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Engaging fans through social media: Implications for team identification

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DOI: 10.1108/SBM-06-2013-0013

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 Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal
Engaging fans through social media: implications for team identification
Matthew D. Meng Constantino Stavros Kate Westberg
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implications for team identification", Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal, Vol.
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Engaging fans through Engaging fans

through social
social media: implications for media
team identification
Matthew D. Meng 199
Questrom School of Business, Boston University, Boston,
Massachusetts, USA, and
Constantino Stavros and Kate Westberg
School of Economics, Finance & Marketing, RMIT University,
Melbourne, Australia
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Abstract
Purpose – The ubiquity of social media provides sport organizations with opportunities to
communicate with fans and as a result, potentially strengthen team identification. The purpose of this
paper is to contribute to emerging research on the nature of social media use by sport organizations by
examining the platforms adopted over a three-year period by National Basketball Association (NBA)
teams and the way in which social media is used to communicate and engage with fans.
Design/methodology/approach – A content analysis was used to examine online comments posted
by all 30 teams in the NBA on Facebook and Twitter during the off-season.
Findings – The results demonstrate that NBA teams have embraced social media, primarily using four
different types of communication to engage fans: Informing, Marketing, Personalizing and Activating.
Practical implications – The authors establish that social media is an effective vehicle for sport
organizations to engage with fans and to enhance team identification. The data suggests that teams
should make a concerted effort in their communications, where possible, to personalize communications,
genuinely inform and involve fans and provide relevant marketing communications, all of which can be
effectively implemented within existing marketing efforts.
Originality/value – This is the first study to examine the direct use of social media by sport
organizations and its potential for enhancing team identification.
Keywords Sport, Engagement, Social media, Content analysis, Team identification
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
Identification describes the emotional attachment and allegiance that a consumer has to a
particular entity (Ashforth and Mael, 1989). In the context of sport, fans with strong team
identification provide various benefits to sport entities, including reduced price sensitivity
and a greater propensity to attend games and purchase merchandise (Sutton et al., 1997;
Wakefield and Wann, 2006). Further, these fans are more likely to remain loyal to their
team, irrespective of on-field performance (Harada and Matsuoka, 1999). By investigating
this increased attachment to sport and associated entities, marketers can begin to
understand the “social-structural and individual forces that shape behavior” (Funk and
James, 2006, p. 211). With the extensive advantages attributed to highly identified fans,
including the positive financial impact for sport organizations, sport managers should
actively facilitate opportunities to engage with fans to strengthen their commitment.
Sport, Business and Management:
The potential for enhancing relationships through social media is particularly promising An International Journal
for sport managers in the current competitive environment (Stavros et al., 2013). Vol. 5 No. 3, 2015
pp. 199-217
Social media provide a platform for sport managers to enhance the commitment and © Emerald Group Publishing Limited
2042-678X
engagement of fans by creating new and interactive experiences. Through these virtual DOI 10.1108/SBM-06-2013-0013
 SBM spaces teams can communicate directly with fans. Also, fans from around the globe can
5,3 interact with each other in real-time. However, despite the proliferation of social media,
there is limited research that examines their use in sport management (Mahan, 2011).
Initial studies have investigated areas such as: how fans have used their own personal
web sites and league message boards to communicate their sport associations (End,
2001); how professional athletes have used Twitter (Frederick et al., 2014; Hambrick
200 et al., 2010; Pegoraro, 2010); and consumer attitudes toward and intention to use, social
media to engage with sport organizations (Abeza et al., 2013; Clavio, 2011; Mahan, 2011;
O’Reilly et al., 2012). However, there is limited understanding of the use of social media
by sport organizations and in particular the way in which this communication vehicle
can impact on team identification.
This study explores the use of social media platforms by all 30 teams in the National
Basketball Association (NBA) over a three-year period. After identifying the vehicles
used by NBA teams, a content analysis was undertaken of the team posts on their
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official Facebook and Twitter pages to provide insight into how teams use these
platforms. This research was conducted during the off-season, a period when
maintaining team identification and engagement can be particularly challenging as
exposure to a sport or team is at a relative minimum. The analysis reveals four different
types of communication used by teams, all of which have implications for enhancing
team identification.

