ANIMAL SCIENCE The Six Basic Nutrients
ANIMAL NUTRITION 1. WATER
Terminologies in Animal Nutrition
 Nutrition - The science that deals with the kind
and amount of feeds, their composition of nutrients,
the animal performance desired, digestion and
metabolism of nutrients
 Nutrients – is feed constituent that aids in
support of life.
 Metabolism - combination of anabolic and
catabolic reactions occurring in the body with the
liberation of energy. Can occur only after the basic
units of the nutrients have been absorbed into the
blood
 FEED – is a term given to a particular product
that provides nutrient.
 FEEDSTUFF – commonly used when a group or
list of feeds is being referred to.
 DIET – composed of a number of individual
feeds selected to make a balance ration for feeding
to stocks
 RATION – the quantity of feed being offered
(daily) to an animal
Nutrient Basic Unit
 Protein Amino acid
 Starch Glucose (non-ruminant)
 Volatile fatty acids and lactic acid
(ruminant)
 Cellulose Volatile fatty acids (Acetic,
Propionic, Butyric)
 Sucrose Glucose and fructose
 Lactose Glucose and galactose
 Lipids Fattv acids and glycerol
 Minerals Any soluble form
 Vitamins Any soluble form
• Cheapest and most abundant nutrient
• Makes up to 65-85°/o of animal body weight at
birth and 45- 60% of body weight at maturity
• Percentage of body water decreases with animal
age and has an inverse relationship with body fat
Functions:
 act as a solvent, transport nutrients to the cell and
excretion of waste products of metabolism
 temperature regulation
 serve as a cushion
 act as lubricant
2. CARBOHYDRATES
• Made up of C (40%), H (7%) and O (53%)
• the bulk of nutrients found in an animal’s body
• Glycogen – “animal starch”
Functions:
 Source of heat
 Source of energy
 Stored in animal’s body by converting it into fats
Classification of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharide - It contains one sugar unit,
serves as a building unit for more complex
carbohydrates
a) Pentoses – arabinose, xylose, ribose
b) Hexoses - glucose, fructose, galactose
2. Disaccharides - It is formed by two
monosaccharides
a) Sucrose – glucose + fructose; found in cane sugar
b) Maltose – two glucose units; obtained from
hydrolysis of starch
c) Lactose – glucose + galactose; sugar found in
milk
  Carrier of fat-soluble vitamins

Classification of Carbohydrates - Deficiency and abnormal metabolism

3. Polysaccharides - It is composed of long chains 1. Skin lesions, hair loss and reduced growth rate
of hexose or pentose units 2. Ketosis - catabolism of body fat
a. Starch – long chains of glucose units joined by 3. Fatty liver - abnormal metabolism of liver
alpha linkage between glucose units; cereal grains
and tubers are rich sources of starch.
b. Cellulose – composed of long chains of glucose 4. PROTEINS
units that are joined together by beta linkage; found
• Large molecules made up (by molecular weight)
in cell walls of plants, especially in mature grasses.
of C (53%), H (7%), O (23% ), N (16%) and P (1%)
c. Hemicellulose. It is made up of both 5-carbon
• Crude protein – composed of true proteins and any
and 6-carbon sugar groups; also a part of plant cell
nitrogenous products; crude protein = %N x 6.25
walls but is more digestible than cellulose.
• True proteins – made up amino acids only
d. Lignin – is a compound associated with complex
carbohydrates; not a carbohydrate, woody part of • Non-protein Nitrogen (NPN) – contains N that can
the plant be converted to protein by bacterial action

Deficiencies of abnormal metabolism: Functions:

