CE10-Engineering Utilities 2

COLEGIO DE SEBASTIAN - PAMPANGA
City of San Fernando, Pampanga
L earning M odule
Engineering Utilities 2
Prepared by: Jenilyn A. Aquino

July 15, 2020
School of Engineering
Course Overview
Engineering Utilities 2
Course Code
Prerequisite Physics for Engineers (Calculus – based)
Cr. Units/hours 3 Units Lecture
Course Description The course focuses on the mechanical systems, fire protection
systems, sanitary/ plumbing systems and acoustics in buildings.
Lecture discussions include HVAC systems, acoustics, vertical
transportation and fire protection. Reducing operational loads and
integrating high performance energy systems into buildings offers
solutions towards achieving a sustainable and secure energy
future. Engineers must understand interrelationship between a
building and its subsystems, and need sufficient knowledge of
building systems and design alternatives to recommend
appropriate solutions that suit the site, climate, building type and
occupants. They must coordinate the work of the engineering
disciplines that carry the sustainability concept forward through
building design, construction, commissioning, operation and
ultimately demolition, recycling and reuse.
Specific Course  Name, describe and distinguish sources of potable water.
Objectives  Name, describe and distinguish key types and
components of a plumbing supply/ distribution system.
 Identify, describe and distinguish types and uses of water
heaters.
 Name and explain basic properties of fluid flow of a
building plumbing system (i.e. flow rate, velocity, pressure,
pressure drop, etc.)
 Calculate maximum probable flow rate of a building
plumbing system.
 Calculate pressure drop in lines of a building plumbing
system.
 Compute the minimum required size of distribution lines of
a building plumbing system.
 Name, describe and distinguish methods of waste disposal
in buildings.
 Identify, describe and distinguish key components of a
drain, west and vent (DWV) system.
 Compute the minimum required size of drainage and vent
lines of a building plumbing system.
 Interpret the plumbing supply and DWV system design and
detailing information.
 Identify, describe, distinguish between passive and active
fire protection.
 Identify, describe, distinguish and interpret fire resistance
and spread fire ratings.
 Name, describe and distinguish types and key
components of building fire extinguishing, sprinkler and
standpipe systems, fire detection systems and fire alarm
systems.
 Interpret building fire protection system design and
detailing information.
 Identify, describe and distinguish types of conveying
systems that move people and freight vertically and
horizontally (escalators, elevators, ramps, lifts, walkways).
 Describe applications for building conveying systems that
move people and freight.
 Interpret conveying system design and detailing
information.
 Identify, describe and interpret ratings related to acoustical
control.
 Interpret acoustical control design and detailing
information.
Method of Instruction Engineering Utilities 2 is an allied engineering course wherein the
method of instruction will be online presentations coupled with
student learning module. The module will be enhanced through
small group discussions online of relevant topics and presentations
and/or discussions before and in the class. Key components of
topics will be reinforced using quizzes. Presentations and
discussions attempt to relate concepts presented to our own lives,
society in general and to the Civil Engineering profession as well.
Internet assignments and homework assignments made up of
critical thought questions will be used.
Parts of the Module Colegio de Sebastian aims to provide flexible learning in the new
normal through modular instruction. This module contains all the
lessons that will be covered within the whole semester as per
CHED CMO. Basically, each lesson will be divided into the
following parts:
 Learning Objectives – This contains the desired learning

outcomes of the lesson – what students are expected to
achieve at the end of the lesson.
 Assignment – These are tasks that needs to be
accomplished by the students before or during the duration
of the lesson.
 Lesson Summary – This part contains the concepts,
theories and principles that will be discussed either through
online presentations, small group discussions or personal
learning.
 Materials – This part indicates the learning tools and
resources needed in the lesson by the students and in
completing the activities provided after each lesson.
 Activity- This part contains activities, exercises or drills that
students need to complete to check how well they
understood the lesson/s presented.
 Learning Assessment – This part of the lesson is a way of
evaluating and assessing the overall performance of the
students. All output of students will be evaluated using the
rubric shown below and must be submitted to your
professor on the specified date and time.
Rubric to be used in the Evaluation of Students’ Outputs in Lecture

Course
Criteria 4 3 2 1 Value
Neatness The output The output The output The output
and submitted is is organized is organized is disorderly
Organization incredibly with few with several organized.
neat and smudges. smudges.
organized.
Completion All the Most of the Some of the Student did
assigned assigned assigned not submit
work is work is work is any output.
complete. complete. complete.
Timeliness Output was Output was Output was Output was
received on 1 day late. 2 days late. 3 days late.
due date
Work Shown All steps for Most steps Some steps Student did
solving for solving for solving not show
problems problems problems any work.
are shown. were were
shown. missing.
Topic Outline
Week 9 Week 16
Week 1 Week 8
OSST/ Alternative Basic Principles in
Course Sanitary Drainage Waste Systems Building Conveying
Introduction Systems (Part II) Systems
(Part I)
Week 2 Week 10
Week 7 Week 15
Basic Principles of OSST/ Alternative
Sanitary/ Plumbing Sanitary Draianage Acoustical Control in
Systems (Part I) Waste Systems Buildings (Part II)
Design (Part II)
Week 3 Week 6 Week 11 Week 14

Plumbing Materials, Domestic Water Plumbing/ Water Acoustical Control in
Fittings and Fixtures Heating Systems Review Buildings (Part I)
Week 4 Week 5 Week 12 Week 13

Building Water Building Water Life Safety Systems
System and Design System and Design Life Safety Systems
in Buildings (Part I) in Buildings (Part II)
(Part I) (Part II)
Requirements and Outputs:
 3 Major Exams (Prelims, Midterms and Finals) for Lecture

 Hands on Practical Examination (Prelims, Midterms and Finals) for Laboratory
 Weekly Learning Assessment/ Problem Sets for Lecture
 Hands on Exercises for Laboratory
U nlocking your P otentials
Welcome to your guide through Numerical Solutions to CE Problems. We are happy at

Colegio de Sebastian-Pampanga as you are to take another subject in college. You may be
feeling great excitement and a little apprehension for this next level and that is usual and normal.
Your classmates probably have the same feeling. As you have been oriented as to how
online/modular learning works, we will further guide you through this online distance course.
Read on for more tips on getting your distance learning adventure off to a good start.
Helpful Tips:
1. Start by clearing your space, this is a mentally and physically setting aside the tasks
that await you for the day. Organizing your table and arranging your materials will be
a good start.
2. Make sure to have patience in repeating and reading lessons. Rehearsal is a key
component to memory.
3. Integrate concepts with physical movement to ease the learning process. You can use
the suggested gestures or even modify them and make your own.
4. Lessons may take up to an hour to two and a half hours of your day on this subject
equivalent to 5 hours per week, but these hours/days are well spent for you to learn
the basics concepts of the course.
5. Your teacher is always online during the scheduled class hour and you may want to
connect with your teacher via the online classes.
6. Make sure to practice academic honesty in doing assignments and projects at home.
7. Parental/guardian support maybe necessary when understanding other concepts.
8. Use common values in making decisions and choices.
9. Communicate and establish support system among your classmates and peers.
10. Take breaks and be active when necessary to avoid boredom. It will be essential to
be engaging and to insert active imaginations in lessons.
Week 1 Course Introduction
Learning Objectives
After the three hour home – based study period, you are expected to have:
1. Read and demonstrated understanding on the elements of plumbing.

2. Identified and discussed the properties of water.
3. Explained the different processes involve in water cycle.
4. Stated and discussed water quality problems and their solutions.
5. Identified and discussed the water treatment processes used by MCWD.
Assignment
In this lesson, you are tasked to do the following:
1. Read the topics presented in the Lesson Summary.

2. Complete the exercises given in the Activity Section and in the Learning
Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
Basically, this part of the lesson will cover the following topics.
1. Elements of Plumbing
 Plumbing System
2. Properties of Water
 The Demand of Water

 Water Quality Problems and Their Correction
 Water Purification
 The Metropolitan Cebu Water District
 Groundwater Treatment Process Used by MCWD
 Surface Water Basic Treatment Process Employed by MCWD
 Treatment Process
 Surface Water Supply and Treatment System
I. ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING
PLUMBING
Plumbing the art and technique of installing pipes, fixtures, and other apparatuses
in buildings for bringing in the supply of liquids, substances and/or ingredients and
removing them; and such water, liquid and other carried-wastes hazardous to health,
sanitation, life and property pipes and fixtures after installation i.e., the ‘plumbing system’.
(Section 217.6 The Revised National Plumbing Code of the Philippines 1999)
PLUMBING SYSTEM
Plumbing System includes all potable water supply and distribution pipes, all
plumbing fixtures and traps; all sanitary and storm drainage systems; vent pipes, roof
drains, leaders and downspouts; and all building drains and sewers, including their
respective joints and connections; devices, receptacles, and appurtenances within the
property; water lines in the premises; potable, tap, hot and chilled water piping; potable
water treating or using equipment; fuel gas piping; water heaters and vents for same.
(Section 217.12 NPC 1999)
A Plumbing system, reduced to its simplest terms, consists of a supply pipe leading
to a fixture and a drainpipe taking the used water away from this fixture.
The system constitutes the following:
1. The water supply and water distribution system. Carries water from the water
source, street main or a pump to the building and to various points in the building
at which water is used.
2. The plumbing fixtures. The receptacles that receive the supplied water and allow
the occupants of the building to use the water.
3. The drainage system. The piping network within the building which conveys from
the plumbing fixtures all wastes and fecal matter (sanitary drainage) as well as
rainwater (storm drainage) to a point of disposal or a treatment facility.
THE PLUMBER
The plumber is the one who works or engages in the business of installing in
buildings the pipes fixtures and other apparatus for bringing in the water supply and
removing liquid and waterborne wastes. There are three categories of plumbers based
upon their graces of experiences. They are:
1. Apprentice plumber- a beginner at the trade who usually serves for 3 to 5 years
as helper to a journeyman.
2. Journeyman plumber- has served his apprenticeship and is competent to
perform the tasks of installing and repairing plumbing.
3. Master plumber- a person technically and legally qualified and licensed to

practice the profession of master plumbing without limitations in accordance with
Republic Act 1378, having passed the examinations conducted by the Professional
Regulation Commission (PRC), has received a certificate of registration from the
board of master plumbing and possesses the current license to practice. (Section
214.5 NPC 200)
II. PROPERTIES OF WATER
Water plays an important part in the plumbing system. It is a common, but in many
ways, an unusual liquid. Large quantities of water are required in buildings for personal
use, food preparation, cleaning and general domestic purposes, and possibly also for
firefighting, laundries, swimming pools, irrigation and recreational use.
We sometimes tend to think of water as an inexhaustible natural resource.