Literature review
Sport has unique attributes when compared to other industries (Mullin et al., 2000) and
differs from alternative forms of entertainment. Most notably, it has the ability to evoke
an emotional response due to a greater sense of personal connectedness (Mael and
Ashforth, 1992; Sutton et al., 1997). The association, commitment and emotional
involvement, referred to as identification (Ashforth and Mael, 1989), are often seen in
the realm of sport. An allegiance toward a particular team arises from “placing more
functional, emotional and symbolic meaning on a team based upon a collective set of
associations related to escape, success, peer group acceptance, vicarious achievement,
nostalgia and star player” (Funk and James, 2006, p. 206). These associations are
important for sport managers to recognize, as often there is not one single factor that
influences a fan’s identification with a team, but rather the sum total of their opinions
and feelings toward a variety of elements and experiences. Those aspects that can be
controlled, such as personnel and peripheral game-time experiences, can be managed to
potentially enhance team identification.
To understand how team identification develops, Lock et al. (2012) interviewed
individuals who became members/season ticket holders of a newly established soccer
team in Australia. Individuals were found to consider their increased affiliation with
the sport organization as being representative of their self-concept. This increased
identification is manifest through a greater desire to seek out team-related information
and promote the team to others. Previous research also has shown that this increased
connection and identification is evident in other ways. For example, the much-cited
study by Cialdini et al. (1976) highlights that fans who are happy with their team’s
performance may use the collective “we” or “us” when referring to the team in
conversation, or proudly display or wear team apparel and motifs. Other game-day
behavioral identifiers include cheering for the preferred team, distracting the
opposition and jeering at officials after contentious calls (Wann et al., 2001). However,
the level of identification shown by fans can vary (Dietz-Uhler and Lanter, 2008), with
 higher levels of identification and increased connection often resulting in higher levels of Engaging fans
affinity and affiliation with the team or group (Pritchard et al., 2010). Sutton et al. (1997) through social
propose three levels of identification: social fans (low identification), focussed fans
(medium identification) and vested fans (high identification). Social fans are those who
media
focus on the entertainment value of the sport or socializing with other fans. Focussed
fans want to associate with high-achieving teams or those considered appealing at the
time, which often results in short-term relationships. Finally, vested fans are those who 201
invest substantial time and money into a team, resulting in long-term loyalty.
Higher levels of identification reduce price sensitivity (Sutton et al., 1997), create
longer and more profitable relationships through increased consumptive behavior
(End, 2001; McDonald and Milne, 1997; Trail et al., 2003; Wakefield and Wann, 2006)
and result in less switching of team affiliation (Harada and Matsuoka, 1999). More
committed fans also are resistant to negative news coverage and tend to counter-argue
with more favorable assessments (Funk and Pritchard, 2006). Unfortunately, many of
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these behaviors relate to environmental influences that cannot be controlled by sport

managers and marketers (e.g. the result of a match). However, Sutton et al. (1997)
suggest four strategies that can be employed by sport organizations to increase
identification: increase team/player accessibility, increase community involvement,
reinforce the team’s history and create opportunities for group affiliation and participation.
As higher levels of identification can have a positive financial impact on sport
organizations, it is important to recognize and cater to these fans (Foster and Hyatt,
2007). Sport organizations need to direct their marketing communication activities so
that they create positive associations between the fan and the team to enhance behavior
or commitment (Funk and James, 2006). Further, increasing interaction and creating a
community around the team can lead to greater loyalty (Grant et al., 2011) and
strengthen a sport brand’s equity in foreign markets (Kerr and Emery, 2011). The
potential to enhance identification through social media provides an exciting
opportunity for sport managers. This is particularly promising given the parasocial
interaction (Sun, 2010) that social media provide, which is a welcome and relatively
controllable form of communication between fans and sport organizations or the
national governing bodies of these sports (Eagleman, 2013).
Although research into social media is emerging, there has been a limited focus on
its role in sport management. One example, a study by Hambrick et al. (2010), used
content analysis to gain a greater understanding of the use of Twitter by professional
athletes in communicating with their fans. The Twitter accounts of athletes, who were
competing in individual or team sports, were examined and categories were developed
to classify their posts: interactivity, sport information, promotion, diversion, fanship
and content. The results showed a high proportion of direct interaction between
athletes and their fans, which differs from traditional media communications. Further,
other studies have found that athletes tend to use social media to talk about their
personal lives with fans and other athletes (Frederick et al., 2014; Pegoraro, 2010).
These studies however, were limited to individual athletes’ pages through a single
social network site and therefore do not provide specific insight for sport organizations