1. Ketosis  Basic structural unit of the animal body
2. Diabetes mellitus  Collagen (cornea and connective tissues)
3.LIPIDS (Fat and Oils)  Elastin (tendons, arteries, and elastic tissues)
 Keratin (hair, horn, hooves)
• Made up (molecular  Body metabolism – enzymes, hormones, immune
bodies, hereditary transmission
weight) of C (77%), H (12% ) and O (11%)
 Excess proteins are deaminated and used as by
• Fat yield 2.25 times more energy than
the animal as source of energy
carbohydrates or proteins
 Deficiencies and abnormalities
• Saturated fat – solid at room temperature (animal
fats: tallow, lard)  • Symptoms: reduced growth rate and feed
efficiency, anorexia, infertility
• Unsaturated fat - liquid at room temperature
(vegetable oil, coconut oil)  • Amino acid deficiency – a lack of an important
amino acid which result to deamination
 ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS (non-dispensable)
Functions:
- amino acids which are essential to the animal and
 Source of heat must be supplied in the diet because the animal
cannot synthesize them fast enough to meet its
 Source of energy requirements. (PVT.TIM HALL)
 Stored in animal’s body by converting it into fats Phenylalanine Methionine
Valine Histidine • Vitamin B9 - Folate
Threonine Arginine • Vitamin B12 - Cyanocobalamine
• Vitamin H – Biotin
Tryptophan Leucine • Vitamin C – Ascorbic acid
Isoleucine Lysine • Choline

NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS (dispensable) • Deficiency and abnormality

- amino acids which are essential to the animal but
are normally synthesized or sufficient in the diet
and need not be supplemented.
 Alanine, Asparagines, Aspartic Acid, Cysteine,
Cystine, Glutamic acid, Glutamine,
Glycine, Hydroxyproline, Proline, Serin, Tyrosine
5.VITAMINS
• Vitamin is an organic nutrient required in small
quantities necessary for regulating metabolic
processes, but does not an actual component of
body structure
• Cannot be synthesized by the animal
• Two types of vitamins: Water soluble and fat
soluble vitamins
• Fat soluble
• A – Retinol
• D - Calciferol
• E – Tocopherol
• K – Menadione
• Water Soluble – typically abundant in feeds
• Thiamine (B1) – Beri beri
• Niacin (B3) – Pellagra (corn-eater disease)
• Cyanocobalamin (B12) – anemia
• Riboflavin (B2) – Curled toe paralysis
• Vitamin A – night blindness, Xeropthalmia
• Vitamin D – Rickets (young animals);
Osteomalacia (adult animals
• Vitamin E – white muscle disease
• Vitamin K – Bleeding disease
• Vitamin C – Scurvy
• Deficiency and abnormality
• Thiamine (B1) – Beri beri
• Affects the cardiovascular system, heart failure
(wet); nervous system (dry)
• Deficiency and abnormality
• Vitamin A – Xeropthalmia
• Dryness of the conjuctiva and cornea of the eye
(blindness)

• Vitamin B1 - Thiamine • Deficiency and abnormality

• Vitamin B2 - Riboflavin • Vitamin E – White Muscle Disease

• Vitamin B3 - Niacin • Degeneration of skeletal and cardiac muscle

• Vitamin B5 - Pantothenic acid

• Vitamin B6 - Pyridoxine • Deficiency and abnormality
• Vitamin D – Rickets (young animals); PHOSPHOROUS (P) Required for bone
osteolamalacia(old)
formation, milk and egg
• Laness, soft bones and beaks, poor growth, Bird
production and proper
rest squatting
energy utilization
• Deficiency and abnormality
Rickets in young animals
• Vitamin B2 (Riboflvin) – Curled-toe paralysis;
Spradled leg similar to that of calcium
• impaired oxidation processes and changes in the deficiency. Osteomalacia or
peripheral nerves
osteoporosis in older
animals similar to calcium
6. MINERALS
deficiency. Poor appetite,
• Represents the inorganic nutrients required by an
animal slow gain, lowered milk

• Macrominerals – minerals needed in large production, low blood

amount, expressed as percentage of the diet
• Calcium(Ca), Phosphorous (P), Sodium (Na), SODIUM (Na), CHLORINE (Cl) and
Chlorine(Cl), Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg) ,
Sulfur (S) POTASSIUM(K)

• Microminerals - minerals needed in small Required for maintenance and of osmotic pressure
amounts, expressed in parts per million and maintenance of pH

• Cobalt (Co), Iron (Fe), (Copper) Cu, Iodine (I), Unthrifty appearance and impaired performance,
Managenese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo), heavily perspiring animals, acute salt deficiency
Selenium(Se), Zinc (Zn), Flourine (Fl), Nickel and may develop resulting in disrupted nerve and
Chronium (Cr) muscle function and possible nervous prostration.