However, our supply of fresh water is definitely limited, and improved conservation
practices are necessary if our needs are to be supplied.
THE DEMAND OF WATER
DEMAND REQUIREMENT
Drinking, Cooking, Dishwashing Must be pure, sterilized and protected from
contamination. Supplies taken direct from
mains or from exclusive storage.
Personal Washing and Domestic Cleaning Similar but moderated to allow cold and hot
supplies to be drawn from main storage
tank or cistern via distribution network.
Laundry Generally clean and wholesome, soft and

free form Iron and Manganese staining.
Fire Fighting High Pressure. Connections must not permit
contamination of mains water.
Swimming Clean, filtered and sterilized with free
chlorine residue for post-sterilization. Can
be recirculated.
Boilers and Heating Plants Soft treated water, stored and circulated
separate from domestic supplies.
Irrigation No special requirement, except reasonably
free from solids and slit (result in blocked
Pipes and nozzles) and undecomposed
material (pollution).
WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS AND THEIR CORRECTION
PROBLEM CAUSE EFFECT CORRECTION

1. Acidity Contains carbon Corrosion of Passing the water
dioxide. Cistern and nonferrous pipes, through a bed of
pond waters rusting and clogging crushed marble or
containing decaying of steel pipes. limestone to achieve
vegetation are likely alkalinity, or adding
to be acidic sodium silicate.
2. Hardness Presence of Clogging of pipes. Introduction of water

Magnesium and Impaired laundering softeners made up of
Calcium and food Zeolite (a greenish
preparation. granular material)
3. Turbidity Silt or suspended Discoloration and Filtration

matters picked up in bad taste.
surface or near
surface flow.
4. Color Presence of Iron and Discoloration of Precipitation by
Manganese fixtures and Laundry filtration through
manganese zeolite
(oxidizing filter)
5. Pollution Contamination by Disease Chlorination
organic matter or
sewage
WATER PURIFICATION
Water purification is any method that will remove one or more materials that make
the water unsuitable for a given use. The methods that are commonly used in water
purification are:
1. Settling or Sedimentation
2. Filtration
3. Adsorption/ Flocculation-Coagulation
4. Aeration
5. Distillation
6. Disinfection/ Chlorination
The natural water includes all of these purification methods except disinfection. Sitting
in lakes, ponds, or the oceans, water is subject to settling (sedimentation). As it percolates
through soil or porous rocks, it is filtered (filtration). Soil and humus are also good
chemical adsorbents (coagulation/ flocculation). As water flows down streams and rivers,
detritus is removed by biological oxidation (aeration). As water evaporates and
condenses, it is distilled (distillation).
Thus, numerous freshwater sources might be safe to drink were it no for human
pollution. The most serious threat to human health is contamination with disease causing
organisms and parasites, which come from the excrements of humans and their domestic
animals. In human settlements, one can see how the organisms may get into water and
be passed onto people before any of the natural purification processes can work.
THE METROPOLITAN CEBU WATER DISTRICT (MCWD)
The Metropolitan Cebu Water District (MCWD) is the sole commercial provider in
Metro Cebu comprising of four cities and four municipalities. As of year 2000, MCWD
served 40% of the total population of Metro Cebu.
MCWD is primarily tasked to deliver adequate, safe, potable and affordable water
to its concessionaires.
MCWD has two sources or its water supply:
1. Ground Water
2. Surface Water
GROUND WATER TREATMENT PROCESS USED BY MCWD
Ground water sources are naturally and presumably purified by a compact thick
filter media layer of ungraded sands, soils and rocks at considerable depth. Hence,
disinfection using Chlorine Gas and other Chlorine Salts is the only treatment process
employed. Here, water that is extracted from their ground through a pumping equipment
is allowed to pass through chlorination facility using chlorine gas to kill any presence of
coliform organisms and other forms of bacteria. Water is the stored in a reservoir ready
for distribution into each concessionaire’s faucet.
At certain areas in the distribution network, direct feed pumping stations are
employed to augment the water supply. These are strategically located in different areas
Metro Cebu.
SURFACE WATER BASIC TREATMENT PROCESS EMPLOYED BY MCWD
Runoff or surface water is first stored in dam. From this, water goes through a
series of treatment processes.
The Buhisan Dam (Tisa Filtration)
Buhisan Dam is Cebu’s first and only dam MCWD’s only surface water source. It
supplies the Tisa (Labangon) filter plant with up to 600 cubic meter per hour (600,000
liters per hour or 158,400 gallons per hour) or about an average of 4,000 cubic meter
daily (4 million liters or 1.05 million gallons).
This dam is located in Buhisan, a southern mountain baranggay of Cebu City. This was
designed by 27 year-old Eusebius Julius Halsema. AG and P, the winning bider, asked
Php 463, 628.00 to do the work. On November 10, 1911, the dam was completed and
ready to be filled.
With a height of 27 meters, the concrete dam has a conical arch design which
transfers the stress in the reservoir (caused by water strain) to the sides of the dam
thereby anchoring it firmly in place.
Three 4.5 meter wide flood gates exist for flood control purposes. Its long concrete
spillway allows overflow water to escape safely when the dam gates are raised.
Two kilometers of raw water main pipes extend from the dam to the distribution
reservoir in Tisa. From the latter, a four kilometer pipeline distributes water to
concessionaires in Cebu City. Another 21 kilometers of pipelines were also laid for
improved water distribution.
Today the almost 100 year old Buhisan Dam is as strong as when it first operated.
TREATMENT PROCESS
MCWD treats the surface water using the conventional process comprising of the
following:
1. Aeration
2. Coagulation- Flocculation
3. Sedimentation
4. Filtration
5. Disinfection/ Chlorination
1. Aeration- Water is sprayed into the air to release any trapped gases and absorb
additional oxygen for better taste.
2. Coagulation- Flocculation- This is the process by which small sediment particles which
do not settle well combine together to form larger particles which can be removed by
sedimentation. This process includes physical and chemical process:
a. Coagulation- is the chemical process in which the coagulant reacts with the
sediment to make it capable of combining into larger particles. This is called
destabilization.
b. Flocculation- is the physical process in which the sediment particles collide with
each other and stick together.
3. Sedimentation- This is the process by which suspended solids are removed from the
water by gravity settling and deposition. This process usually follows coagulation-
flocculation. The objective of this process is to remove most of the suspended solids,
reducing the loads on the filters.
4. Filtration- This is the passage of fluid through a porous medium suspended matter
which did not settle by gravity. In water purification, matter to be removed includes
suspended silt, clay, colloids, and microorganisms including algae, bacteria, and
viruses. A filter bed consists of a granular non-porous material held one place by the
force of gravity or by the direction of flow.
5. Disinfection/ Chlorination- This is the most important process used in the production
of water of a safe and sanitary quality. Chlorination is the method of introducing a
controlled amount of chlorine to the water in order to attain a desired degree of
disinfection.
After the processes, water is stored in a reservoir, then to the transmission mains, then
to the, distribution lines, down to the service connections and lastly to the
concessionaire’s faucet.
SURFACE WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT SYSTEM
Water is taken from the water shed reservoir and piped to the treatment plant. At
the plant, (1) water is aerated to release trapped gases and to absorb oxygen for better
taste, (2) Alum/tawas (aluminum sulfate) is added to coagulate organic particles, and (3)
the water is put into a settling basin for several hours to allow coagulated particles to
settle. It is then (4) filtered through sand filters, (5) Chlorine is added to kill bacteria and
put into a storage tank for distribution to concessionaires.
Materials
This Module and student’s available relevant reading materials at home as personal
references.
Activity
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is the relevance of engineering utilities in the civil engineering

profession?
2. What are the three categories of plumbers and explain each category in your
own words?
3. Enumerate and explain the water treatment processes used by MCWD.
Learning Assessment
Welcome to the last part of this lesson. By now, it is expected that you are ready to do an
overall self-evaluation of your learning and accomplishment in the Course through this
lesson. This part of the module is divided into two parts. The first part is the “How well did
I do?” section wherein you are going to evaluate how well did you understand the lessons
presented. And the last part is the “Share your Thoughts” section. This is meant to be a
space where you can express concisely the overall assessment of your learning and
performance of tasks covered in this Module. You will need to write an essay of at least
50 words to summarize the concepts learned.
I. How well did I do?
Based from the learning objectives stated, rate your performance using a scale of 1 – 5,
with 5 as the highest by placing a check mark on the appropriate box.
Learning Objectives 1 2 3 4 5
I was able to read and
demonstrate
understanding on the
elements of plumbing.
I was able to identify and

discuss the properties of
water.
I was able to explain the
different processes
involve in water cycle.
I was able to state and

discuss water quality
problems and their
solutions.
discuss the water
treatment processes
used by MCWD.
II. Share Your Thoughts
This is a space where you can express concisely the overall assessment of your learning
and performance of tasks covered in this Module.
Name: Program, Year and Section:

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:
Send output on or before ________________ to: jenilynaquino1987@gmail.com.

Week 2 Basic Principles of Sanitary/ Plumbing Design
Learning Objectives
1. Read and demonstrated understanding on the Basic Principles Governing the

National Plumbing Code of the Philippines.
2. Read and discussed the Master Plumber’s Code of Ethics.
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. Basic Principles Governing the National Plumbing Code

2. Master Plumber’s Code of Ethics
THE PLUMBING CODE
The improper installation of plumbing may affect the health of the occupants of a
building and create a center point for the spread of disease. The possibility is of sufficient
public interests to require the regulation of plumbing by law. The right of the government
to regulate the details of plumbing is based on the principle of the protection of public
health.
The basic goal of the National Plumbing Code of the Philippines is to ensure the
qualified observance of the latest provision of the plumbing and environmental laws.
THE BASIC PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE NATIONAL PLUMBING CODE
1. All premises intended for human use or habitation shall be provided with a supply
of pure and wholesome water, neither connected to unsafe water supply nor
subject to backflow or back- siphon age.
2. Plumbing fixtures, devices and appurtenances shall be supplied with water in
sufficient volume and pressure adequate to function satisfactorily and without
undue noise.
3. Plumbing shall be designed and adjusted to use the minimum quantity of water
consistent with proper performance and cleaning.
4. Devices for heating and storing water shall be so designed and installed as to
prevent dangers from explosion through overheating.
5. Every building abutting on a street, alley or easement with a public sewer shall
connect its plumbing fixtures to the sewer system.
6. Each family dwelling unit shall have at least one water closet, one kitchen type
sink, a lavatory and a bathtub or shower to meet the basic requirements of
sanitation and personal hygiene.
7. Plumbing fixtures shall be made of smooth non-absorbent material, free from

concealed fouling surfaces and shall be located in ventilated enclosures.
8. The drainage system shall be designed, constructed and maintained to safeguard

against fouling, deposit of solids, clogging and with adequate cleanouts so
arranged that the pipes may be readily cleaned.
9. All piping shall be of durable NAMPAP-approved materials, free from defective

workmanship, designed and constructed by Registered Master Plumbers to
ensure satisfactory service.
10. Each fixture directly connected to the drainage system shall be equipped with a
water-sealed trap.
11. The drainage pipes piping system shall be designed to provide adequate
circulation of air free from siphon age, aspiration or forcing of trap seals under
ordinary use.
12. Vent terminals shall extend to the outer air and installed to prevent clogging and
the return of foul air to the building.
13. Plumbing systems shall be subjected to such tests to effectively disclose all leaks
and defects in the workmanship.
14. Substance which will clog the pipes, produce explosive mixtures, destroy the pipes
or their joints or interfere unduly with the sewage-disposal process shall not be
allowed to enter the building drainage system.
15. Proper protection shall be provided to prevent contamination of food, water, sterile
goods and similar materials by backflow of sewage. When necessary, the fixture,
device or appliance shall be connected indirectly with the building drainage
system.
16. No water closet shall be located in a room or compartment which is not properly
lighted and ventilated.
17. If there is no sewer system in the area, suitable provision shall be made for the
disposal of building sewage by some accepted method of sewage treatment and
disposal, such as a septic tank.
18. Where a plumbing drainage system may be subject to backflow of sewage,

suitable provision shall be made to prevent its overflow in the building.
19. Plumbing systems shall be maintained in serviceable condition by Registered

Master Plumbers.
20. All plumbing fixtures shall be installed properly spaced, to be accessible for their
intended use.
21. Plumbing shall be installed with due regard to the preservation of the strength of
structural members and the prevention of damage to walls and other surfaces
through fixture usage.
22. Sewage or other waste from plumbing systems, which may be deleterious to
surface or sub-surface waters shall not be discharged into the ground or into any
waterway, unless first rendered innocuous through subjection to some acceptable
form of treatment.
MASTER PLUMBER’S CODE OF ETHICS
A registered master plumber shall maintain a professional bearing consistent with

an honorable and dignified pursuit of his/ her profession, adhering to a set of conduct
becoming of his/ her calling, and shall not:
1. Act in an unprofessional manner and demand any remuneration other than his/
her original charges except for additional services not covered to perform the
contract;
2. Supplant another Registered Master Plumber after definite steps have already
been taken toward his/ her being commissioned to perform the contract;
3. Underbid another Registered Master Plumber by reducing his/ her professional

fees after being informed of the fees charged by the other Registered Master
Plumber;
4. Take the advantage of a salaried government position to compete unfairly with

a practicing Registered Master Plumber;
5. Allow the use of his/ her license as Registered Master Plumber for a fee to an
unlicensed Master Plumber in plumbing works without his/ her personal
supervision.
6. Injure falsely or maliciously, directly or indirectly, the reputation of another

Registered Master Plumber by reviewing his/ her work for the same client
unless the professional services of the former have been fully paid by the client;
7. Advertise in self – laudatory language, act in any manner and engage in any
practice which tend to bring dishonor to the dignity of the Registered Master
Plumber, the National Master Plumbers Association of the Philippines
(NAMPAP) and the plumbing profession.
Materials
references.
Activity
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is the importance of having a code of ethics in every profession?

