Big Eaters”. The macrophages job is to engulf as
many microbes as they can. They do this by surrounding the microbes by
itself. The white blood cells create enzymes that digests the microbes. The
microbe is destroyed and its components are either used or disposed by the
cell. White blood cells, that eat away microbes are called phagocytes.

Microbes wear a “uniform” which is made up of molecules that cover their

surfaces. This uniform allows the white blood cell to determine whether the
microbe is harmless or harmful and needs to be destroyed. The molecules
on a harmful microbe, stimulate the immune system to attack it. These
molecules are called antigens. Every microbe has its own set of unique
antigens and they are vital to creating vaccines.
Macrophages do not digest all of the microbe, they save the antigens and
carry the back to the lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are bean-sized organs
which are displaces throughout the body where the cells in the immune
system gather. In the lymph nodes, the macrophages regurgitate the
antigens which is how they “Sound the alarm”. The antigens are then
displayed so that other cells such as specialized defensive white cells, called
lymphocytes can be programmed by them.

There are two main types of lymphocytes, T cells and B cells. They have
individual duties in fighting off the infection.
T cells function either offensively or defensively. Offensive T cells do not
attack directly, but instead they use chemical weapons to destroy infected
cells. These T cells are also known as killer T cells because they are cytotoxic
and they can identify diseased cells. They latch onto them, thus destroying

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them by releasing chemicals that kills the infected cells and the microbes
inside.
Defensive T cells, also called helper T cells, defend the body by secreting
chemical signals that control the activity of other immune system cells. For
instance, the helper T cells help to activate killer T cells and they also help to
stimulate and work closely with B cells. This work is called the cellular or
cell-mediated immune response.

B cells make and secrete extremely important molecular weapons called

antibodies. They normally work by attaching onto the antigens of the
microbes. The antibodies and antigens fit together like pieces of a jigsaw
puzzle. If their shapes are compatible, they connect to each other and each
antibody can normally fit with only one type of antigen. The immune system
keeps a supply of millions or maybe even billions of different types of
antibodies so that they are prepared for an attack from any foreign invader.
They do this by constantly creating millions of new B cells. Almost every B
cell through random genetic shuffling create and produce a unique antibody
that shows on its surface.
When the B cells connect to their compatible antigen they are activated to
divide into larger cells, which are called plasma cells. The plasma cells
secrete a very large number of antibodies to bind to the microbe.

The antibodies, created by B cells, are circulated throughout the human

body. They attack the microbes that have not yet infected cells and when
the antibodies spread around the surface of the microbe, the microbe is
unable to function. After this the antibodies trigger the macrophages and
other defensive cells to eat the microbe. Antibodies also work with other
defensive molecules found in blood circulation called complement proteins
and destroy microbes.
B cells provide the humoral immune response, also called the antibody
response. The main objective of most vaccines is to stimulate this response.
Many infectious microbes can be defeated by antibodies without the help of
killer T cells. When T cells and antibodies eliminate the microbe faster than
it reproduces. The immune system is winning and gradually the virus
eventually disappears from the body.

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After this fight, some of the microbe fighting B cells and T cells are turned
into memory cells. Memory B cells are able to quickly divide into plasma
cells and make more antibodies if needed. Memory T cells can divide and
grow into a microbe-fighting army if they are re-exposed to the infection
microbe. Therefore, the immune system will be able to quickly recognize
how to stop the infection.

Mimic vaccines trick the immune system into thinking that it contains a
natural infection. An example of this is the yellow fever vaccine.
The vaccine for this contains a weakened version of the original virus which
does not cause disease or reproduce very well. The macrophages cannot
decipher whether the vaccine is weakened so they engulf the viruses
thinking that they are dangerous. When the antigens are taken to the lymph
nodes, they are presented to the B cells and T cells. Because the cells do not
know that the antigen is weakened, a response from yellow fever specific T
cells is activated and B cells secrete yellow fever antibodies. The T cells and
B cells work together to eliminate the weakened virus in the vaccine. The
mock infection is cleared and memory T cell and B cells are created for
protection against yellow fever in the future.

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Types of Vaccines
Vaccines are created using different approaches and these are based on
information about the microbe such as, how it infects cells and how the
immune system reacts to it. Other considerations are areas of the world
where these vaccines are used. For this reason, there are various types of
vaccines.