MACRO MINERALS FUNCTION MAGNESIUM (Mg)

DEFICIENCY
MACROMINERAL FUNCTION
DEFICIENCY/TOXICITY
CALCIUM (Ca) Bone and teeth formation, needed
for muscle and nerve function. Milk and egg
production
Rickets in young animals; Bones become soft and
deformed. Osteomalacia or osteoporosis in older
animals; Bones become porous and weak.
Necessary for activation of certain enzymes
Plays a role in carbohydrate metabolism
Hypomagnesemia tetany - hyperirritability of the
neuromuscular system producing hyper excitability,
incoordination.
SULFUR (S) As a component of the
amino acid cystine and methionine and the vitamins
biotin and thiamine.
- a general unthrifty condition and poor
performance.

MICRO MINERALS FUNCTION
DEFICIENCY
Manganese (Mn)
 enzyme systems influencing estrus,
ovulation, fetal development, udder
development, milk production and growth
and skeletal development.
 Delayed estrus; Reduced ovulation; Reduced
fertility; Abortions; Resorptions; Deformed
young; Poor growth Lowered serum alkaline
phosphatise;
 Lowered tissue manganese; "knuckling
over" in calves
Molybdenum (Mo)
 Involved in uric acid formation
Selenium (Se)
 In vitamin E absorption and retention
 Nutritional muscular dystrophy (white
muscle disease) in lambs and calves:
 Retained placenta in cows, Heart failure,
Paralysis, Poor growth, Low fertility, liver
necrosis
 Pancreatic fibrosis in chicks
Zinc (Zn)
 Prevents parakeratosis;
 Promotes general thriftiness and growth;
Promotes wound healing;
 Related to hair and wool growth and health;
Deficiency impairs testicular growth and
function
Cobalt (Co)
 Component of the molecules of Vitamin
B12
 General malnutrition symptoms poor
appetite, unthriftiness, weakness, anemia,
decreased, fertility, slow growth and
decreased milk an wool production.
Copper (Cu)
 Required for iron absorption, in hemoglobin
formation and synthesis of keratin for hair
and wool growth in various enzyme systems
 Low blood and liver copper; bleaching of
hair in cattle;
 Abnormal wool growth in sheep; abnormal
bone metabolism; Muscular incoordination;
weakness at birth; anemia
Flourine (Fl)
 Reduces incidence of dental caries in
humans and possibly other animals. Possibly
retards osteoporosis in mature animals.
 Excessive dental caries Iodine (I) Required
in the production of thyroxine by the
thyrioid gland.
 Goiter at birth or soon thereafter; Dead or
weak at birth;
 Hairlessness at birth; infected navels -
especially in foals
Iron (Fe)
 Component of the hemoglobin molecule
which is involved in oxygen transport in the
blood
 In young pigs. Low blood hemoglobin;
labored breathing; pale eyelids, ears and
nose, flabby wrinkled skin
Classification of Feeds
• Concentrates – low in fiber (<20%) and high in
TDN on an air dry basis (>60%)
• Roughage - High in fiber (<20%) and low in TDN
(>60%) on an air dry basis. Needed to promote bulk
in ruminant’s diet
Concentrates
 Energy sources – feedstuff s used primarily as a
source energy (<20%CP)
Ex: Cereal grains (corn, rice, wheat, and barley),
liquid energy sources (oil, molasses), by products
(molasses, rice bran, rice midlings, wheat pollard)
 Protein sources – feedstuffs used primarily as a
source of protein and amino acids (>20%CP)
Ex: Plants – soybean meal, copra meal, ipil ipil
meal, mungbean meal, peanut meal, sunflower
meal,
Animal origin – fishmeal, blood meal poultry by
products, feather meal, non-protein nitrogen (urea)
Roughage
• Proteinaceous roughage – contains more than
10% CP on a dry matter basis (legumes)
Ex: Centrocema, Ipil ipil, Stylo, Siratro,
Tricanthera, Flemingia
• Carbonaceous roughage – contains less than
10% CP on a dry matter basis (grasses)
Ex: Napier, guinea grass, paragrass, sugarcane
bagasse, rice straw
Toxic Content and Anti Nutritional