2. Choose 3 basic principles governing the national plumbing code and explain
each briefly.
3. Select 1 among the 7 code of ethics and cite an example on how you can
practice it in real life situations.
Learning Assessment
demonstrate
Basic Principles
Governing the National
Plumbing Code of the
Philippines.
discuss the Master
Plumber’s Code of
Ethics.

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:

Week 3 Plumbing Materials, Fittings and Fixtures
Learning Objectives
1. Identified the common types of plumbing fixtures used in residences.

2. Discussed the functions of the common types of plumbing fixtures used in
residences.
3. Enumerated other types of plumbing fixtures.
4. Explained the functions of the other types of plumbing fixtures.
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. Plumbing Fixtures
 Common Types of Plumbing Fixtures Used in Residences
2. Other Plumbing Fixtures
PLUMBING FIXTURES
FIXTURES- receptacles attached to a plumbing system other than a trap in which water
or waste may be collected or retained for ultimate discharge into the plumbing system.
COMMON TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES USED IN RESIDENCES

1. Water closet 4. Urinal
2. Lavatory 5. Bidet
3. Kitchen sink 6. Bath tub
1. WATER CLOSET- A plumbing fixture used to receive human excremental and to

discharge it through a waste pipe, using water as a conveying medium. Water closets are
classified according to design, make, flushing mechanism, shape and installation.
A. TYPES OF WATER CLOSET AS TO DESIGN
1. Siphon washdown 3. Siphon Vortex

2. Siphon jet 4. Reverse trap
1. SIPHON WASHDOWN- The least expensive but the

noisiest; only small amount of standing water-
susceptible to fouling, staining and contamination. It is
mechanically satisfactory and is lower in price. Hence, it
is widely used and entirely acceptable where price is the
main consideration.
2. SIPHON JET- The jet being submerged introduces its

water underwater so that its operation is entirely muffled.
It has a large amount of standing water to prevent
fouling. It is mechanically efficient but expensive.
3. SIPHON VORTEX- this type of bowl develops its flushing

action through the water entering through diagonal holes
around the rim which creates a swirling action which forms
a vortex in the center. It is considered to be the most quiet,
most efficient and most sanitary water closet.
4. REVERSE TRAP – the trap way located at the rear of the

water closet eliminated the buldge at the front. The design
and appearance of the bowl plus its large water area and
quietness in operation, make it desirable than siphon wash
down.
B. TYPES OF WATER CLOSET AS TO MAKE
1. One-piece 3. Pail Flush

2. Close Coupled 4. Squat bowl
1. ONE-PIECE WATER CLOSET- The water closet fixture is manufactured with the
bowl and the flush tank molded into a single unit. Usually used in tandem with the
bidet.
2. CLOSED COUPLED WATER CLOSET- a water closet where in the flush tank is
separate but is attached to the toilet bowl. It is a two-piece model.
3. PAIL FLUSH WATER CLOSET- a water closet comprising only of a bowl without
a flush tank. Flushing action is obtained only through water poured from a pail or
bucket. This is used in areas where running water systems are not available.
4. SQUAT BOWL WATER- A water closet that is otherwise known as “Eastern type”
since the user assumes a squatting position rather than a sitting position.
C. TYPES OF WATER CLOSET AS TO FLUSING MECHANISM
1. Flush tank
2. Flush Valve (flushometer)
1. FLUSH TANK- holds a supply of water for flushing a fixture such as the water
closet. It has a capacity of 5 to 6 gallons.
2. FLUSH VALVE- valve designed to supply a fixed quantity of water for flushing
purposes. It is activated by direct water pressure without the use of a flush tank. It
is also known as Flushometer or Flushometer valve. The flush valve requires 10
to 20 psi flow pressure.
D. TYPES OF WATER CLOSET AS TO SHAPE
1. Round Front
2. Elongated Front
1. ROUND FRONT- intended for installation on a limited space.
2. ELONGETED FRONT- is more comfortable but occupies a larger space.
Free Standing (Fl
E. TYPES OF WATER CLOSET AS TO INSTALLATION
1. Free Standing (Floor mounted)

2. Wall Hung (Wall Mounted)
• MINIMUM WATER CLOSET CLEARANCES
• ROUGHING-IN DIMENSIONS OF WATER CLOSET
PLUMBING FIXTURE MATERIALS (GENERAL REQUIREMENTS)
A. QUALITY OF FIXTURES
i. Dense
ii. Durable
iii. Non-absorbent
iv. Smooth, Impervious Surface
v. Free form unnecessary concealed fouling surfaces
B. MINIMUM TRAP DIAMETER AND DFU VALUE
vi. Water closet private installation 76mm Φ (3 “) 4 DFU, 4” Φ

vii. Water closet public installation 76mmv Φ (3”) 6 DFU, 4” Φ
*use 6 DFU when computing for septic tank size
C. SIZE OF WATER SUPPLY AND WSFU VALUE

i. Water closet, Flush tank 12 mm Φ (1/2 “) 3 (Private)
5 (Public)
ii. Water closet, Flush Valve 25mm Φ (1”) 6 (Private)
10 (Public)
D. MINIMUM SIZE OF VENT
a. The minimum size of vent for water closet is 51mm Φ.
E. VENTILATION OF T &B
a. Ceiling mount exhaust fan duct type. ii. Thermal exhaust fan
F. TILES IN TERMS OF DESIGN FOR T&B
a. 200mm x 200mm for ceramic
2. LAVATORY- a fixture designed for the washing of the hands or face. It is also known
as wash basin.
• TYPES OF LAVATORY
1. Wall Hung lavatory
2. Pedestal Lavatory
3. Counter Type Lavatory
a. Over Counter
b. Under counter
4. One- Piece Lavatory
• TYPES OF LAVATORY FAUCET
a. Center Set
b. Wide Spread
• ROUGHING-IN OF LAVATORY
• MINIMUM LAVATORY CLEARANCE
• MATERIALS FOR LAVATORIES
a. Vitreous China
b. Enameled Cast Iron
c. Stainless Steel
d. Plastic
• MINIMUM TRAP DIAMETER & DFU VALUE
o Wash basin, in sets 38mmΦ 2 DFU o

Wash basin, single 38mm Φ 1 DFU
• SIZE OF WATER SUPPLY PIPE & WSFU VALUE
o Lavatory 12mmΦ (1/2”) 1 (Private use)

2(Public use)
• MINIMUM SIZE OF VENT FOR LAVATORY
o The minimum size of vent for a lavatory is 32mmΦ.
3. BIDET- a plumbing fixture used for washing the middle part of the body, especially
the genitals. It is also known as the Sitz Bath.
- Setting and clearance for bidet shall be the same as in the water closet.
- Bidet minimum trap diameter is 38mm and its DFU value is 2.
- Size of water supply is 12mm and WSFU is 2 (private) or 4 (public)
4. BATH TUB- a tube for bathing, usually a fixed plumbing installation designed for one
person. It is available in left outlet and right outlet.
*minimum size of vent is 38mmΦ (1 ½”)
*bathtub minimum trap diameter is 38mm and the DFU value is 2.
*size of supply pipe is 12mm and WSFU value is 2 (private) and 4 (public).
*REQUIREMENTS FOR WHIRLPOOL BATHTUBS (SEC. 411 NPC 1999)
a. Provide removable access panel to the pump.

b. Locate the circulation pump above the crown weir of the trap.
c. The pump and the circulation piping shall be self-draining to minimize water
retention.
d. Suction fittings on whirlpool bathtubs shall comply with the listed standards.
5. URINAL- A sanitary fixture equipped with a water supply and drain for flushing away
urine.
TYPES OF URINAL
1. Wall hung Urinal

2. Pedestal Urinal
3. Stall Urinal
4. Trough Urinal
MINIMUM CLEARANCES FOR URINALS
A. MINIMUM TRAP DIAMETER AND DFU VALUE
a. Urinal, Wall-mounted 51mm (2”) 6 DFU

b. Urinal, Stall 51mm (2”) 6 DFU
c. Urinal, Trap arm 51mm (2”) 3 DFU
B. SIZE OF SUPPLY PIPE AND WSFU VALUE
a. Urinal, Wall-mounted 19mm (3/4”) 5 WSFU

b. Urinal, Stall 19mm (3/4”) 5 WSFU
C. MINIMUM SIZE OF VENT
a. The minimum size of vent is 38mmΦ
SINKS
MINIMUM TRAP DIAMETER AND DFU VALUE
• Kitchen Sink (Residential); 51mm 1 ½ “Φ 38 mm Φ 2 DFU

minimum waste pipe
• Bar Sink (Commercial) 1 ½ “Φ 38 mm Φ 2 DFU
51mm minimum waste pipe
• Bar Sink (Private) 1 ½ “Φ 38 mm Φ 1 DFU
38mm minimum waste pipe
• Sink (Commercial, Industrial, Institutional) 1 ½ “Φ 38 mm Φ 3 DFU 58mm
minimum waste pipe
• Sink (Clinic); Flushing Rim 3 “Φ 76mm Φ 6 DFU
• Service sink (Slop) 2 “Φ 51 mm Φ 3DFU
• Laundry Tub 1 ½ “Φ 38 mm Φ 2 DFU
SIZE OF SUPPLY PIPE AND WSFU VALUE
• Kitchen sink ½ “Φ 38 mm Φ 2 (Private); 4 (Public)

• Scullery sink 3/4 “Φ 38 mm Φ 2 (Private); 4 (Public)
• Slop Sink ½ “Φ 38 mm Φ 2 (Private); 10 (Public)
• Laundry Tub ½ “Φ 38 mm Φ 2 (Private); 4 (Public)
• Bar sink ½ “Φ 38 mm Φ 1 (Private); 2 (Public)
DRINKING FOUNTAIN
• Minimum trap diameter is 31mm and DFU value is 1.

• Size of waste supply is 12mm Φ and the WSFU value (each faucet) is 1 (private
use) or 2 (public use).
• Minimum size of vent is 32mm Φ (1 ¼”)
SHOWER BATH
• Minimum trap diameter is 51mm and the DFU value is 2.