Live attenuated vaccines

This is a vaccine that contains a live weakened microbe. This means that it
cannot cause disease.
These vaccines are good because they can teach the immune system how to
treat that specific disease as they are the closest thing to a natural infection.
Also, this type of vaccine can provide life-long immunity with only one or
two doses by illiciting a strong cellular and antibody response. It is very easy
to create for certain viruses such as rubella, mumps and measles because
they have a smaller number of genes which makes it easier for scientist to
have control over their characteristics.
Although there are lots of advantages with using this type of vaccine, there
are also some disadvantages. There is a possibility that the organisms used
in the vaccine can mutate and revert to virulent form and cause disease.
People with a weak immune system such as people who have had
chemotherapy or has HIV can’t have this vaccine. This vaccine needs to be
kept refrigerated in order for it to stay potent. Therefore, it is hard to
transport this vaccine to far places because of storage and shipping. Because
bacteria contain thousands of genes, it is harder to control which makes it
more difficult for scientists to make a vaccine.

Inactivated Vaccines

This type of vaccine is made be getting rid of the disease-causing microbe

using chemical, heat or radiation.
These vaccines are safer and more stable because the dead microbes cannot
mutate back to their disease-causing state. Also, these do not require
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refrigeration so can be stored and transported much easier than live
attenuated vaccines.
It takes several doses or booster shots to maintain immunity because this
stimulates a weaker immune system response. Because of the required
amount dose, it limits accessibility to people who don’t have much access to
healthcare regularly.

Subunit Vaccines

This type of vaccine only contains the antigens in the microbe which
stimulates the immune system the best. These types of vaccines are made
in two ways:
Firstly, scientists grow the microbes in a laboratory and then break it up by
using chemical in order to get the antigens.
Secondly, they create the antigens molecules from the microbe using
recombinant DNA technology. These vaccines are called recombinant
subunit vaccines. An example of this is hepatitis B vaccine. Further research
is being done in order to get a hepatitis C vaccine.
Sometimes subunit vaccines use epitopes which are the very specific parts
of the antigen, that antibodies or T cells recognize and bind to. They have
less adverse effect because they only contain the antigens.
It is very time consuming to create these vaccines as they could have twenty
or more types of antigens which makes it difficult for scientist to identify the
antigen which best stimulates the immune system.

Toxoid Vaccines

Toxoid vaccines are used to treat bacteria that secrete toxins or harmful
chemicals. Scientist have found out that this type of disease can be treated
by a solution of formaldehyde and sterilized water called formalin. These
detoxified toxins, which are called toxoids are safe to use in vaccines.
Vaccines containing this harmless toxoid, can teach the immune system how
to fight the natural toxin by producing antibodies that target and stop the
toxins from doing any damage. An example of this is the tetanus and
Diphtheria vaccine.

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Conjugate Vaccines

These are a special type of subunit vaccines. Some harmful bacteria contain
an outer coating of sugar molecules called polysaccharides. The immune
system in young children are unable to recognise or respond to this coating.
Scientists have created conjugate vaccines by connecting the toxoids and
antigens from the microbe to the polysaccharide coating in order for the
young human’s immune system to recognise it and learn how to fight it. An
example of this vaccine is haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib).

DNA Vaccines

This vaccine is still in the experimental stages and use the genetic material
of the disease-causing microbe. In particular, they use the genes that code
the all-important antigens. A strong response is triggered as well as a strong
cellular response against the microbial antigens displayed in cell surface.
This vaccine cannot cause the disease because it does not contain the micro
be but only copies of a few of its genes. These vaccines are relatively easy
and cheap to make and produce. Vaccines which scientists are
experimenting on are influenza and herpes.

Recombinant Vector Vaccines

These are also an experimental vaccine, just like DNA vaccines, but they use
an attenuated virus or bacterium to introduce microbial DNA to cells of the
body. Normally viruses latch on to body cells and inject their genetic
material to infect them. Using this information, scientists have discovered a
way to insert genetic material from other microbes into certain harmless or
attenuated viruses in order to turn them into carrier viruses. This virus can
then take the genetic material to other cells. The body can then learn to
fight this disease by stimulating the immune system and learning how to
defend against the virus. Scientists are researching this type of vaccine for:
measles, HIV and rabies.

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Available vaccines for diseases
Chickenpox

This is caused by varicella zoster virus. The main symptoms are rashes that
are itchy and blisters filled with fluid are formed all over the body. Loss of
appetite, headaches, tiredness and high fever are also other symptoms of
chickenpox.
Chickenpox is extremely contagious. It is spread by people coughing or
sneezing and it also spread by touching the blisters, mucus or saliva of an
infected person. It takes ten to twenty-one days to get the disease after
exposure. The virus can remain in the body for several years and can
reactivate to cause a painful condition called shingles.
The vaccines for chickenpox are:
 MMRV which is a combined measles, mumps, rubella and varicella
(chickenpox) combination vaccine.
 Varicella (chickenpox) vaccine.