Substance of Some Feedstuff
• Tannins, saponins
• Blood meal – low in isoleucine
• Ipil ipil – Mimosine
• Cassava – Hydrocyanic acid
• Corn (mycotoxins)
• Aflatoxin – Aspergillus flavus
• T2 Toxin – trichotecene mycotoxin (fusarium
mold)
• Vomitoxin –
The Use of Non Protein Nitrogen
• 1kg of UREA is equivalent to 2.62 kg of protein
• Not more than 1% of the total ration
• Not more than 3% of concentrate
• Not more than 6% of protein concentrate
Feed Additives
• Feed additives - refer to the drugs or other
compounds added to feeds of non-nutritive nature
(does not supply nutrients such as protein, fat,
carbohydrates, vitamins or minerals) but elicit
positive effect on animal performance.
• Antibiotics - these are chemicals produced by
microbial fermentation or chemical synthesis, which
possess bacteriostatic or bacteriocidal properties and
are added to the feed at sub- therapeutic and
therapeutic levels (e.g. bacitracin, penicillin,
aureomycin and terramycin).
• Probiotics - these are beneficial bacterial species
are introduced into the intestine so as to enhance
production of desirable by-products and
consequently improve performance.
• Hormones - are natural or synthetic hormone
preparation which increases nitrogen retention (e.g.
progesterone and estradiol).
• Antioxidants - protects feed components (fats and
oil and fat soluble vitamins) that are susceptible to
oxidation (e.g. ethoxyquin and BHT).
• Feed Enzymes. It enhances digestion by
augmenting endogenous enzymes (especially at
young age) and facilitating digestion of poorly
digestible feed components such as fiber and phytic
acid (mostly for non-ruminant animals).
• Acidifying agents (Acidifiers) - chemical
products added to the feed to decrease the pH in the
gut, thus, improving digestion in the stomach.
• Flavoring Agents - conceals unattractive natural
smells, tastes or structures of feed to enhance feed
intake.
• Pigmenters - It is added to the feed to improve
color of products (e.g. egg yolk; broiler skin).
Xanthophyll
• Prebiotics - composed of small fragments of
carbohydrates (oligosaccharides) which are used to
manipulate the gut ecosystem.
• Antitoxins (Toxin Binders) - are inert chemical
compounds with large internal surfaces, which can
absorb or fix toxins in feeds.
• Pellet Binders - Additives that are used to
improve pellet quality.
• Surfactants - chemical agents that facilitate
uniform dispersion of molecules in feeds or feed
mixtures.
• Anthelmintics (Dewormers) - drugs used in
controlling or eliminating intestinal parasites.
• Anti-molds - chemical preservatives added to the
feeds to prevent mold development.
• Anti-malarials - are chemical products used in the
prevention and treatment of malaria.
• Anti-caking Agents - are chemical products used
to prevent formation of lumps in feeds.
• Coccidiostats - are chemical products added to the
feed to prevent and control coccidiosis.
• Red meat – largest in terms of volume and
consumption (beef, pork, lamb or mutton and veal)
• Poultry meat – derived from the flesh of domestic
birds
• Sea foods – flesh of aquatic organisms which the
bulk are fish (flesh of clams, lobsters)
• Game meat – flesh of non-domesticated animals
Classification of meat based on species
Hog – pork
Cattle (<1yr) – veal
Cattle (>1yr) – beef
Carabao – carabeef
Chicken, duck, quail, pigeon – Poultry meat

• Nutraceuticals/Phytogenic Additives - Horse – horse meat

preparations obtained usually from herbs that Sheep (<1yr) – lamb
contain important phytochemicals (e.g phenols,
thymol, menthol, allicin, capsaicin, gingerol, Sheep (>1yr) – mutton
carvacrol, eugeno, linalool limonene) which Goat – chevon
enhance performance and health of animals.
Rabbit – lapan
Deer – venison
Animal Slaughtering and Meat
Processing Rats - starmeat