• Size of water supply is 12mm Φ and the WSFU value (each head) is 2 (private
use) or 4 (public use).
• Minimum size of vent is 38mm Φ.
FLOOR DRAINS
• Minimum trap diameter is 51mm and the DFU value is 2.
HOSE BIBB
• Size of water supply is 12mm Φ and the WSFU value is 3 (private use) or 5 (public
use)
6. KITCHEN SINK- a plumbing fixtures usually consisting of a basin with a water

supply, connected with a drain.
TYPES OF KITCHEN SINK
a. Single Bowl- Single Drain
b. Double Bowl- Single Drain
c. Double Bowl- Double Drain

d. Triple Bowl
e. Corner Sink
OTHER PLUMBING FIXTURES
• SLOP SINK- A deep sink, usually set low and used by janitors for emptying pails
of dirty water and mop cleaning.
• DRINKING FOUNTAIN- A fixture consisting of a shallow basin, together with a
water jet designed to provide potable water for human consumption.
• LAUNDRY TUB- A deep wide sink or but used for washing clothes. It is also
known as Laundry Tray or Set Tub.
• SHOWER BATH- An apparatus for spraying water on the body, usually from
above. Drain is through the shower bath floor drain.
• SCRUB SINK- a plumbing fixture usually located in the operating room in a
hospital to enable personnel to scrub their hands prior to a surgical procedure;
the hot and cold water supply is activated by a knee-action mixing valve or by
wrist or pedal control.
PLUMBING UNIT (Sec. 217.13 NPC 1999)
The minimum standard quantities of plumbing fixtures that discharge waste into a
plumbing installation include;
1 water meter
1 water closet
1 lavatory
1 shower head and drain for a bathtub or shower stall
1 kitchen sink
1 laundry tray
3 floor drains
4 faucets/ hose Bibb
13 Total numbers of fixtures and fittings that comprise a plumbing

unit
NOTES ON SHOWER RECEPTOR (NPC 1999)
1. Each shower receptor shall be constructed to have a finished dam, curb or

threshold of at least 25.4 mm lower that the outside floor.
2. The dam or threshold shall not be less than 51mm nor more than 228mm in
depth, when measured from the top of the dam or threshold to the top of the
drain.
PLUMBING ACCESSORIES
1. Soap holder
2. Paper holder
3. Toothbrush and tumbler holder
4. Towel holder/ tower bar
5. Seat Cover
TYPICAL FIXTURE LAYOUT FOR TOILET AND BATH (minimum dimensions)
TOILET FIXTURE CLEARANCES FOR DISABLED PERSONS (per BP 344 The
Accessibility Law)
GRABRAIL HEIGHTS AT URINALS
MOUNTING DIMENSIONS FOR TOILET & BATHROOM ACCESSORIES

MOUNTING DIMENSIONS OF ACCESSORIES AND FITTINGS AT SHOWER
AREA
MOUNTING DIMENSIONS OF ACCESSORIES AND FITTINGS
AT BATH TUB/ SHOWER
Materials
references.
Activity
I. Answer the following.
1. Enumerate the common types of plumbing fixtures used in residences and

explain the functions of each type.
2. What are the other types of plumbing fixtures used in residences? List them
down.
3. Discuss the functions of the plumbing fixtures you listed in item no.2.
4. Enumerate the plumbing accessories and explain the function of each

accessory.
Learning Assessment
I was able to identify the
common types of
plumbing fixtures used in
residences.
I was able to discuss the
functions of the common
types of plumbing
fixtures used in
residences.
I was able to enumerate
other types of plumbing
fixtures.
functions of the other
types of plumbing
fixtures.

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:

Week 4 Building Water System and Design (Part I)
Learning Objectives
1. Identified the systems used in boosting pressure in multi – storey buildings.

2. Discussed the systems used in boosting pressure in multi – storey buildings.
3. Explained the factors being considered in designing drainage systems of buildings.
4. Enumerated and discussed the dual supply systems used in building water system .
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. Building Water System and Design (Part I)
 Building Systems Used for Boosting Pressure

 Drainage Systems
 Hot Water and Other Dual Supply Systems
BUILDING WATER SYSTEM AND DESIGN (PART 1)
For plumbing purposes, the term “multi-storey” is applied to buildings that are too
tall to be supplied throughout by the normal pressure in the public water mains. These
buildings have particular needs in the design of their sanitary drainage and venting
systems. Water main supply pressures of 8–12 metres (25– 40 feet) can supply a typical
two-storey building, but higher buildings may need pressure booster systems. In hilly
areas, the drinking-water supply pressures will vary depending on the ground elevation.
In these cases, the water authority may have to specify areas where particular supply
pressures can be relied upon for the design and operation of buildings. Where a building
of three or more storeys is proposed a certificate should be obtained from the drinking-
water supply authority guaranteeing that the present and future public drinking-water
supply pressure will be adequate to serve the building. If the public water pressure is
inadequate, suitable means shall be provided within the building to boost the water
pressure.
SYSTEMS FOR BOOSTING PRESSURE
Pressure-boosting systems can be of several different types:

• pumping from a ground level or basement gravity tank to a gravity roof tank;
• pumping from a gravity storage tank or public water main into a hydropneumatic
pressure tank that uses captive air pressure to provide adequate drinking-water
supply pressure;
• installation of booster pump sets consisting of multiple staged pumps or variable
speed pumps that draw water directly from a gravity storage tank or the public water
main. Multistage booster pump sets typically include discharge pressure regulating
valves to maintain a constant drinking-water supply pressure.
Written approval should be obtained from the appropriate authority before any pump or
booster is connected to the supply. Where booster pump sets are permitted to draw
directly from public water mains, the public drinking-water supply must be adequate to
meet the peak demands of all buildings in the area. Otherwise, there is a high risk of
backflow and subsequent contamination of the mains from buildings not equipped with a
booster pump. Building booster pumps are not a solution to the problem of inadequate
drinking-water supply. Where public drinking-water supply systems are overburdened
and cannot provide adequate pressure on a continuous basis, water must be stored on
site during periods when adequate pressure is available to fill a gravity storage tank. The
size of the storage tank will vary according to the daily water demand of the building, and
the availability of adequate pressure available in the public water mains. It should not be
excessively oversized to avoid stagnation due to inadequate turnover.
Multi-storey buildings can usually be divided into zones of water pressure control. The
lower two to three storeys can generally be supplied directly from the pressure in the
public water main. Upper storeys, usually in groups of five to eight storeys, can be
supplied from pressure-boosted main risers through a pressure reduction valve for each
group. Systems can be up-fed or down-fed. Up-fed systems usually originate from a
pressure booster pump set or hydropneumatic tank in the basement of the building.
Down-fed systems usually originate from a rooftop gravity tank. Where a building is
divided into water pressure zones, care must be taken not to cross-connect the piping
between two or more zones. This is a particular problem when domestic hot water is
recirculated from a central supply system.
Where hydropneumatic tanks are used for storage, the tank is filled to one third to a
half full by a float level device that controls the drinking-water supply source (a well pump
or pressure booster pump). The pressure is maintained at the desired operating level by
an air compressor. As the building uses water from the tank, the water level and air
pressure drop. When the water level drops to the “on” setting of the float level control, the
well pump or booster pump starts and raises the water level in the tank to the “off” level.
This restores the pressure in the tank. If some of the captive air above the water has been
absorbed by the water, the air compressor starts and restores the air charge, raising the
system pressure to the normal level. Hydropneumatic tanks are typically made of steel or
fibreglass and must be rated for the system operating pressure. Steel tanks must have a
protective coating of suitable composition for drinking-water contact on the inside to
protect the tank from corrosion and avoid contaminating the water. They should be
checked on a regular basis to ensure that the protective coating is intact and the water
remains potable.
Smaller hydropneumatic tanks can also be used to help control pressure booster
pumps, allowing them to be cycled on and off by a pressure switch. The captive air within
the tank keeps the system pressurized while the pump is off. When the water pressure
drops to the “on” pressure setting, the pump starts and raises the volume and pressure
of the water in the tank. No air compressor is needed where tanks have a flexible
diaphragm between the air and the water in the tank, charged with air at initial start-up.
The size of pressure tanks for booster pumps must match the capacity of the pump and
the peak system demand so that the pump “off” cycle is longer than the “on” cycle and
the pump does not cycle too frequently.
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
A. DRAINAGE SYSTEMS CONSIDERATIONS
In the drainage system for a multi-storey building, the drains from the plumbing fixtures
are connected to vertical drain stacks that convey the waste and sewage to below the
lowest floor of the building. The fixture drain traps must be vented to prevent their water
trap seal from being siphoned by negative pressure or blown out by positive pressure in
the drain piping. The fixture vent pipes must extend through the roof to outdoors. They
can be run individually or be combined into one or more vents through the roof. Where
buildings are over 10 storeys high, the drainage stacks require relief vent connections at
specified intervals from the top, and connected to a vent stack that terminates above the
roof. This relieves and equalizes the pressure in the drainage stack to maintain the water
seal in traps serving plumbing fixtures.
Wherever possible, the sanitary drainage system from a building should discharge to
the public sewer by gravity. All plumbing fixtures located below ground level should be
pumped into the public sewer or the drainage system leading to the sewer. The pump line
should be as short as possible and looped up to a point not less than 0.6 metres (24
inches) above ground level to prevent backsiphonage of sewage. The pump discharge
rate should be controlled so as not to cause scouring of the internal bore of the pump line
or the drainage or sewer system into which it discharges. High-velocity discharge rates
may also cause the flooding of adjoining plumbing fixtures or overloading of the sewer
itself. The sump pits for sewage pumps must have sealed covers, be vented to outdoors
and have automatic level controls and alarms. Sewage pumps in multiple dwellings and
in multi-storey dwellings should be duplex, with each pump having 100% of the required
pumping capacity for the building. Alternatively, an approved vacuum drainage system
may be considered.
B. VACUUM DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
In a vacuum drainage system, the differential pressure between the atmosphere and
the vacuum becomes the driving force that propels the wastewater towards the vacuum
station. Table 1 provides a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of vacuum
drainage systems. Table 2 provides information on specific installation and operation
requirements. Vacuum drainage systems should be considered when one or more of the
following conditions exist:
• water shortage;
• limited sewerage capacity;
• where separation of black water and greywater is desired;
• where drainage by gravity becomes impractical;
•
TABLE 1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VACUUM SYSTEMS (VERSUS
GRAVITY SYSTEMS)
Advantages Disadvantages
Low installation costs High component costs
Environmentally safe Mechanical components –
possibility of failure
Electrical power only Skilled design, installation and
required at vacuum station maintenance required
Always self-cleansing Regular maintenance
required
No possibility of vermin in Standby facilities required
pipelines
Possible water-saving Require area for situation of
technique if vacuum toilets vacuum tanks and vacuum
used
High water velocities generation equipment
prevent deposits in
pipework
Minimal risk of leakage High-velocity water may
Can use small-diameter cause transient plumbing
lightweight pipes that can noise
be installed without a
continuous fall
Vertical lifts are possible
Ability to easily separate
greywater and black water
High turnaround time – no
need for cistern to refill
for subsequent
flushes
TABLE 2 COMPARISON OF INSTALLATION AND OPERATION REQUIREMENTS OF

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Parameter Conventional Conventional Vacuum

(gravity) (pumped)
Pipe size Branches Branches Discharge
(mm) 32–100 32–100 from valves
32–50
Stacks 100– Stacks 100– Service
150 150 connection
38–90
Pipeline To a fall To a fall Flexible
gradient arrangements,
with minimal
gradients or
saw tooth
profile.
Vertical
upward flow
sections lifts
can be used
Maintenance Negligible, Regular Regular,
only after planned planned
servicing of
requirements abuse or servicing of pumps and
blockage pumps and interface units
interface
units
Energy At time of At time of At time of
requirements installation installation installation
and and
throughout throughout
lifetime of lifetime of
building building
Retrofit or May be May require Flexible layout
extension of difficult to additional makes instal-
accom-
system modate pumps lation simple
within pipework and
building falls
Conventional 7.5 litre flush 7.5 litre flush NA
water WC WC
consumption
WCs
Low water 6 litre flush 6 litre flush 1.5–3 litre
WCs WCs flush vacuum
consumption toilets
WCs
Loading of Dependent Dependent Discharge
sewerage upon on pumping from
forwarding
system appliances rate pumps can be
installed timed to
coincide with
low-flow
periods
NA: not applicable.
Source: BRE 2001 (p. 3).
• in penal installations where isolation and control of the appliances is necessary to