as to how best to use this medium to communicate with fans. Similarly, while the
quantity of “likes” or comments that each Facebook page receives can be quantified
(Wallace et al., 2011), a finer-grained analysis of the content of these interactions is
necessary to provide the rich insight these platforms can provide.
O’Shea and Alonso (2011) suggest that using social media as a communication tool
can replace more expensive activities when there are budgetary or personnel
 SBM limitations, particularly when fans act as unofficial promoters for sporting events
5,3 (Hambrick, 2012). More recently, Abeza et al. (2013) examined eight cases related to the
sport of running to uncover both the opportunities for sport organizations, such as
communicating directly with fans, as well as the challenges, such as lack of control over
other messages. However, social media can facilitate fans’ connectivity and supplement
other relationships (Gantz, 2013). Fans have been shown to exercise four key motives
202 when communicating with teams and other fans through social media: passion, hope,
esteem and camaraderie (Stavros et al., 2013). If these motives are recognized, sport
organizations can more effectively facilitate online interaction. Overall, the preceding
studies all support the premise that social media can be used advantageously by sport
organizations, but suggest that more research is needed to uncover specific strategies
to engage fans.
Social media platforms have been developing, growing and constantly evolving over
the past two decades (Hoffman and Novak, 2012), with many sites’ popularity rising
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and receding (boyd and Ellison, 2007). The increased accessibility of social media
through personal devices, such as smart phones and tablets, could be considered the
main facilitator in encouraging the proliferation of social media. These vehicles
facilitate communication without constraints of time or location (Hara et al., 2000;
Phillips and Santoro, 1989) which has enabled relationships between individuals and
organizations that previously would have been unattainable (boyd and Ellison, 2007).
In this era of convergent social and technological communication, individuals have
the ability to tell millions of people about their experiences in a much shorter timeframe
than previously possible. The various descriptions of social media can be generalized to
describe platforms where users create a public or semi-public profile to communicate
and network with friends or others with similar interests (Balas, 2006; boyd and Ellison,
2007; Kasavanam et al., 2010). In contrast to previous marketing communication
methods, social media allow customers to communicate directly with each other. Rather
than being passive recipients of information, the flow of information through this new
generation of media is “multidirectional, interconnected and difficult to predict” (Hennig-
Thurau et al., 2010, p. 313). However, some industries, such as non-profits, still use social
media as a one-way communication channel (Lovejoy et al., 2012) and do not use these
platforms to their full potential (Waters et al., 2009). Even many teams in the National
Football League were shown to be slow in adopting social media and preferred the use of
their own web sites to build relationships with fans (Waters et al., 2011).
Foux (2006) indicates that people view information provided by other consumers
as more honest, consequently social media are considered a trusted source when
seeking product and service information (Jayanti, 2010; Lempert, 2006). This shift
away from traditional media suggests that marketers should view social media as a
more contemporary form of word-of-mouth communication within the conventional
marketing mix. Social media also can be used to attract and retain fans and build
relationships (Witkemper et al., 2012), however, the literature in this regard is only
starting to emerge (Mangold and Faulds, 2009). Given the differences between
traditional and social media, Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) suggest that when using
social media, marketers should be active online and be interesting, humble, less
“professional” and honest when communicating with customers. Moreover, social
media pages that express authenticity and allow user engagement are more effective in
attracting and maintaining a user-base (Pronschinske et al., 2012).
As Kozinets (2002, 2010) details, online communities can socially reinforce
consumption potentially resulting in increased brand loyalty and usage. Online
 communities are not geographically limited and are usually organized around Engaging fans
a shared appreciation of a particular brand (Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001). Social media through social
communication in these communities is particularly exciting for marketers because
most conversations occur in real-time and can be instantly digitally archived, allowing
media
interactions to be revisited and analyzed retrospectively. However, it is crucial to note
that social media are not communities themselves, but rather a platform through which
communities can form based on this shared brand appreciation. Further, individuals 203
participating in these communities may be vastly different in face-to-face situations.
It therefore cannot always be assumed that what attracts people in the “real” world will
necessarily work in the virtual online world.
Social media technology is changing rapidly and researchers are at a critical point in
moving forward. This study contributes to the emerging literature on the use of social
media in sport by exploring the use of leading social media platforms by all teams
in the NBA. The findings provide insight into how teams use these networks to
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communicate and stimulate engagement. These insights offer implications for sport
managers seeking to maintain or enhance their fans’ identification with the team.