• Slaughtering - from fasting to stunning, bleeding

up to skinning and evisceration
• Butchering – from splitting and quartering, to
cutting the carcass into retail cuts
Physical Composition
• Abattoir / Slaughterhouse – the premises used in
slaughter of animals for human consumption 1. Muscle – skeletal muscle

History of Meat Preservation 2. Adipose Tissue - site of fat deposition

• Egyptians preserve meat by means of salting and • Intermuscular or seam fat – fat between muscles
drying • Intramuscular fat or marbling – fat within the
• Romans use ice and snow muscle, dispersed between muscle fibers

• Nicholas Appert – Hermetic sealing of food 3. Bone and skeletal tissue – bones, tendons,
ligaments, and cartilage
• World War II – irridiation, freeze drying and
antibiotic preservation
Categories of meat Chemical composition
1. Water
• meat contains up to 75.5% moisture
• the younger the leaner, the higher moisture content
• Protein
• Myofibrillar proteins (salt soluble proteins) –
contractile proteins, muscle contraction and
locomotion.
Rigor mortis – the stiffening of the muscles after
an animal dies, believed due to muscle contraction
2. Protein
• Stromal proteins (connective tissues or insoluble
proteins)
• Collagen – principal component of the connective
tissue fraction. Major factor that influence the
tenderness of the meat after cooking. Present in
cartilage, horns, bones, skin
• Elastin – minor component of most connective
tissues, found mostly in large arteries which
provides elasticity
• Reticulin – present in much smaller amounts than
collagen or elastin
3. Nitrogenous extractives –water soluble
components that excite the flow of gastric juices
when cooked meat is ingested. Responsible for the
so-called “gamey (intense) flavor” of near of wild
animals
4. Fats
5. Carbohydrates – liver as primary reservoir of
carbohydrate
6 Vitamins and minerals – source of iron, zinc,
phosphorous, and B-vitamins
Selection of animals for Slaughter
Age of the animal
Swine – 6 -12 months
Cattle and Carabao – 3 years or younger
Goat –1-year-old
Sex
Barrows and gilts – best for meat curing
Boar taint become very pronounced after 7
months
Meat from pregnant animals have fishy odor
Size
80-110kg for hogs
300-450kg for cattle and carabao
Degree of fatness – influences flavor and juiciness
of the meat
Health of the animals – unhealthy animals (fever,
increased breathing rate, and diarrhea) must be first
treated prior to slaughter
Management of the animals prior to slaughter
A. Fasting
• Swine – 12 -24 hours
• Ruminants – 24-48 hours
B. Relax the animals
• PSE – Pale, Soft and Exudative
• DFD – Dry, Firm and Dark
C. Handle the animas gently
• animals that were whipped, kicked or boxed prior
to slaughter develops blood clot.
• May lose 2-10% of their total body weight during
transport
• Meat with blood clot or red spots are easily to
spoil
D. Clean the animals
Categories of Slaughterhouse
1. AAA – those with facilities and operational
procedures of which meat processed herein is
eligible for sale in any market in and out of the
country.
2. AA – those with facilities and operational ** Shrouding - wrapping the carcass with cheese
procedures sufficiently adequate that the meat cloth.
processed herein is eligible for sale in any market in
** Singeing – is done with either a blow torch or an
the Philippines.
open fire while scraping the burned hair using a dull
3. A- those with facilities and operational knife (goat)
procedures minimum adequacy that the meat
processed herein is eligible for sale only in the city Slaughtering Procedures in Swine
or municipality where the abattoir is located. 1. Stunning
Steps in General Slaughtering 2. Sticking
1. Ante mortem inspection – conducted by a meat 3. Scalding and scraping
inspector to determine if the animal is fit for
slaughter 4. Removal of the head

2. Stunning – rendering the animal 5. Evisceration

unconsciousness without killing them to make 6. Splitting
restraining easy and humane sticking
7. Chilling
3. Sticking – withdrawing blood from the carcass
(bleeding), efficiently cutting the carotid artery or
the jugular vein not later than 3-5 minutes after Slaughtering Procedures in Cattle/Carabao
stunning
1. Stunning
4. Cleaning of the carcass – scalding, scraping,
shaving, flaying, dehiding 2. Sticking