prevent concealment of weapons and drugs;
• unstable soil or flat terrain;
• where a high water table exists;
• in hospitals, hotels, office buildings or other areas where congested usage occurs,
and flexibility in pipe routing is required to drain appliances;
• restricted construction conditions;
• building refurbishment.
When conventional gravity drainage systems are extended, as in refurbishment work,
the existing gravity drainage system can be fed into the vacuum drainage system. This
may be achieved by the use of a sump into which the wastewater from the gravity system
drains. When sufficient water has accumulated in the sump, an interface valve will open
allowing the wastewater to enter the vacuum drainage system. This arrangement can
also be used to collect rainwater or as an interface between a building with conventional
drainage and a vacuum sewer.
The collection arrangements and the small-bore pipework of vacuum drainage systems
provide the possibility of easily separating greywater and black water. This would be of
particular advantage if sewerage capacity was limited, as the greywater could be run to
a watercourse after appropriate treatment.
HOT WATER AND OTHER DUAL SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Dual drinking-water supply systems are those in which two different grades of water
are available in separate piping systems. An example is the provision of a tap at a sink
supplying water directly from the incoming water service while all other fixtures are fed
from a storage tank. In developed countries, the most common is a secondary system of
piping carrying hot water to sink, washbasin and bath. Occasionally a water softener is
installed to treat part of a domestic system, but apart from these cases dual drinking-
water supply systems are rarely found within single dwellings. An approach to water
conservation being introduced in some communities is to recycle greywater to an outside
tap for irrigation uses. A principal concern of all dual systems is the assurance that no
cross-connections have occurred during installation or repair.
A. HOT WATER SYSTEMS
Correct installation of non-return devices will prevent hot water from entering the cold
water system in the event of an interruption of pressure. Regulations controlling the
delivery of hot water from a hot water vessel may require tempered or thermostatically
controlled water in all ablution areas, aged persons’ homes, hospitals, schools and other
public places, and use of thermostatically controlled mixing valves is encouraged where
practicable. The acceptable temperature of hot water systems at the tap should be
determined in concert with public health officials. To avoid scalding, especially of children,
and in hospitals and aged persons’ homes, lower temperatures may be necessary. On
the other hand, growth of Legionella organisms is reduced at temperatures above 50 ˚C,
and this is a particular concern in hospitals and other large buildings such as hotels.
Buildings such as hospitals, hotels, multiple dwellings and schools require large
quantities of water to be heated, stored and distributed. Heating is usually carried out by
a separate boiler, a steam coil or a heat exchange from a central heating or other system,
and the temperature is normally controlled to within fairly narrow limits, 60 °C being an
average temperature setting in some countries. Thermostatic devices should be installed
to cut off the incoming heat source should the water in the storage vessel become
excessively hot, and pressure relief valves should also be provided. Both these safety
devices should be set in such a way that audible or visible warning is given whenever
they come into operation. Heating and storage vessels should be clearly marked with
their safe working pressure limits, and gauges should be fitted to enable a regular check
to be made that those limits are being observed. Water heaters for the supply of hot water
should always be installed strictly in accordance with the manufacturer’s written
instructions.
For reasons of safety, the water heater must be fitted with a combination temperature
and pressure relief safety valve at the top of the unit prior to the commissioning of a mains
or high-pressure water heater. To achieve this, a pressure relief safety valve must be
fitted in the inlet or cold drinking-water supply pipework. The temperature and pressure
settings of the respective safety valves should be specified by the manufacturer in
accordance with the design capabilities of the specified water heater. The pressure
setting for the pressure relief valve should be lower than the pressure setting for the
combination temperature and pressure relief valve so that as the water heats up in the
storage vessel and expands, the additional or excess volume is gently expelled from the
lower and colder section of the water heater through the pressure relief safety valve.
Where the available drinking-water supply pressure exceeds the upper limits of the
pressure relief safety valve it is necessary to install a pressure reduction valve,
appropriate to the pressure ratings involved, immediately after the isolation valve to the
water heater and before the non-return valve. In some cases, it may be preferable to
lower the drinking-water supply pressure to the whole system to avoid pressure
imbalance in the hot and cold drinking-water supply systems. In these cases, the pressure
reduction valve could be installed in the cold drinking-water supply pipework before it
enters the building.
Low-pressure water heaters must not be pressurized beyond normal localized

atmospheric conditions within the operating parameters of the manufacturer’s
specification. Equalizing the drinking-water supply pressure in a particular fitting (such as
a shower) with the whole system is a little more complicated but it can be done by taking
off a dedicated cold water service line from the drinking-water supply tank to the heater
unit. Depending on the capacity of the cold water distribution system, a separate supply
tank may be required to avoid depleting the dedicated cold drinking-water supply tank
serving the hot water system. The hot water system that is not considered potable should
never be allowed to enter the cold water cistern (see section 12.2).
B. OTHER DUAL SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Multiple dwellings and multi-storey buildings may have fire protection systems such as
sprinkler variety systems or high-pressure mains and hydrants. Industrial and commercial
establishments may have one or more systems of piping. These may carry cooling or
process water from a secondary source or mains water that has been specially treated
for the purpose.
When one component of the dual system has been derived from another source, or
when it carries mains water that has been treated, heated or stored, it is essential that
the non-mains component is not allowed to reconnect with the mains water. Drinking-
water supply systems should be designed, installed and maintained so as to prevent
contaminants from being introduced into the drinking water supply system. Water of
drinking-water quality should be supplied to plumbing fixtures or outlets for human
consumption, bathing, food preparation and utensil or clothes washing. Where water
supplied from one source is connected to another water source, an appropriate backflow
prevention device should be fitted and the installation should be registered with the water
supplier.
Systems that permit the introduction of any foreign substance into the water service
should not be connected directly or indirectly to any part of the drinking water supply
system. This includes systems for fire protection, garden watering and irrigation, or any
temporary attachment to the water service. This can only be done with backflow
prevention and cross-connection control devices.
Combined tanks storing potable water alongside water for other purposes should have
a double partition wall installed internally to separate the two supplies. The space
between the partition walls should be arranged to ensure that any leakage cannot enter
the other compartment of the tank. To achieve this, an external drainage point should be
provided from the bottom of the void or space so that any discharge or leak is readily
noticed.
Materials
references.
Activity
I. Answer the following questions.
1. Enumerate and differentiate the systems used in boosting pressure in multi –

storey buildings.
2. What are the different considerations in designing the drainage systems?
3. What considerations must be observed in designing hot water systems?
4. What are the different considerations that must be observed in the installation
of dual supply systems?
Learning Assessment
systems used in boosting
pressure in multi – storey
buildings.
systems used in boosting
pressure in multi – storey
buildings.
factors being considered
in designing drainage
systems of building.
and discuss the dual
supply systems used in
building water system.
Name: Program, Year and Section: _________________
Essay:

Week 5 Building Water System and Design (Part II)
Learning Objectives
1. Enumerated the different water storage vessels used in building water system and
design.
2. Identified the proper way of labeling and color coding of non- drinking water supply
systems.
3. Identified the situations where there is a risk of cross connection.
4. Explained the probable solutions when there is a risk of cross connection.
5. Performed fixture unit calculations in multiple dwellings.
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. Building Water System and Design (Part II)
 Water Storage Vessels

 Labeling and Color Coding of Non- drinking Water Supply Systems
 Situations where there is a Risk of Cross Connection
 Fixture Unit Calculations for Multiple Dwellings
BUILDING WATER SYSTEM AND DESIGN (PART II)
WATER STORAGE VESSELS
Separate water storage vessels are an integral part of many dual supply systems.
This section deals with requirements for the storage of water supplied from the water
main or other drinking-water sources. In the design of these systems, it is important to
ensure that the required air gap is established between the drinking water supply inlet
and the overflow spill level of the fixture.
Water storage tanks are appropriate for use in the following circumstances:
• sanitary flushing
• supply of drinking-water
• firefighting
• air-conditioning
• refrigeration
• ablutions
• prevention of cross-connections
• make-up water
• contingency reserve
Requirements relating to installation and protection of water storage tanks:
• Tanks must be installed on bases, platforms or supports designed to bear the weight
of the tank when it is filled to maximum capacity, without undue distortion taking
place.
• Metal tanks (and other tanks when similarly specified) should be installed with a
membrane of non-corrosive insulating material between the support and the
underside of the tank.
• Tanks must be supported in such a manner that no load is transmitted to any of the
attached pipes.
• Tanks must be accessible for inspection, repairs, maintenance and replacement.
• Tanks must be provided with a cover, designed to prevent the entry of dust, roof
water, surface water, groundwater, birds, animals or insects.
• Insulation from heat and cold should also be provided.
• Tanks storing potable water should not be located directly beneath any sanitary
plumbing or any other pipes conveying non-potable water.
Requirements relating to access to water storage tanks:
• Adequate headroom and side access must be provided to enable inspection,

cleaning and maintenance of the interior and exterior of the tank.
• Where the interior depth of any storage tank exceeds 2 meters, access ladders of
standard design should be installed and entry safety codes complied with.
Requirements relating to materials used in water storage tanks:
• The internal surfaces of tanks should be coated with a protective coating approved
for drinking-water contact applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions
if the tank is to supply drinking-water.
• Storage cylinders should be made of non-corrosive material.
• Tanks, pipes, heating coils and related fittings should all be of a similar metal to
prevent electrolysis, which is more likely to cause corrosion in hot water systems than
in cold.
• If steel is used for the tank and piping, it should always be heavily galvanized.
LABELING AND COLOR CODING OF NON – DRINKING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Where the alternative supply is a non-potable drinking-water supply, it needs to be

clearly and permanently labelled “Caution – not for drinking” at every outlet. Exposed
piping must be identified by color coding (lilac) and permanent markings or labelling. The
use of the lilac (light purple) color on pipes and outlet points has been adopted in some
countries to warn that the contents being conveyed within are not for drinking purposes.
In the United Kingdom greywater colors are green-black-green, and reclaimed water pipe
colors are green-black-green with an additional white band in the center.
Where the non-potable alternative supply is installed below ground, the service
should have a continuous marker tape stating that the pipe below is a “Non-potable
drinking-water supply – not for drinking”. The marker tape should be installed in the trench
immediately above the service. Where piping conveys water downstream from a high or
medium hazard, the backflow prevention device shall be clearly and permanently labelled
“Caution – not for drinking” along its length. To further assist in identification, outlet points
or taps should be painted or coated lilac and a label or sign should be fixed or erected
immediately adjacent stating “Caution – not for drinking”.
The level of potential cross-connection hazard rating should be classified by use

of a method that allows easy identification of the risk level. A commonly used approach
is to classify the contained fluids according to levels of risk from 1 (no risk or minimal risk)
to 5 (highest risk).
Fluid category 1. Drinking-water supplied by the authority and complying with the
plumbing code of practice.
Fluid category 2. Water in fluid category 1 whose aesthetic quality is impaired due to
change in temperature or the presence of substances or organisms causing a change in
taste, odor or appearance. This includes water in a hot water distribution system.
Fluid category 3. Fluid that represents a slight health hazard because of the
concentration of substances of low toxicity. This includes any fluid that contains copper
sulfate solution or similar chemical additives and sodium hypochlorite (as found in
chlorine and common disinfectants).
Fluid category 4. Fluid that represents a significant health hazard because of the
concentration of toxic substances. This includes any fluid that contains chemical or
carcinogenic substances or pesticides (including insecticides and herbicides) and
organisms that pose a potential risk to health at concentrations sufficiently above
drinking-water standards or guidelines.
Fluid category 5. Fluid that represents a serious health hazard because of the
concentration of pathogenic organisms or radioactive or very toxic substances.
This includes any fluid that contains faecal material or other human waste, butchery or
other animal waste, or pathogens from any other source.
SITUATIONS WHERE THERE IS A RISK OF CROSS – CONECTION
There are recognized risks of cross-connection in agricultural and horticultural

properties, catering and allied trade installations, domestic installations, health and
sanitary service installations, and in industrial and commercial installations. The level of
protection required should be determined by identifying the hazards within the premises,
then working upstream from each hazard. The water must be regarded as non-potable
until a backflow prevention device is provided suitable to the degree of the rated hazard.
If a cross-connection has been detected, the pipe system should be taken out of service,
flushed, cleaned and disinfected, and the water tested and determined to be safe before
it is put back into service. When assessing a potential backflow condition, consideration
must be given to the complexity of piping, the possibility that the piping configuration has
been altered and the possibility that negligent or incorrect use of equipment has resulted
in a backflow condition. The following summarizes the main risks in each of these
situations.
A. AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL PROPERTIES
In market gardens, poultry farms and dairy farms there is a risk of cross-connection
between the water service and dam water, drinking nipples, fogging sprays, irrigation
pipes, antibiotic injectors, cleansing injectors, vertical sprays for vehicle washing or any
submerged outlet or hose at tanks or feed troughs.
B. CATERING AND ALLIED TRADE INSTALLATIONS
In commercial kitchens, hotels and clubs there is a risk of cross-connection

between the water service and water-cooled refrigerant units containing methyl chloride
gas or any submerged outlets or hoses that connect to glasswashers and dishwashers,
bains-marie, food waste disposal units, garbage can washers, ice making machines or
refrigerators, or hoses supplying water to sinks or other receptacles.
C. DOMESTIC INSTALLATIONS
In domestic installations, there is a risk of cross-connection of the water service to

a haemodialysis machine, bidet, water-operated venturi-type ejectors attached to garden
hoses when used to empty or clean out wastewater pits, septic tanks, gullies or trenches,
storm water sumps, domestic grease traps, or any submerged outlets, or discharge point
of the water service in sanitary flushing cisterns, garden hoses supplying water to
swimming pools, ornamental ponds, fish ponds, hose taps below the flood level rim of
any fixture, or located below ground surface level.
D. HEALTH AND SANITARY SERVICE INSTALLATIONS
These installations include the following risks of cross-connection:

• council sanitary depots: cross-connection between the water service and sanitary
pan washers, truck washers and pan-dumping machines;
• dental surgeries: any submerged outlets of the water service connected to chair
bowls and venturi-type water aspirators;
• funeral parlours: in embalming areas, the cross-connection between the water
service and water-operated aspirator pumps;
• hospitals and nursing homes: submerged outlets of the water service at bed pan
washers, bed bottle washers, sterilizers, steam autoclaves, instrument washers, and
any cross-connection between the water service and steam pipes, steam boilers or
steam calorifiers;
• mortuaries: postmortem areas, submerged water service outlets at autopsy tables,
flushing rim floor gullies or trenches, specimen tables and instrument-washing sinks
E. INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL INSTALLATIONS
A common site of cross-connection relates to the use of tanks. Any submerged

discharge point of hoses or pipes that supply water to rinse tanks, process tanks and
other tanks may pose a cross-connection risk. The industries and commercial
installations that carry a risk of cross-connection in these installations include the
following:
• abattoirs: cross-connection between the water service and steam pipes, steam
boilers or steam calorifiers, and the washing sprays in contact with animal carcasses;
• bleaching works: cross-connection between the water service and steam pipes,
steam boilers, steam calorifiers, or any submerged outlets at revolving drum washers,
or any pipes conveying non-potable water;
• breweries and cordial and soft drink plants: cross-connection between the water
service and the contents of gas cylinders, steam pipes, steam boilers or steam
calorifiers, or any submerged water service outlets at drum washers, bottle washers
or process tanks;
• butcher shops: cross-connection between the water service and any water cooled
refrigerant units containing methyl chloride gas, or water-powered food-processing
machines;
• chemical plants: cross-connection between the water service and chemical pipelines,
or the submerged water service pipe outlets at drum washers and process tanks;
• dry cleaners: cross-connection between the water service and solvent stills;
• dyeing works: cross-connection between the water service pipes and steam pipes,
foul water inlet sprays in process tanks, and any submerged water service pipe
outlets at vats, tanks and colanders;
• engineering works: cross-connection between the water service and any steam
boilers, diesel oil recirculating systems, recirculated cooling water for machines,
testing pressure vessels, oil-cooling coils, pump priming, compressed air pipelines
and venturi-type ejectors in vehicle maintenance pits;
• laboratories: cross-connection between the water service and any aspirator pumps,
fume cupboards, stills, centrifuges, blood-testing machines, air scrubbers, test-tube-
washing machines, animal feeding troughs, and high pressure gas cylinders;
• laundries: cross-connection between the water service and any clothes washing
machines, starch tanks, soap-mixing vats, and recirculated hot water tanks;
• milk-processing plants: cross-connection between the water service and any steam
pipes, steam boilers, steam calorifiers, or any submerged outlets at bottle-washing
machines, milk can-washing machines, and process chilling tanks;
• oil storage depots: cross-connection between the water service and foam firefighting
equipment;
• poultry-processing plants: cross-connection between the water service and any
steam pipes, steam boilers, steam calorifiers, or any submerged outlets at feather-
plucking machines, carcass-washing machines, offal boilers and process tanks;
• photographic developers: cross-connection between the water service and X-ray
equipment, or any submerged outlets at tanks and rinse machines;
• plating workings: cross-connection between the water service and solvent, acid or
alkali tanks, cooling coils, steam pipes, or any submerged outlets at tanks and rinse
machines;
• tanneries: cross-connection between the water service and vats, drum process tanks
or steam pipes;
• wool processors: cross-connection between the water service and lanolin centrifuges
and head recycling coils, or any submerged outlets or hoses at vats, drums and tanks.
FIXTURE UNIT CALCULATIONS FOR MULTIPLE DWELLINGS
The fixture unit concept is a method of calculating drinking-water supply and

drainage piping requirements within large buildings where economies may be made in
construction costs. Theoretically all pipes should be of such a size as to be capable of
serving the fixtures to which they are connected when all other fixtures in the building are
being operated at the same time. In practice, the chances of their simultaneous use are
remote and the piping design criteria may be relaxed to some degree.
A fixture unit (f/u) value is assigned to each type of fixture based on its rate of water
consumption, on the length of time it is normally in use and on the average period
between successive uses. Some examples of fixture unit values assigned to the most
common fixtures are given in Table 3. When these are added their total gives a basis for
determining the flow that may be expected in a water or drainage pipe to which two or
more fixtures are connected. The total is then reduced by a factor, usually in the order of
0.6 to 0.7, but depending upon the margin of simultaneous use protection necessary
under local conditions.
The total number of fixture units connected to each branch pipe is then added,
multiplied by the factor referred to above, and the result used to calculate the flow in water
or drainage pipes in accordance with tables such as the following examples. If included
in, or annexed to, a plumbing code, these tables should be detailed for a larger schedule
covering the whole range of fixture unit values to be expected; examples may be found
in various national codes.
TABLE 3 FIXTURE UNIT VALUES FOR SOME COMMON PLUMBING FIXTURES
Fixture Fixture units

Bath or shower 2
Bidet 2
Clothes washer 3
(automatic)
Drinking fountain 3
Kitchen sink 1.5
Urinal or water closet 3
(with flush tank)
Urinal or water closet 6
(with flush valve)
Washbasin 1
Source: Taylor & Wood 1982 (p. 153).
From Table 4 the size of the water pipes may be calculated using normal design
principles (allowing for head loss, friction and other factors). Fixtures using both hot and
cold water (such as in baths and sinks) should be assumed to take equal quantities of
each for design purposes: a bath would be counted as one fixture unit on the cold water
system, and one fixture unit on the hot water. Supply piping would be calculated
accordingly, while the total figure of two fixture units would be used to design the drainage
piping.
From Table 5 the size of internal and external drains may be calculated according
to the total number of fixtures discharging into each section, with the proviso that
underground drains shall not be smaller than 100 millimetres (4 inches) diameter, and
that no internal branch or drain of less than 80 millimetres (3 inches) diameter should
carry the discharge of more than two water closets.
An alternative to the fixture unit method for calculating flows is used in some
French-speaking countries. This method assigns individual flow values to each.
TABLE 4 PEAK WATER DEMAND OF PLUMBING FIXTURES
No. of fixture litres US gallons UK gallons

units per second per minute per
minute
5 0.23 3.65 3.04
10 0.34 5.39 4.49
20 0.54 8.56 7.14
50 1.13 17.94 14.93
100 1.67 26.51 22.07
TABLE 5 MAXIMUM LOADS FOR HORIZONTAL FIXTURE BRANCHES AND

BUILDING DRAINS OR SEWERS
Diameter of Fixture Building drain

drainpipe branch or sewer
Min. Slope Slope Slope Slope
slope 0.5% 1% 2% 4%
2% (1 (1 in (1 in (1 in (1 in
in 50) 200) 100) 50) 25)
mm inches f/ua f/ua f/ua f/ua f/ua
32 1.25 1 — — — —
40 1.5 3 — — — —
50 2 6 — — — 26
65 2.5 12 — — — 31
80 3 32 — 36 42 50
100 4 160 — 180 216 250
150 6 620 — 700 840 1000
200 8 1400 1400 1600 1920 2300
f/u = fixture units.

Materials
references.
Activity
1. What are the different uses of storage tanks?
2. Identify the five fluid categories.
3. In what situations could there be a risk of cross – connections?
Learning Assessment
the different water
storage vessels used in
building water system
and design.
proper way of labeling
and color coding of non-
drinking water supply
systems.
situations where there is
a risk of cross
connection.
probable solutions when
there is a risk of cross
connection.
I was able to perform
fixture unit calculations in
multiple dwellings.

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:

Week 6 Domestic Water Heating
Learning Objectives
1. Identified and differentiated the two categories of domestic water heating.

2. Enumerated the different types of water heating systems used in households.
3. Discussed the different types of water heating systems used in households.
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. Domestic Water Heating
 Stored Hot Water

 Direct Boiler System
 Indirect Boiler System
 Unvented System
 Thermal Store System
 Single Point Water Heater
 Multi Point Water Heater
DOMESTIC WATER HEATING
There are two different types of hot water system. The circulation from a boiler
around the radiators is the central heating system. The water to your taps is the domestic
hot water. The water to your radiators is the central heating system.
Different ways of heating the domestic hot water need to be understood in order
for the home owner to identify theirs and effect any maintenance needed. It will also be
necessary to asses any type of shower you may wish to install.
The types of domestic water heating can be broken down into two categories:
 Hot water is stored in a cylinder