Method
A qualitative approach, utilizing content analysis, was adopted to explore the off-season
usage of social media by all 30 NBA teams. The NBA was selected as it has been
recognized as a pioneer in adopting relationship marketing practices in sport (Cousens
et al., 2000). Preliminary observations also indicated that the NBA is highly active in its
use of social media, including an annual presentation of social media awards.
Founded in 1946, the NBA has 30 teams (29 in the USA and one in Canada) based in
six divisions which are grouped into either an eastern or western conference. While the
league’s teams are exclusively from North America, the 2014 NBA All-Star game was
televised in 215 countries and territories in 47 different languages (NBA, 2014),
reflecting the NBA’s global following. To increase exposure to external markets, the
NBA schedules regular season games internationally (Chandler, 2011).
The initial stage of this study involved visiting the official NBA web site (www.nba.
com) and following the links to each of the 30 teams. While viewing each team’s
homepage, the links to social media were recorded. This stage was conducted in the
latter part of 2010 and then repeated in mid-2013 to measure shifts in social media
usage by teams, as shown in Table I. Using this process we were able to recognize the
change in usage patterns and the presence of new platforms to examine whether NBA
teams were adapting to the dynamic technological environment.
For the subsequent stage of this study, a non-probability, judgment sample
(Marshall, 1996; Zikmund et al., 2007) was collected during a two-week period in the
latter part of 2010, coinciding with the quietest period of NBA league activity. Major
off-season events, such as the NBA Draft and the Summer League were over and most
teams were focussed on preparations for the upcoming season. For this stage,
Facebook and Twitter were examined, as these were the only two social media
platforms utilized by all 30 NBA teams, which allowed us to develop a more thorough
and accurate representation of social media usage. A total of 2,013 publicly
available official Facebook and Twitter posts by all teams were collected and
categorized to examine how each team used these platforms in communicating
with fans. By analyzing the teams’ posts, we were able to identify the approaches
used to connect with fans and ascertain which elements were most effective in
enhancing identification.
 SBM Number of teams using
5,3 2010 2013 Variance

Instagram 0 24 +24
Google+ 0 21 +21
Pinterest 0 18 +18
Tumblr 0 9 +9
204 Foursquare 2 7 +5
Socialcam 0 3 +3
YouTube 17 19 +2
LinkedIn 3 4 +1
Viddy 0 1 +1
Vine 0 1 +1
Facebook 30 30 0
Twitter 30 30 0
Flickr 9 3 −6
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MySpace 6 0 −6
Table I. Internal 16 11 −5
Social network site Total sites 113 181 +68
usage by NBA teams Sites per team 3.77 6.03 2.27