Measles

Measles is caused by a virus and is highly contagious. The symptoms for this
disease are: fever, cough, runny nose, sore throat and red eyes. A rash then
forms all over the body. This disease is spread through the air by coughing
and sneezing.
The vaccines for measles are:
 MMRV
 MMR which is a combination of measles, mumps and rubella.

Mumps

Mumps is a very contagious disease which is caused by the mumps virus.

The symptoms for mumps are: swelling of the salivary glands which causes
tender and swollen cheeks and swollen jaw. Symptoms such as headaches,

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fever, muscle aches, loss of appetite and tiredness also take place in an
infected person.
The vaccines for mumps are:
 MMR
 MMRV

Rubella

Rubella is also known as German measles that is caused by a virus which is

also highly contagious. Symptoms of this disease are rashes and mild fevers.
The rash starts in the face and moves to the rest of the body. Other
symptoms include sore throat, pink eye, headaches and general discomfort
before the rash appears.
Vaccines for rubella are:
 MMR
 MMRV

Polio

Polio is a very infectious disease that is caused by a virus that invades the
nervous system. The virus lives in the throat and the intestinal track and is
spread through physical contact of mucus, saliva or stool of the infected
person.
The vaccines for Polio are:
 IPV: IPV is an inactivated polio vaccine.
 OPV: OPV is an oral polio vaccine.

Pertussis

Pertussis is also known as the whooping cough. It is highly contagious and is

caused by a type of bacteria. It is spread by people coughing or sneezing.
Symptoms of pertussis are: severe coughing, weight loss, incontinence,
vomiting, disturbed sleep, rib fractures and passing out from severe
coughing.
The vaccines for pertussis are:
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  DTaP: Pediatric diphtheria, tetanus and a cellular pertussis vaccine.
 Tdap: Pre-teen, teens and adult’s tetanus, diphtheria and a cellular
pertussis vaccine.

Diphtheria

This is a respiratory disease that is caused by a bacterium which causes a

thick covering on the back of the throat. The symptoms for this are: low
grade fever; gradually worsening sore throat, which can lead to breathing
problems, paralysis, heart failure and even death. This disease is spread by
coughing and sneezing.
The vaccines for diphtheria are:
 DTaP
 Tdap
 DT: Pediatric diphtheria and tetanus vaccine.
 Td: Older children and adult’s tetanus and diphtheria vaccine.

Tetanus

Tetanus is an infection which is caused by bacteria. The bacteria produce a

toxic substance that causes painful muscle contractions by affecting mainly
the neck and abdomens. Tetanus is often called lock jaw because it stops the
movement in the neck and jaw muscles. Symptoms also include: breathing
problems, severe muscle spasms, paralysis and seizures. Tetanus is not
contagious as it does not spread from person to person, it is found in dirt,
manure and dust and enters the body by a cut or wound in the skin.
The vaccines for tetanus are:
 DTaP
 DT
 Td
 Tdap

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Hepatitis A

Hepatitis A is an infectious liver disease which is caused by the hepatitis A

virus. It is spread through contact with objects, drinks or food that is
contaminated by feces of the infected person. It appears as a very small
infection and normally improves without treatment.
The vaccine for hepatitis A is:
 Hep A: Hepatitis A vaccine.

Hepatitis B

Hepatitis B is another contagious liver disease caused by the hepatitis B

virus. It can be acute or chronic (it can remain in the body for a long time).
Heavy alcohol intake or viral or bacterial infections can all cause hepatitis. It
is spread when blood, semen or any other body fluid form the infected
person comes into contact with a non-infected person.
The vaccine for hepatitis B is:
 Hep B: Hepatitis B vaccine

Hib (Haemophilus Influenzae Type B)

This disease is caused by the Hib bacteria and can cause a severe infection
such as meningitis (inflammation of the meninges). This disease is spread
through contact with mucus form the nose and throat of an infected person
such as by coughing and sneezing. Symptoms include difficulty to breath,
epiglottitis (infection in the throat) and pneumonia (infection in the lungs).
The vaccine for Hib is:
 Hib vaccine: Haemophilus Influenza Type B vaccine

Meningococcal

This is a disease caused by the Neisseria meningitidis bacteria. This is also

called Meningococcus. Some people can have the bacteria for years but
never have any symptoms. However sometimes the bacteria invade the
body causing the disease. It is spread through person to person by body
secretions during close contact example: sneezing, coughing or kissing.
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Symptoms can include: sudden fever, stiff neck, headaches, vomiting,
nausea, confusion and photophobia (sensitivity in sunlight). In later stages of
this disease, a dark purple rash appears.
The vaccines for meningococcal are:
 Meningococcal conjugate vaccines.
 Meningococcal polysaccharides vaccine.
 Serogroup B meningococcal vaccine.