 Cold water is heated on demand
STORED HOT WATER
This category, although the hot water is always stored in a cylinder or tank, can be
further divided into three categories.
Immersion: An immersion heater is an electric element which screws into the hot water
tank. This element is wired to the mains electrical supply via an isolating switch, a
thermostat to control the temperature, and sometimes a timer which enables you to set
the times you wish to have the water heated. Using a timer, together with a well-insulated
tank, it is possible to heat the water when electricity rates are at their cheapest and use
it during the day.
It is worth remembering that the hot water from an immersion heater is always
drawn from the top of the cylinder, where it has risen over the cold water underneath
(convection current).
The cold water, fed to the tank from underneath, gives the hot water the pressure
it needs to leave the cylinder, from the top, when required by the taps. Some tanks can
contain two elements, giving you a choice as to how much water you want to heat up at
any one time.
It is quite rare nowadays for the immersion heater to be the only method of
domestic water heating in a home and the immersion is generally used as a back up to
one, or both, of the following two methods.
DIRECT BOILER SYSTEM
In older houses, with a direct system, the hot water may be stored in a square
galvanized tank. The principle is the same. Using the diagram below as a reference,
another cold water pipe runs from the base of the cylinder to the boiler.
The boiler heats the water and returns it to the tank higher up. When hot water is
drawn from the tank, it is replaced by cold from the cold tank, which in turn is fed to the
boiler. This is direct heating of the water by either a) the immersion or b) the boiler. The
hot water is simply stored in the tank.
To identify a direct water system you will find the end of the vent pipe fixed above
your cold water tank. This allows for any stem expansion in the cylinder to flow directly
into the cold tank and not damage the cylinder or cause air locks in the system.
INDIRECT BOILER SYSTEM
With an indirect water system, the copper hot water cylinder contains a coil of pipe.
This coil forms part of a run of pipework attached to the boiler. It is heated directly by the
boiler. Indirectly, it heats the water in the cylinder. The coil, or "heat exchanger" forms
part of the central heating circuit, and its water heating abilities are purely a by-product of
its main function, which is to heat the radiators. This heating is called the "primary" circuit,
the pipes running to and from the boiler are called the primary flow and return. The hot
water tank operates in exactly the same way as the direct system.
To identify an indirect system, you will see two water tanks in your loft. The second,
smaller one, is the feed for the primary circuit. It will top up the system when necessary
and will also have a vent pipe over the top. The level of water in this tank will be
considerably lower to allow the water to rise as it expands when it gets hot without
overflowing.
Both of the boiler systems below are called "vented" systems. Because of this vent
pipe, they are open to atmospheric pressure and operate as "low pressure" systems.
They both call for cold water from a cold tank stored, generally, in the roof space. Because
they are low pressure, sometimes the flow from the taps is not as great as one might like
and pumps can be introduced, both for the domestic hot water and the heating, to give
greater flow.
Direct Water Cylinder
1 Drain Cock
2 Incoming cold feed
3 Main tank immersion (night use mostly)
4 Top up immersion
5 Vent pipe leading back to cold water tank
6 Hot pipe to feed taps
7 Cold feed out
8 Hot from boiler
Indirect Cylinder
1 Drain Cock
2 Incoming cold feed
3 Return to boiler
4 Flow from boiler
5 Heat exchanger
6 Immersion
7 Hot feed to taps
8 Vent pipe
UNVENTED SYSTEM
In 1989 unvented systems were allowed into general use.
Unvented heating system
1. Pressure vessel
2. Expansion relief valve
3. Cold water inlet
4. Temperature relief valve
5. Hot water outlet
6. Immersion heater
7. Tundish or visual overflow
8. Non-return valve
9. Cold to taps
10. Pressure limiter
11. Strainer
12. Stopcock
13. Mains
14. Discharge pipe
The unvented system operates purely from mains water. The principles of heating
are the same, but because everything is under the pressure of the mains water, flow rates
are much better. Many safety devices are built into this system to accommodate for the
greater pressure and expansion of the water. Although a small tank may be found in the
loft for venting and feeding your central heating, No cold water storage tank is necessary.
Hot water cylinder capacity varies between 25 gallons to 50 gallons for normal
domestic supply, with the larger being enough to supply an average family for a day. Most
cylinders are made from stainless steel but thin copper may have been used in some of
the older tanks. You should make sure your cylinder is well lagged to prevent heat loss.
Pre-lagged cylinders are available, which are coated with foamed polyurethane.
THERMAL STORE SYSTEM
A revolutionary new concept (British development) which reverses the indirect

principle detailed above. The boiler heats the water and sends it to a cylinder, and then
on to the central heating. On its way it heats, in the cylinder, via a very efficient heat
exchanger, the mains fed water for the taps.
An integral feed and expansion tank can be incorporated on top of the main tank.
This system is so efficient, a thermostatic (cold/hot) mixer valve is built into the pipework
before the hot reaches the taps or shower.
For the two part tank to be viable, the system must be installed at the highest
possible level in the house, however it can be installed with the feed tank separately
installed in the loft. This system is now available with its own dedicated boiler allowing
the central heating to be switched off in summer. The ultimate in combination systems.
SINGLE POINT WATER HEATER
Single point water heaters come in both gas and electricity "flavor" and are sited,
generally, next to the point they serve. In the case of an electric heater (an electric shower
is an example). They must be wired to the mains via an isolating switch. A heater up to 3
kW can be plugged into an ordinary 13 amp socket, but that socket must not be in reach
of the water outlet.
Above 3 kW, the heater must be wired directly to the fuse box with a double pole
isolating switch in the circuit. In the kitchen, this switch may be wall mounted, again, out
of reach from the sink, but in the bathroom it must either be a cord operated switch on
the ceiling, or an isolating switch outside the room. Differing cable sizes are needed for
differently rated heater and checks should be made for the particular heater you wish to
install.
Single point gas heaters of the old "Ascot" type are based on a thermostat sensing
the arrival of cold water into its reservoir when water is asked for from a tap. As soon as
the tap is open, fresh cold water comes in to replace that being drawn from the tap. This
triggers the ignition of the burners which heat the water. The hot water rises to the top
and is available immediately.
MULTI POINT WATER HEATER (INCLUDING COMBINATION BOILERS)
The most common of these is a combination boiler. These heaters operate on the
same principle as above, but can serve many points (taps, washing machine, etc) as well
as, in the case of a combination boiler, supplying the hot water for a central heating
system. An ordinary multi point heater will only supply water to the domestic water system
but can be installed in conjunction with an ordinary central heating boiler.
A combination boiler combines the functions of a central heating boiler and an

instantaneous multi point water heater, giving priority to the supply of domestic hot water.
Combination boilers can be direct or indirect in much the same way as the cylinders
above, using calorifiers (heat producers) to heat water passing through them
Materials
references.
Activity
1. Differentiate Hot water is stored in a cylinder and Cold water is heated on

demand.
2. Explain the process of direct boiler system.
3. Discuss the process of water heating using unvented system.
4. What safety measures must be observed in using single point water heater?
Learning Assessment
differentiate the two
types of domestic water
heating.
the different types of
water heating systems
used in households.
different types of water
heating systems used in
households.

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:

Week 7 Sanitary Drainage Systems (Part I)
Learning Objectives
1. Identified and discussed the four sub – systems of a drainage system.

2. Read and demonstrated understanding on the general requirements in properly
designing a drainage system.
3. Defined the basic terminologies used in designing a drainage system from the 1999
Edition of NPC.
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. Sanitary Drainage Systems (Part I)
 Four Sub – systems of a Drainage System

 General Requirements for a Properly Designed Drainage System
 Definition of Terms from NPC 1999 Edition
SANITARY DRAIANGE SYSTEM (PART I)
The drainage system is composed of the piping network within a structure which
conveys sewage, rainwater, or other wastes from their point of origin to a point of disposal,
such as a public sewer or a private treatment facility (septic tank). This system is often
known as the DWV System (Drainage, Waste and Vent). The complete drainage system
is subdivided into four (4) sub-systems, as follows.
1. SOIL DRAINAGE SYSTEM- The piping that conveys the discharge of water
closets or fixtures having similar functions (containing fecal matter), with or without
the discharges from other fixtures.
2. WASTE DRAINAGE SYTEM or SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM- The piping

that receives the liquid discharge, from plumbing fixtures other than those fixtures
(water closets) receiving fecal matter. This piping is free of fecal flow.
3. STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEM- The piping system that receives clear water
drainage from leaders, downspouts, surface run-off, ground water, subsurface
water, condensate water, cooling water or other similar discharges and conveys
them to the point of disposal. All sanitary wastes must be excluded.
4. VENT SYSTEM- the piping system that receives a flow or air to or from a drainage
system or to provide a circulation of air within such system to protect trap seals
from siphonage or back pressure.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR A PROPERLY DESIGNED DRAINAGE SYSTEM
a. The piping must be air tight, gas tight and water tight.
b. Each plumbing fixture, except those with integral traps, shall be separately trapped
by an approved type water seal trap. This is to prevent odor-laden and germ-laden
to rise out of the drainage system and contaminate the surrounding air in the room.
c. Each plumbing fixture trap shall be provided with vent pipes. This is to protect the
drainage system against siphonage and back pressure and to assure air circulation
throughout the drainage system.
d. A cleanout, easily accessible, shall be provided for inspection or cleaning of the

pipe run. The location of the cleanout shall be:
- At the upper end of every horizontal waste or soil pipe.

- At every change of horizontal direction of not more than 22.5 degrees
- Within 1.5 m (5’) inside the property line before the house sewer
connection
- At every 15m (50’) to a horizontal run of a soil or waste pipe
e. All horizontal piping shall be run in practical alignment and at a uniform grade of
not less than 2% or 2 cm per meter toward the point of disposal.
f. All horizontal piping shall be supported and anchored at intervals not to exceed 3
meters.
g. Vertical piping shall be secured at sufficiently close intervals to keep the pipe in
alignment. Stacks shall be properly supported at their bases.
DEFINITION FROM NPC 1999 EDITION
HOUSE / BUILDING DRAIN- part of the lowest horizontal piping of a plumbing system,
which receives the discharges from the soil, waste and other drainage pipes inside of a
building and conveys it to the house sewer outside of the building.
HOUSE / BUILDING SEWER - extends from the house drain at a point 0.60 meters from
the outside face of the foundation wall of a building to the junction with the street sewer
or to any point of discharge, and conveying the drainage of one building site. No
house/building sewer shall be smaller than 150mm in diameter, nor less in size than the
house/building drain
WASTE PIPE - conveys only wastewater or liquid waste free of fecal matter.
SOIL PIPE- any pipe which conveys the discharge of water closet, urinal or fixtures having
similar functions, with or without the discharges from other fixtures to the building drain
or building sewer.
SOIL STACK PIPE- a vertical soil pipe conveying fecal matter and waste water.
VENT PIPE - used for ensuring the circulation of air in a plumbing system and for relieving
the negative pressure exerted on trap seals.
VENT STACK- the vertical vent pipe installed primarily for providing circulation of air to
and from any part of the soil, waste of the drainage system.
SEPTIC TANK- a watertight covered receptacle designed and constructed to receive the
discharge of sewage from a building sewer, separate solids from the liquid, digest organic
matter and store digested solids the clarified liquids to discharge for final disposal.
PRIVATE SEWAGE DISPOSAL SYSTEM- a septic tank with the effluent discharging into
a subsurface disposal field, seepage pits or of such other facilities or may be permitted
by the plumbing code.
ROOF GUTTER- the water collector at the eaves of the building.
DOWN SPOUT- a vertical pipe which conveys rain water, also known as conductor or
rain water.
STORM DRAIN- receives storm water, clear, rain or surface-water waste (SD)
CATCH BASIN- a receptacle in which liquids are retained for a sufficient period of time
to allow materials to settle to deposit.
TRAP- a fitting or device designed and constructed to provide, when properly vented, a
liquid seal which prevents the backflow of foul air or methane gas without materially
affecting the flow of sewage or waste water through it.
Materials
references.
Activity
1. Enumerate and discuss briefly the four sub – systems of a drainage sytem.
2. Select 5 general requirements in designing a drainage system and explain each

briefly.
Learning Assessment
discuss the four sub –
systems of a drainage
system.
demonstrate
general requirements in
properly designing a
drainage system.
I was able to define the
basic terminologies used
in designing a drainage
system from the 1999
Edition of NPC.