At the conclusion of the data collection, computer software was used to aid in sorting
and content analysis was undertaken to extract common elements from the online text
(Hara et al., 2000). Consistent with previous research related to qualitative content
analyses in other industries (Granheim and Lundman, 2004; Harwood and Garry, 2003;
Hsieh and Shannon, 2005), the unit of analysis was the content of the social media page
and the coding units were the individual posts by teams.
As no previous study has examined the specific methods by which sport organizations
engage fans through social media during the off-season, no categories were created prior to
the analysis. By using an inductive category development approach (Mayring, 2000) and
no preconceived categories (Kondracki and Wellman, 2002), the results “flowed from the
data” (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005, p. 1279), allowing for a richer analysis of the latent content
(Granheim and Lundman, 2004). To ensure an overall familiarity before creating
categories, the data was initially read repeatedly (Tesch, 1990). During this process, notes
on impressions and ideas were recorded. Labels for codes that reflected the different
methods and approaches that the sport organizations used to engage fans began to
emerge. Once these codes materialized, the data were reviewed using these preliminary
codes. If data did not fit, new codes were created. Once decided, the recognized categories
were reviewed by multiple researchers to increase intra-coder reliability.

Results
Our findings indicate that, during the off-season, NBA organizations were active on social
media and used a variety of platforms to communicate and engage with their fans. The
number of platforms used had changed considerably between 2010 and 2013. In addition,
the examination of team posts revealed that four types of communication are used to
engage fans via Facebook and Twitter. These are: Informing, Marketing, Personalizing and
Activating. Although separate communication categories were identified, in some instances,
an individual team post was found to encompass more than one category of communication.
The findings in relation to social media usage by teams and the way in which teams
communicate on Facebook and Twitter, are discussed in the following sections.
 Usage of social media by NBA teams Engaging fans
Teams used a variety of platforms to communicate with their fans and appeared to through social
embrace new platforms as they become available. As shown in Table I, seven of the
platforms used in 2013 were either not used by any of the teams in 2010 or did not exist
media
at that time. Conversely, some of the relatively more mature sites, such as MySpace and
Flickr, as well as internally hosted sites (whereby the team manages its own network
and discussion board through the team’s official web site), saw a decrease in usage. 205
The two leading social media platforms, Facebook and Twitter, experienced no
change as all 30 teams continued to use both as the primary avenues to expose
their team to some of the 200 million active monthly users of Twitter (Wickre, 2013) and
1.11 billion users of Facebook (Facebook, 2013).
Overall, teams differed in the number of social media platforms they used, with one
team using as few as three and two others using as many as ten platforms to
communicate with their fans. The majority of teams however used six, as shown
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in Figure 1. There was an average increase of 2.27 social media platforms per team
between 2010 and 2013, which, as supported by Table I, demonstrates that NBA teams
are adopting established platforms, as well as new platforms as they become available.

Categories of communication to engage fans through social media

After examining over 2,000 posts by the 30 NBA teams, the data indicated that
teams predominantly engaged with fans using four types of communication. These
communication types were categorized as follows: Informing, Marketing, Personalizing
and Activating. However, individual posts would sometimes contain a combination of
these categories. Table II provides a description of these categories and associated
sub-categories, as well as providing relevant examples. As indicated by the data, teams
not only informed and promoted to fans but often tried to personalize their
communication with individual fans and facilitate their involvement within larger
groups. All four categories of communication have the potential to enhance team
identification, as will be discussed.
Some teams, such as the Golden State Warriors and Sacramento Kings, have fully
embraced social media as a communication tool, actively using multiple platforms
which are promoted extensively throughout their respective web sites. Conversely,
some teams’ online presence appeared forced and unnatural, where only the most
popular platforms were superficially employed. As such, the social aspect of these
platforms was underutilized with a large proportion of posts focussed on traditional

9
8
7
Number of Teams

6
5
4
3
Figure 1.
2
Number of social
1 media platforms
0 used by each team
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 in 2013
Number of Social Media Platforms Used
 SBM Category Description Examples
5,3
One-way communication
Informing
Organizational news News and information “Grizzlies sign Henry and Vasquez to
directly associated with the multi-year contracts”
team and the organization “Training camp is around the corner and the
206 in relation to the sport of Wizards are getting ready. John Wall, Gilbert
basketball Arenas, JaVale McGee, Nick Young, Trevor
Booker and Kevin Seraphin all participated in
a very competitive pick up game at Verizon
Center today”
Activity outside Information related to “As part of the ‘Hope for the Future’ event on
of the sport players, staff, or the Saturday, Greg Monroe visited the Detroit
organization participating Sickle Cell Center to roll up his sleeve, along
in non-sport-related with community members, for a sickle cell
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activities trait blood test.”