Pneumococcal

This is a disease caused by the streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria. This

disease can be found in many people’s noses and throat without causing
disease. It is unknown what triggers the disease. Symptoms of this disease
are: fever, cough, shortness of breath, chest pain, photophobia, confusion,
stiff neck and joint pains.
The vaccines for this disease are:
 PCV13: Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine.
 PPSV23: Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine.

Rotavirus

Rotavirus is most common in young children and can cause acute

gastroenteritis (this is inflammation of the stomach and intestines). Severe
watery diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain and fever are symptoms that can
lead to dehydration. Both vaccinated and non-vaccinated children can
develop this disease because they cannot get full immunity for future
infections.
The Rotavirus vaccine is:
 RV: Rotavirus vaccine.

Rabies

Rabies is a serious disease that is transmitted when an infected animal bites

you. The initial symptoms include: fever, headache and general discomfort

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and weakness. Itching at the site of the bite which can lead to confusion,
anxiety and agitation.
The vaccine for rabies is:
 Preventative rabies vaccination.

HPV (Human Papillomavirus)

This is a very common infection that spreads form one person to another by
sexual contact. Most people don’t know that they have the infection
because they have no symptoms but they can easily spread it to other
people. HPV can cause cervical cancer, vaginal cancer, anal cancer, genital
warts, cancer of the penis, warts in the throat, mouth or throat cancer.
The vaccines for HPV are:
 Gardasil: HPV vaccine for males and females.
 Gardasil 9: HPV vaccine for males and females.
 Cervarix: HPV vaccine for females only.

Typhoid fever

Typhoid fever is a very dangerous disease which is caused by the Salmonella

typhi bacteria. This disease can come from infected food or water.
Symptoms are: loss of appetite, high fever, headaches, weakness, stomach
pains and sometimes a rash.
The vaccines for typhoid fever are:
 Inactivated typhoid vaccine
 Live typhoid vaccine

Yellow fever

This is a very dangerous diseased which is caused by the yellow disease

virus. People get this disease by infected mosquitos; the disease cannot be
transmitted by person to person. It is only found in parts of Africa and South
America. The symptoms are: vomiting blood, fever and flu-like illness, multi
organ failure, jaundice (yellow skin and eyes) and even death.
The vaccine to yellow fever is:
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  The yellow fever vaccine

Japanese Encephalitis

This is a very serious diseased which is caused by a virus which is found,

mainly in rural parts of Asia. Like yellow fever, it is contracted by mosquito
bites and cannot spread by person to person. The symptoms: are
headaches, fever, sever encephalitis (brain infection), neck stiffness, seizures
and altered levels of consciousness.
The vaccine for Japanese Encephalitis is:
 Lxiaro: The Japanese Encephalitis vaccine.

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When to have vaccines

Age Vaccine given

8 weeks  5-in-one vaccine (diphtheria,
tetanus, pertussis, polio and
the haemophilus influenzae
type B.
 Pneumococcal vaccine
 Rotavirus
 Men B vaccine
12 weeks  5-in-one vaccine (second
dose)
 Rotavirus (second dose)
16 weeks  5-in-one vaccine (third dose)
 Pneumococcal vaccine
(second dose)
 Men B (second dose)
1 year  Hib/Men C vaccine
 MMR
 Pneumococcal vaccine (third
dose)
 Men B vaccine (third dose)
2-7 years  Annual flu vaccine
3 years and 4 months  MMR (second dose)
 4-in-one pre-school booster
(diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis,
polio)
12-13 years (girls only)  HPV vaccine
14 years  3-in-one teenage booster
(diphtheria, tetanus, polio,)
 Men ACWY vaccine
65 years and over  Pneumococcal vaccine
 Flu vaccine

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70 years  Shingles vaccine
Vaccines not given routinely  Flu jab for pregnant women
 Men ACWY for first time
university students
 Pertussis for pregnant women
 Chicken pox vaccination
 Flu vaccine for people with
long term health problems
 TB vaccination
 Hepatitis B vaccination
Travel vaccines  Hepatitis A vaccine
 Typhoid vaccine
 Cholera vaccine
 Yellow fever vaccine