• Scalding - dipping the carcass in hot water to 3. Flaying/Skinning

loosen up hairs and scarf; the water temperature
4. Removal of the shank and head
must be maintained at 54 to 84°C.
5. Evisceration
• Scraping - removal of hair using a scraping knife
6. Splitting/Quartering
5. Eviscerating - removing visceral organs from the
carcass 7. Shrouding
6. Splitting - cutting of the entire backbone of the 8. Chilling
carcass
7. Washing - with clean potable water to remove
Slaughtering Procedures in Goat and Sheep
dirt, blood, etc.
1. Stunning
8. Post-mortem inspection - done by qualified
meat inspector to determine if the meat is fit for 2. Sticking
human consumption.
3. Singeing or flaying
9. Chilling - the carcass chilled at 0-4°c for 24
hours before fabrication to allow the rigor mortis to 4. Removal of the head
pass, to check on microbial growth, and to firm up 5. Evisceration
the meat for easy fabrication
6. Chilling
** Flaying or Skinning - this is the removal of the
hide.
Dressing Percentage of Livestock and
Poultry
• Hogs – 70%
• Cattle/carabao– 60%
• Sheep and goat – 50%
• Chickens – 75%
• Turkeys – 80%
• Ducks – 71%
• Geese – 69%
Water Requirement for Slaughtering
Animals
• 30 gallons per head of Hogs
• 60 gallons per head of cattle/carabao
• 15 gallons per head of goat and sheep
• 7 gallons per head of chickens
Meat and Meat Products
• Meat Fabrication - cutting carcasses into
standard wholesale and retail cuts
• Meat - properly dressed flesh derived from mature
animals in good condition at the time of slaughter.
• Carcass - the body of any slaughtered animal after
bleeding and dressing
• Dressing percentage - percent yield of the
carcass, <carcass weight divided by the slaughter
weight multiplied by 100
• Porterhouse steak – the most expensive cut of
beef
• Lean Cuts - cuts of pork composed of the loin,
ham and shoulder
• Retail Cuts - Cuts of meat handled in small
quantities and which may be prepared for the table
without further cutting and trimming
• Wholesale cuts - meat cuts that are handled in
bulk and usually require further cutting before these
are prepared for the table.
• Hot meat - meat from an unaccredited
slaughterhouse, or obtained from illegal source of
meat
Normal Meat Color
 Species Normal Lean color Normal Fat
Color and Consistency
 Beef Bright red to dark red Cream white to
yellow, firm and dry
 Pork Grayish pink to grayish red White and
greasy
 Carabeef Dark Red Flinty white
 Chevon Light red to bright red Chalk white,
appears brittle and dense
 Veal Pinkish Seldom have fat, cream
 Horse Bright red Cream to yellow usually
soft
Methods of Meat Preservation
• Drying – oldest method of meat preservation.
Removal of moisture from the meat
1. Natural drying – natural sunlight is used
2. Artificial drying – a chamber equipment with
110-120°F and relative humidy of 85%
• Smoking – subjecting the meat to smoke
1. Natural smoking – exposure of meat to wood
smoke (deposition of phenolic and pyroligneous
compounds)
2. Artificial smoke (liquid smoke) – smoke flavor
is incorporated (ham, bacon)
• Salting – a simple method of dehydration in
which the salt causes the withdrawal of water from
tissues of meat.
• Chilling – subjecting the meat from 0-4°C
• Freezing – exposing the meat to a temperature
range of resulting to crystallization of water in the
tissues
1. Quick freezing – 30 mins or less at -15 to -46°C
2. Slow freezing – 3-72 hours at -15 to -29°C
• Canning – hermetic or airtight sealing of food in
cans or jars at 100°C at 10-15pounds of pressure for
a specific period of time
• Curing – application of salt, sugar, nitrates and
other preservatives and adjunct to prolong the
quality of the product
• Pickling – curing ingredients are mixed in the
water to form a pickle solution
• Irradiation – controlled amounts of radiation can
be applied to allow for unrefrigerated storage.