“Great story on former C’s PG Tiny Archibald
talking to young students about getting his
PhD and life after hoops”
Diverting fans to Direct readers to other “Full Media Day coverage including 1-on-1
other content content including pictures, videos, behind-the-scenes photos & more can
blogs or web sites now be found on Lakers.com”
“@landryfields is en route to tonight’s team
dinner, but he was able to submit his first
Rookie Blog before he left [link provided]”
Marketing
Promoting Providing relevant “Congratulations to the first HereWeRise.com
marketing communications winner, Chris Lopez, who’s won a REKE-DMC
through advertising or T-shirt! For a chance to win cool Kings prizes,
promotion of the team, including a trip for two to the 2011 NBA
games, competitions or All-Star Game, help us build the Kings digital
events billboard on HereWeRise.com!”
“Nets fans, we’re having a Breakfast &
Basketball event tomorrow in East
Rutherford, NJ. Billy King will be there to
speak to guests about training camp and the
upcoming season. Want an invitation? The
first two fans to comment here will win!”
Direct sales Providing fans with the “Monica […], another Mavs Fan that is always
opportunity to easily showing team pride and her love for the Mavs!
purchase items online, such Thanks for being a great fan Monica! Like
as tickets and merchandise what Monica is wearing? You can purchase
other ladies tank top here: [link provided].
Here is how you can show the world you are
the face of the Mavs”
“Nets fans, remember […] As part of our social
media community, you have first access to
individual tickets for the 2010-11 season! Head
to [link provided] and enter offer code FACE.
Tickets are discounted up to $10. The offer is
Table II.
for today only!”
Categories of team
communication
through social media (continued )
 Category Description Examples
Engaging fans
through social
Two-way communication media
Personalizing
Initiating contact Direct, interpersonal contact “Sorry for the delay, Jayson! Looks like you
with an individual fan, won anyway.”
initiated by the organization “Happy Holidays Jorge!” 207
Direct responses Directly responding to “Hey Andrew, Depending on the center court
individual questions or location it will vary from $100-$125. Hope to
comments see you at some games this season!“
“Jeffrey, thanks for the comment. We are
always exploring ways to improve this team,
always looking for opportunities that are in
our best interest.”
Activating
Group involvement Ensure, where possible, fans“Monday is @bobcats media day. Post some
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are included in relevant questions here or tweet us what you’d like us

general interactive to ask certain players and we’ll use some of
processes. Can also include the best stuff and post their responses”
group discussions “For those of you that have already received
your season tickets, please send us a photo of
you with your tix so we can post them here on
Facebook! Send them to [e-mail address
provided]”
Gathering feedback Collect fan opinions before “Working on some big plans for you guys, but
developing or implementing we wanted to get your feedback […] would
a new idea you be interested in buying game tickets if we
had facebook nights/tweetups once a month?”
“Some Exciting Ideas for the NBA Besides
watching, writing, talking and analyzing
about basketball, I enjoy brainstorming ideas
that can potentially improve, or even
revolutionize, the game. Read about some
proposals and vote on which one you think
would be the best addition” Table II.

one-way communication, rather than engaging fans through more interactive

communication. Furthermore, teams such as the Los Angeles Lakers had completely
removed the ability for fans to initiate new discussion topics on their Facebook wall
thereby restricting fans to only responding below official team posts.
Team communication, which was primarily “Informing,” related to providing
unsolicited information. In the absence of ongoing game-related information, teams
focussed on sporting news in anticipation of the season start (“The @bobcats will be
without Kwame Brown when Training Camp opens on Tuesday. Brown is out 4-6 weeks
with an ankle injury.”), as well as insights into the lives of players and organizational
employees outside of on-court/field activities (“Sporting Generosity named Al Horford the
September 2010 Player of the Month. Horford is being honored for his work within the
community, including but not limited to his work with Project Medishare, Caminar
Latino, La Amistad, the Star House and numerous other charities.”). Given the space
limitations of Twitter, fans were sometimes referred to other sites for additional
information likely to be of interest (“SLAM magazine recently caught up with Rodney
Stuckey for a Q&A. Check out the interview here: [Link provided]”).
 SBM Communication categorized as “Marketing” occurred where organizations provided
5,3 relevant and engaging promotions or advertisements directly to fans. This communication
was not only in relation to online purchases, such as tickets and merchandise, but also
competitions, special events with opportunities to meet the players and exclusive presale
offers to fans online (“The Spurs are inviting all fans to come to the AT&T Center for a free
open practice and scrimmage on Sunday, Oct. 3 at 1:30 p.m.”). The latter examples were
208 focussed on alternative ways to engage fans and add value to the fan experience.
“Personalizing” communication involved direct conversations with individual fans. One
of the main benefits to sport organizations of social media is the ability to communicate
with fans in real-time. While it can be argued that the goal of social media quite broadly is
to facilitate interaction, in this instance interaction was seen as specific and purposeful
attempts by an organization to engage in personal contact with fans. Teams were seen to
be conversing with individuals, either by answering fans’ questions directly or asking their
own, with the aim of clarifying any issues or queries that may be of interest to the
organization and/or other fans, such as “Hope you’ll be able to make it to see Brook and
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Devin! Can you record your game, maybe?” and “Sonia, unfortunately, there is no special
discount & a four ticket limit to Miami Heat & LA Lakers games. Sorry!”
“Activating” forms of communication encompassed efforts to involve the online
fan-base in certain activities, such as group discussions, trivia competitions and
eliciting feedback. Asking fans to contribute to an idea generation or decision making
process was an effective method to increase group interaction. These group-directed
questions or queries (e.g. “Clippers.com will chat with Eric Gordon today. Post
a question/comment for EJ and we will use some of your responses. Go Clippers”) were
seen to be a catalyst for encouraging fan discussion with the team and each other.
Rather than one-on-one conversations, this approach focusses on an elevated level of
involvement, through group interaction, feedback and ongoing dialogue.
Even though these categories of communication are presented separately at Table II,
there was potential for a single post to include more than one type of communication.
To acknowledge this important element and to reflect the complex, two-way nature of
social media communication, this potential interrelationship was explored in the data. As
a consequence, the interrelated nature of the communication categories can be depicted
as demonstrated in Figure 2. This figure is further elaborated to indicate typical
examples, taken from the data, of events that comprise various combinations of the
categories. For example, an effort to promote an upcoming event through marketing
communication also can involve activating fans by inviting them to perform a task, such
as suggesting a promotional slogan, to win free tickets to team games.
In general, the communications categorized as Informing and Marketing were primarily
one-way; the team would simply provide fans with information or publicize promotional
opportunities, in many respects mirroring traditional communication methods. However,
communications categorized as Personalizing and Activating allowed a two-way dialogue
to develop, reinforcing the interactive nature of social media and in essence providing two
important outcomes. First, the process of including fans may directly aid in increasing
team identification through these interactive communication approaches and, second, the
strategic usage of such approaches may allow teams to develop distinct and valuable
online personalities. These outcomes are explored in the discussion that follows.