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Vaccines in developing countries
The World Health Organisation (WHO), UNICEF and the World Bank state
that immunisation rates are the highest ever and vaccination development
is growing. A staggering 108 million infants were immunized in 2008.
However, there are still millions of infants that still need to be immunised
especially in the poorest nations and communities were preventable
diseases has a very high mortality rate. Around 24 million children cannot
get immunised from the 72 poorest countries in the world because the
vaccines needed are only available in the rich countries.
In the world, there are lots of vaccines available for people in the rich
countries. However, these vaccines are not mostly available to the people
who need it the most because delivering these vaccines can be extremely
expensive. Also, the cost of the vaccines itself is more expensive than the
cost of all other traditional vaccines combined.
Another factor, that is preventing children from getting the proper vaccine
in developing countries, is the lack of research and development for better
suited and needed vaccines. Also, the lack in healthcare workers and along
with the weakness in the healthcare system is a great downfall for getting
the vaccines fast enough.
The pharmaceutical companies that make the vaccines do not have an
interest in making and shipping them to developing countries as they have a
limited purchasing power and the companies won’t make much profit from
it. In addition to this, because the companies won’t make much money from
selling vaccines to developing countries, they do not want to spend even
more money on making vaccines that are suited for the conditions of the
developing countries.

The disease mostly found in developing countries that have vaccines for
them are:
 Pneumococcal disease  Pertussis
 Rotavirus gastroenteritis  Measles
 Meningitis  Polio

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  Mumps  Rubella
Diseases that don’t have a vaccine
Chagas disease
Chagas disease is a leading cause of heart disease which affects over 10
million people in Latin America. This disease is caused by the protozoan
Trypanosoma cruzi which is an insect. There is no vaccine available for this.
However, research is continuing to develop a bivalent vaccine which is a
combination of two recombinant vaccines.

Chikungunya

This disease is spreads by the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus

mosquitos. While this disease is mainly found in warm countries, recently,
cases have been found in temperate European climates. A vaccine is being
developed which alters the nucleic acid composition of the virus to reduce
its ability to replicate.

Leishmaniasis

This is a tropical disease caused by leishmania protozoan parasites which is

mainly found in India, Bangladesh, Ethiopia and Brazil. Whilst the vaccine
should have been developed, the vaccine does not, yet, exist.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)

The is a lower respiratory tract infection which infects children all over the
world. Attempts in creating a vaccine for this disease in the 1960’s ended in
failure as it made some cases of the disease worse. This downfall has caused
a deterrent in people wanting to research this disease.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV)

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This disease has caused many birth defects and severe disease in people
that have a weak immune system. Because of this, finding a vaccine for this
is now rated as a high priority.

Hookworm

This disease is caused by an intestinal parasite that attaches itself to the

intestinal wall. If this is left untreated, it could to severe intestinal bleeding,
iron deficiency anaemia and protein malnutrition. The parasite has mainly
been found in Latin America, Asia and Africa. The human hookworm vaccine
initiative has continued to work on a vaccine for this disease.

Dengue
This disease is caused by the Flavivirus which is found in tropical areas and it
is caused by four viruses, serotypes 1-4. Whilst there are no vaccines
available as yet, several vaccines are presently on trial.

Schistosomiasis

This is a disease is caused by several species of parasitic worms and it is

transmitted by snails. About 200 million people in the world is now affected
by this disease This disease found in South East Asia, the Caribbean, Middle
East and parts of Africa. There is no vaccine for this disease.

HIV

In total 34 million people has been infected HIV. Whilst there is no vaccine
available, several vaccine trials are taking place. A large Phase III clinical trial,
known as RV144 is being carried out in Thailand

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Conclusion
Vaccines has saved generations of humans from serious illnesses and
complication of vaccine preventable diseases. Without vaccines, the whole
human race could end because of epidemics such as the great smallpox
epidemic where millions of people died until someone found a vaccine for it.
At any time a new disease could be found and millions more people could
die, but new and existing technology will continue to push the boundaries in
finding new ways of developing vaccines for all diseases.

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References and time spent

Websites used

www.bbc.co.uk www.microbeworld.org

www.cdc.gov www.nhs.uk

www.historylearningsite.co.uk www.vaccineinformation.org

www.historyofvaccines.org www.vaccinenation.org

www.learn.gentetics.utah.edu www.vacines.gov

Time spent

DATE TIME SPENT (hours)

4/7/17 1
5/7/17 1.5
6/7/17 2
9/7/17 2
10/7/17 1.5
11/7/17 2
12/7/17 2
Total time spent 12 hours

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