Discussion
This study provides the first rich insights into how two major social media platforms
are being utilized by NBA teams to engage fans around the globe. Further, this study
 Personalizing
Engaging fans
through social
One-on-one
conversations
media

Facilitating Answering
discussions queries
209
Activating Trivia Informing
competitions Team news

Ticket Presale
give-aways offers

Merchandise sales
Figure 2.
Examples of team
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communication
Marketing
through social media

contributes to the understanding of social media usage in sport and specifically the
way in which it is being used to communicate to, and engage with, fans during the off-
season. Through social media, NBA teams are providing information and multimedia
content, discussing topics as a group and eliciting feedback, interacting with fans one-
on-one and also promoting and advertising the team and events. Additionally, the
findings suggest unfulfilled potential in relation to engaging fans, particularly in terms
of maximizing opportunities to enhance team identification.
The predominance of Twitter and Facebook, given their ubiquity, was not surprising
and therefore formed the basis of this study. That said, it is still important to remain aware
of the ever-changing usage patterns of fans online and adapt accordingly (O’Shea and
Alonso, 2011). This sentiment is supported by Table I which indicates that several
communication platforms used in 2013 were not in existence just a few years earlier. While
sport organizations will need to assess on an individual basis whether (and when) it is
financially viable to extend to emerging platforms, social media can be used as an efficient
communication strategy (Witkemper et al., 2012), particularly when organizations may be
financially constrained or lack personnel (O’Shea and Alonso, 2011).
The adoption of multiple social media platforms allows sport organizations to serve
interrelated interaction and communication functions. Teams were seen to post
information and internally created content for fans directly onto their Facebook wall,
but would often send interpersonal messages and links to external content through
Twitter. This indicates that each platform can be used concurrently for different
purposes and may lead to the enhancement of team identification. Team identification
stems from a collection of meanings and experiences (Funk and James, 2006), which
supports the idea that all of the identified categories of communication on social media
could contribute to heightened identification. Fundamentally across all teams, despite
some apparent differences in the adoption and use of the available platforms,
social media were seen as information conduits which would involve organizations
providing details (directly related to the team’s basketball activities or other matters
such as ancillary events through the Informing category) which could also lead to
discussion from fans with the likelihood of positive action – such as increased
attendance at an event.
 SBM All four categories of communication identified in this study have the ability to
5,3 strengthen team identification through various, complementary avenues. The Informing
category can satisfy fan requirements for up-to-date news and information, as well as
providing a real-time look into behind-the-scenes workings of sport organizations,
potentially increasing fans’ sense of personal connectedness (Mael and Ashforth, 1992;
Sutton et al., 1997). The Marketing category allows unique and tailored offerings which
210 may be considered more relevant and therefore more acceptable to fans. Feedback can
increase a fan’s affinity and affiliation (Pritchard et al., 2010) and this can be stimulated
via the Personalizing category which is geared toward providing an outlet for opinion
and exchange. To further engage fans, using communication that includes an Activating
element, such as arranging interpersonal activities and events, can solidify these efforts
and greatly enhance a fan’s identification.
Across all teams, social media were easily accessible communal meeting places for
like-minded fans to congregate and not only communicate with each other, but also
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with the team. This was evident in the efforts to promote the use of social media
platforms through various mainstream media, such as including Facebook links
and Twitter hash-tags at the end of television commercials. A forum for this type of
community is particularly important during the off-season given the limited options
for fans to interact around game-related matters. The Golden State Warriors ran a
competition using social media that incorporated the Activating and Marketing
categories to find a fan to attend the team’s media day and act as the official “social
media journalist.” Although no financial incentives were realized by either side, the
goodwill and enhanced identification that this and other similar activities would have
created is valuable. This may further facilitate connectivity and the flow of information
(Gantz, 2013; Hennig-Thurau et al., 2010) and encourage fans to become unofficial
promoters for the team and related-events (Hambrick, 2012).
Other teams had clearly used social media as a way of enhancing their individual
online personality. Some teams, such as the Brooklyn Nets, were very thorough
in responding to as many questions and comments as possible, the moderators
conscientiously used the fan’s name when addressing them or answering any
questions. Other teams also successfully created nicknames for their online fans.
For example, the Miami Heat would often address their Twitter followers as
“twHeat fans.” This heightened attentiveness is an easy and simple way to increase
personalization; however, this strategy generally was used by teams with smaller fan
bases. As highlighted previously, teams such as the Los Angeles Lakers had removed
the option for fans to initiate discussion on their Facebook wall; although given the
sheer number of fans wishing to contribute, this approach may have been justifiably
employed to minimize posting congestion. Limiting how fans use these pages may,
however stifle individual interactions as any questions or criticisms are concealed in
the comments section by all other posts.
Some teams had actively moved toward an orientation that saw social media
as a segment and trend repository, allowing the organization to monitor and query
fan behaviors, perceptions and motivations which could then potentially be used
for strategic planning. This usage was evident in two ways, first through the very
nature of social media that allows comments to be stored and readily retrieved through
simple search terms and also through active attempts to activate and personalize
communication with fans to explore their attitude to various topics. In effect social
media becomes an interactive and multi-dimensional listening post, where typical fan
queries (including complaints), posted with the hope of an authoritative response, could
 be dealt with to increase satisfaction. Further, specific engagement tactics to facilitate Engaging fans
identification with the organization (such as contests) can be deployed. By nurturing through social
this involvement, teams allow the opportunity for co-creation which is important
in adding a unique appeal (Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004) to the platform. This
media
co-created involvement with the organization and its management process can
potentially enhance identification with the team further.
For some teams, social media were also a way to increase personalization of 211
communication where relationships can be formed through direct, interpersonal
discussion of mutual sport and non-sport-related interests, potentially creating a closer
bond between the moderators (essentially the “online face” of the organization) and
fans. Some teams, such as the Dallas Mavericks, differentiated between their online
mediators but the majority of teams simply posted/tweeted as the sport organization
itself, rather than personalizing their interaction. By communicating directly with a
member of the organization, a fan’s satisfaction may be increased, enhancing their
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identification. Other teams were directly contributing to conversations but they were
not fully capitalizing on the opportunities of direct contact that can strengthen social
bonds by providing personalized information from outside of the team. By providing
greater insight into the personalities and non-sport-related preferences of relevant
individuals within the organization, a fan’s attachment and consequently identification
with the team, can be enhanced.
As highlighted in the findings, some differences between teams in the use of
Facebook and Twitter were also uncovered. Given that organizations are able to
upload multimedia content directly to their Facebook pages, there was less reliance
on directing fans to external content. Links were sometimes included but more
information was initially provided, compared to Twitter, where shortened URLs were
utilized due to the 140 character limit. This can be an effective way to provide extra
information given the space restrictions and is particularly important during the off-
season when internally produced, team-related information may be scarce. Directing
fans to interesting external pages can fill the void created by a lack of games or general
team-related activity and ensure that communication with fans continues during the
off-season. Without continual exposure, those with lower levels of team identification,
such as social or focussed fans (Sutton et al., 1997), may divert their attention to
another sport. However, social media and the communication approaches identified in
this study, allow the continuation of these relationships thus minimizing the potential
adverse effects of the off-season.
In comparison, even though Twitter has considerably less active users than Facebook,
this streamlined communication lends itself to more interactivity, with some teams
successfully incorporating a combination of the Activating and Marketing categories,
such as spontaneous trivia competitions for fans, via this medium. Furthermore, many
teams were seen to be re-tweeting comments made by their athletes, which can inform
fans and give them an insight into their lifestyle. From this, it would appear that
Facebook is treated more as a vehicle to push certain messages suited to the Informing
and Marketing categories, whereas Twitter is used as more of an interactive tool through
the use of communication designed to be Activating and Personalizing. The majority of
Informing and Marketing posts by teams were repeated over both platforms to ensure
online fans were kept up-to-date no matter which of the major social media platforms
they frequented.
A benefit of external social media platforms is that there is already a vast user group
present. Teams and organizations may be expected by social media users to have an
 SBM online presence, so minimal promotion is needed to attract fans. Notwithstanding, aside
5,3 from the omnipresent Facebook and Twitter, another relatively common method of
communicating with fans was found to be internal social networks. Approximately half
the NBA teams manage social networks through their official web sites and frequently
direct fans to these internal networks via Facebook and Twitter. These networks enable
an organization to maintain greater control over appearance, commercial linkages and
212 function, although McLean and Wainwright (2009) suggest that organizations may risk
alienating fans by over-regulation or excessive commercialization of their site.

Managerial implications
As higher levels of team identification can have a substantial financial impact on
sport organizations, it is important for sport managers to cultivate and maintain
this association effectively, particularly during the off-season where other forms of
interaction are limited. This study reveals additional opportunities, through the use
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of social media, to effectively engage and interact with fans. Although this study
examined social media use by professional basketball teams, the implications of our
findings are relevant to teams in any major sporting code.
First, fans turn to social media to access up-to-date information on the team, players
and other related aspects of the organization (Informing). By providing, real-time
updates, “sneak-peeks” and exclusive news, teams are able to satiate fans’ desires for
timely and relevant information, increasing their satisfaction. Second, sport
organizations can personalize their contact with individual fans through directed
conversations (Personalizing). By increasing the accessibility to representatives of the
team and creating a more personable front, this can solidify the relationship with
individual fans. Third, contact with fans can be directed at the entire group by asking
questions, getting fans involved in the creative process and eliciting feedback
(Activating). This strategy is particularly effective in creating opportunities for group
affiliation and increasing fan-community involvement. Finally, through social media,
sport organizations are provided with a valuable opportunity to expose their direct
target market to marketing communications related to the team, games and events
(Marketing). By ensuring promotions and advertising are relevant and of value to the
fans, sport organizations can encourage greater financial commitment by the highly
identified audience found through social media. However, by promoting too often
through social media, sport organizations may also run the risk of over commercializing
the space, potentially turning fans away.
The categories of Informing and Marketing focus on creating desirable content to
attract fans, which is of great importance, but are not sufficient on their own. Without
the interaction aspects of the Activating and Personalizing types of communication,
the unique benefits of social media are not being utilized. That is, the social media
pages may simply become mirrors of the team’s web site. However, developing
communications that are Informing or Marketing oriented, but also incorporate aspects
which are Activating or Personalizing, allows teams to emphasize the more relational
aspects of engagement to build identification. Teams then are able to tailor the online
experience for their fans through interactive content which can help them differentiate
themselves, not only other teams within their league, but also those from other sports.
While the categories of communication identified in this study can be used
individually, we recommend an all-encompassing design that allows the
complementary aspect of these approaches to be maximized. Figure 2 depicts the
interrelated nature of the communication types we identified which would allow a sport
 organization to strategically target its fans to specifically enhance team identification Engaging fans
through various activities. Although some of the categories reflect more traditional one- through social
way communication, these can be used to trigger two-way communication through
social media. Traditionally, news stories and sport information was sought out in
media
newspapers and, more recently, on official team web sites. However, through social
media, fans can share and comment on these news stories directly. This feature
reinforces the importance of incorporating all four categories of communication in 213
order to fully capture the benefits of social media.
Beyond the specific categories discussed, there are some further recommendations
we would offer to organizations who wish to use social media to enhance team
identification. It appears that creating a more personable front for online moderators,
and thus an alternate point of attachment, may encourage fans to engage more
frequently. This strategy requires dedicated moderators who are, in essence, the online
face of the team and we suggest they should be promoted and identified where
possible – such as being introduced at team functions – to personalize the relationship
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and give fans a feeling of access to the inner sanctum. Another opportunity lies in
assigning official moderator duties to key fans who have exemplified long-term
positive behavior on a social network. By giving these fans a stake in the forum, the
organization is able to encourage opinion leaders and co-create areas of exchange and
value directly with key fan segments.
Moderators will also need to work across a variety of social media platforms and
continue to adopt new technology as it becomes available. Despite the strength of one
or two key networks, fans have multiple access points which will continue to evolve as
new platforms emerge or existing ones alter. With the ever-changing usage patterns
and preferences of fans online, a monitoring system is needed to ensure that
prioritization is given to the most relevant and accepted social media platforms at any
given point in time. As we have shown over a relatively short period, platforms
can potentially rise or fall out of favor with a team’s fan-base which indicates the
importance of staying up-to-date with altered usage patterns as these platforms
constantly evolve. Over the period examined, NBA organizations were seen to
successfully adopt new platforms, some of which were not in existence at the beginning
of the study. By providing varied and interesting online experiences, the changing
preferences of online fans can be catered for, potentially developing or solidifying team
identification. However, while the rapid adoption of new social media is technically
feasible for most professional sporting teams, organizations must consider value
management. New networks might allow for a better understanding and interaction
with a heterogeneous fan-base, however resources are required to manage these
networks and to ensure that they remain current and of value to participants.
Finally, it is vital to recognize the desired aims of social media communication,
which can dictate which platform to use. Information can be shared freely and quickly
through Facebook, whereas the same information may need to be linked by a URL
through Twitter. Conversely, Twitter allows greater one-on-one contact between the
organization and fans when compared to the sometimes cluttered wall of a Facebook
site. There was also an indication of some teams redirecting fans to internally hosted
social media platforms, but this strategy should be approached with some caution.
Although in-house sites would allow a great amount of customization and freedom,
social media have the added bonus of already having many millions of users who
frequent the pages to connect to various valuable networks, such as friends, family and
like-minded individuals.
 SBM Limitations and future research
5,3 Despite the contributions of this study, some limitations must be noted. The initial stage
of this study was undertaken during a two-week off-season period of a single
North American league. Further, while the study examined the two biggest and most
consistently used social media platforms, there are (as this study has presented) numerous
forms of social media interaction that can be considered and that the nature and structure
214 of these communications is often fraught with untested complexity inherent in emerging
technology. Given that research into social media and their impact upon identification is in
its relative infancy, there is a large scope for further research. The categories revealed by
this study can be explored in other social networks and in the context of other sports,
leagues and countries to determine whether they can be generalized. Finally, further
research should examine and compare the applicability of categories and levels of
identification during the playing season, as well as in the off-season. A longitudinal study
examining teams’ online activity throughout the season would be of value to determine if
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the type of interaction varies according to the time of year.

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About the authors

Matthew D. Meng is a Doctoral Candidate, Questrom School of Business, Boston University,
USA. Matthew D. Meng is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: mdmeng@bu.edu
Constantino Stavros is an Associate Professor of Marketing, School of Economics, Finance &
Marketing, RMIT University, Australia and a Visiting Professor at the IESEG School of
Management, France.
Kate Westberg is an Associate Professor of Marketing, School of Economics, Finance &
Marketing, RMIT University, Australia.

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