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:

Week 8 Sanitary Drainage Systems (Part II)
Learning Objectives
1. Recognized the materials used for plumbing drainage system approved by the 1999
National Plumbing Code.
2. Enumerated and discussed the causes of trap seal loss.
3. Identified the types of supports used in drainage systems.
4. Explained the function of Drainage, Waste and Vent Piping System.
5. Enumerated the types of trap commonly used in residential areas.
6. Defined grease trap and discussed its use in drainage systems.
7. Stated and differentiated the types of vents.
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. Sanitary Drainage Systems (Part II)
 Materials Used for the Plumbing Drainage System Approved by the 1999
National Plumbing Code
 Loss of Trap Seal
 Supports
 Drainage, Waste and Vent (DWV) Piping System
 Types of Trap Commonly Used in Residential Fixtures
 Grease Traps
 Types of Vents
MATERIALS USED FOR THE PLUMBING DRAINAGE SYSTEM

APPROVED BY THE 1999 NATIONAL PLUMBING CODE.
EXCRETA DRAINAGE PIPING
1. Cast iron
2. Ductile iron
3. Galvanized steel (shall not be used underground. Kept at least 152mm above
ground)
4. Galvanized wrought iron (shall not be used underground. Kept at least 152mm
above ground)
5. Lead
6. Copper
7. Brass
8. Series 1000, pvc, dmv
9. Extra strength vitrified clay pipe (shall not be used above ground. At least
300mm below finish ground level.)
10. Approved material having smooth and uniform bore
NOTE: ABS and PVC DWV can be used in high rise buildings at the discretion
of the RMP and with the full consent of the owner.
DRAINAGE FITTING
1. Cast Iron
2. Malleable
3. Lead
4. Brass
5. Copper
6. ABS
7. PVC
8. Vitrified clay
VENT PIPES
1. Cast iron
2. Ductile cast iron
3. Galvanized steel
4. Galvanized wrought iron
5. Lead
6. Copper
7. Brass
8. Schedule 40, ABS, DWV
9. Series 1000, PVC, DWV
VENT STACKS
1. Copper
2. Cast iron
3. Galvanized wrought iron
4. PVC
VENT FITTINGS
1. Cast Iron
2. Galvanized malleable iron
3. Galvanized steel
4. Lead
5. Copper
6. Brass
7. ABS
8. PVC
DOWN SPOUT (INTERIOR)
1. Cast iron
2. Galvanized steel
3. Iron
4. Brass
5. Copper
6. Lead
7. Sched 40, ABS, DMV
DOWNSPOUT (MEDIUM HEIGHT BUILDING)
1. G.I.pipe,
sch. 30
2. CISP,
S.W.
3. Copper tube, type DWV
4. Sch. 40, ABS, DWV
DOWN SPOUT (EXTERIOR/ LOW HT. BLDG)
1. 26 GA, Galvanized sheet metal with steel pipe or cast iron at its lowest
section draining to the catch basin.
DOWN SPOUT (HIGH RISE)

1. Shall be of stronger pipe materials to resist the high hydrostatic pressure.
ROOF DRAIN
1. Cast iron
2. Copper
3. Other corrosion resistant materials TRAPS (SEC. 1003 NPC 1999)
1. ABS
2. Cast brass
3. Cast iron
4. Lead
5. PVC
Figure 2- The function of the trap and one of the several functions of a vent preventing
siphonage.
LOSS OF TRAP SEAL- This failure can be attributed directly to inadequate
ventilation of the trap and the subsequent minus and plus pressures which
occur in the piping system. See figure 3.
FIVE CAUSES OF TRAP SEAL
1. Siphonage- The withdrawal of a liquid from a trap due to a suction caused by

liquid flow in a pipe.
a. Direct Self- siphonage
b. Indirect or Momentum Siphonage

2. Back Pressure- pressure developed in opposition to the flow of liquid in a pipe
due to friction, gravity or some other restriction to flow of the conveyed fluid.
Excessive pressure at the lowest branch causing trap seal to look for opening.
3. Evaporation- Occurs when a fixture is not used for a long time. A Deep seal is
the best solution but clogs the pipe due to accumulated solid wastes.
4. Capillary Attraction- foreign objects in the traps absorbing trap seal
5. Wind Effects- strong winds through the vent system forcing water out of the trap
SUPPORTS- are devices for holding and securing pipes and fixtures to walls,
ceiling, floors or structural members. Supports include hangers, anchors,
brackets, and cradles.
INDIRECT WASTE PIPING (Section 810 NPC 1999)
A. The drains of the following equipments shall not be directly connected to

any soil, waste and vent pipes.
1. Evaporative cooler
2. Air Washer
3. Air Conditioner
4. Cold Storage Room
5. Refrigerator
6. Cooling Counter
7. Food and Drinks Storage
8. Culinary/ Dishwashing Sink for food preparation Room
B. Cooling and air conditioning equipments may be separated by an

*airbreak.
C. Food equipments shall be separated from the drainage system by a full

*airgap.
*Airbreak- a physical separation, which may be a low inlet into the indirect
waste receptor from the fixture, appliance or device indirectly connected, at
least 25mm.
*Airgap, drainage.- the unobstructed vertical distance through the free
atmosphere between the lowest opening from any pipe, plumbing fixture,
appliance or appurtenance conveying waste to the flood level rim of the receptor.
DRAINAGE, WASTE AND VENT (DWV) PIPING SYSTEM
The drainage system is composed of groups of pipes and fittings that convey
waste from the building to the proper means of disposal system.
1. Building Sewer- That part of the horizontal piping of a drainage system

which system which extends from the end of the building and which
receives the discharge of the building drain and conveys it to the public
sewer, private sewer, individual sewage disposal system or other point of
disposal.
2. Building drain- the part of the lowest horizontal piping of a plumbing
system which receives the discharge from soil, waste and other drainage
pipes inside of a building and conveys it to the house sewer.
3. Sewage Disposal System. A system for the treatment and disposal of
domestic sewage by means of a septic tank, cesspool, or mechanical
treatment, all designed to serve a single establishment, development or
building.
The drainage piping system contains fittings that serve as drains, traps and vents.
Drains- fittings used for draining fluid from point of use to the piping system.
Traps- fittings or device designed and constructed to provide a liquid seal which
prevent the back passage of air without materially affecting the flow of sewage
or water through it.
Vents-pipes and fittings installed in the system to provide air circulation so as to
protect trap seals from siphonage and back pressure.
TYPES OF TRAP COMMONLY USED IN RESIDENTIAL FIXTURES
1. P- Trap used at lavatories, sinks, floor drain and scuppers.

2. Drum Trap used at bathtubs and bidets
3. House Trap
4. Other Appliances
a. Back flow valve

b. Flow control valve
c. Grease trap/ grease interceptor
Drum Trap- A cylindrical
trap commonly used on the
drain pipe from a bathtub or
under the bathroom floor.
Back Flow Valve-
Device that prevents
the reversal of flow
which might flood
and cause damage to
building.
SIZES AND CAPACITIES OF GREASE TRAPS
SIZES DIMENSIONS PIPE SIZE INLET FLOW RATE

(mm) AND OUTLET
LxWxH (mmФ) GPM LPS
- 279 Ф x 216 51 2 0.13
- 301Ф x 203 51 3 0.19
- 330Ф x 241 51 4 0.25
- 356 x 279 51 5 0.32
100 381 x 305 x 283 51 7 0.44
200 406 x 356 x 298 51 10 0.63
300 470 x 400 x 302 51 15 0.95
400 629 x 495 x 381 51 20 1.26
500 699 x 429 x 441 76 25 1.8
600 762 x 470 x 470 76 35 2.21
700 832 x 502 x 518 76 50-55 3.15
800 873 x 559 x 584 76 Hous e Trap- 75a device 4.73
900 902 x 724 x 890 76 install ed to prevent95 6. 00
1000 1083 x 851 x 953 76 circula tion of aireen the6. 31
betw100
1100 1248 x 1016 x 1006 76 draina ge of the buildi125ng and 7. 89
1200 1422 x 1054 x 1029 102 the bu ilding sewer.150 9. 46
1300 1549 x 1105 x 1156 102 200 12.62
1400 1800 x 1308 x 1270 102-127 250 15.77
1500 2029 x 1486 x 1416 127-152 300 18.93
Note: Minimum height of 89mm required from cover of grease trap to bottom of
fixtures served.
Source: Metma Trading and Industrial corporation

CAT. No. 1005
POT. No. 24187
FREE LEVEL HANDLE DRAIN (METMA BRAND)
USING FREE LEVEL HANDLE

DRAIN IS FOR EASY
DRIPPING OF WASTE WATER FROM KITCHEN SINK.
FLOW CONTROL VALVE IS
RECOMMENDED FOR
INSTALLATION BEWEEN
FREE LEVEL HANDLE DRAIN
AND GREASE TRAP TO PREVENT FATS FROM
CLOGGING INTO PIPES.
GREASE TRAP. A DEVICE

FOR
REMOVING FAT AND
GREASE
FROM WASTE WATER BY
ALLOWING THE RETAINED
LIQUID TO COOL AND THE
GREASE TO SOLIDIFY;
THEN
THE GREASE IS
SEPARATED BY
FLOATATION; IT RISES TO
THE
TOP OF THE TRAP, WHERE
IT IS
HELD. THE PRIME
PURPOSE OF
A GREASE TRAP IS TO
ASSURE
A FREE FLOWING
DRAINAGE
THROUGH PIPE LINES AT
ALL
TIMES BY INTERCEPTING,
ACCUMULATING AND
RECOVERING GLOBULES
OF GREASE FAT AND OILS
FROM WASTE WATER.
GREASE TRAP/ GREASE INTERCEPTOR
NOTE:
Grease trap is not required for individual dwelling units or for any private living
quarters. (sec. 1011.1, NPC 1999)
No food waste disposal unit shall be connected to or discharged into any grease
trap. (Sec 1013, NPC 1999)
SIZING OF GRESE INTERCEPTORS (TABLE 10-4, NPC 1999)
C= M x W x R x F NOTE:
WHERE: 1 Cubic meter= 264 gallons
C= size of grease interceptors (liquid capacity)
M= Number of meals served at peak hour
R= Waste flow rate;
• With dishwashing machine = 6 gallon flow (per meal/ day)

• Without dishwashing machine = 5 gallon flow (per meal/ day)
• Single service kitchen = 2 gallon flow (per meal/ day)
• Food waste disposer = 1 gallon flow (per meal/ day)
• Hospital kitchen = 25 gallon / bed / day
F= Storage Factors
• Fully equipped commercial kitchen
8 hour operation: 1
18 hour operation: 2
24 hour operation: 3
• Single service kitchen: 1.5
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Determine the capacity and volume of the grease trap for a canteen that
serves an average of 50 meals a day that is open from 11:00 am to 7:00pm.
SOLUTION: S= M x W x R x F = 50 x 5 x 2.5 x 1
S= ? = 625 gallons
M= 50 meals
W=5 cal/ meal/ day
R= 2.5 hours
F= 1
Solve for volume of grease trap (V) m3 (cubic meter)
V= 625/ 264 = 2.37 cubic meter volume of grease trap

OTHER METHODS USED FOR SIZING THE GREASE INTERCEPTOR
 For grease traps the serve non-scheduled meals to a nonspecific number of

occupants, as in restaurants, fast foods services and luncheonettes;
C = 0.09 (K x N x H x G x S)
Where:
C= Liquid capacity
K= Facility access coefficient
= 1.25 for freeways

= 1.00 for recreation areas
= 0.80 for main highways
= 0.5 for lesser roads
N= number of seats (use fractional value if occupancy is rarely full)
H= Number of hours per day of operation
G= Waste flow rate (general value is 4.5 Gals)
S= Sewage capacity factor
= 1.7 for outflow to public sewer

= 2.5 for outflow to opposite disposal
• For grease traps that serve scheduled meals to a specific number of

occupants as in hospitals , nursing homes and schools;
C= 0.14 (M x G x S)
Where;
M= number of scheduled meals served per day; 1, 2 or 3
TYPES OF VENTS
1. Main soil and waste vent

2. Main vent
3. Individual vent or back vent
4. Unit vent
5. Circuit vent or loop vent
6. Relief vent
7. Yoke vent
8. Wet vent
9. Looped vent
10. Utility vent
Main soil and waste vent. The portion of

soil stack pipe above the highest installed Individual vent or back vent. The portion of the
fixture branch extending through the roof. vent pipe system which serves a single fixture.
Main vent. The principal portion of the vent pipe Unit vent. The portion of the vent pipe system which
system to which vent braches may be connected. It ventilates two fixture of similar design installed on
serves as a collecting vent line. opposite sides of a partition.
Relief Vent . The portion of the vent pipe installation that permits additional circulation of air
around the drainage pipes to eliminate back pressure and retardation of waste flow.
Materials
references.
Activity
1. What are the different materials approved by the 1999 NPC are used in a
drainage system?
2. Enumerate the five causes of trap seal loss and explain each briefly.
3. Discuss the DWV Piping System in not more than 5 sentences.
4. What is the use of a grease trap?
Learning Assessment
I was able to recognize
the materials used for
plumbing drainage
system approved by the
1999 National Plumbing
Code.
and discuss the causes
of trap seal loss.
types of supports used in
drainage systems.
function of Drainage,
Waste and Vent Piping
System.
the types of trap
commonly used in
residential areas.
I was able to define
grease trap and discuss
its use in drainage
systems.
differentiate the types of
vents.

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:

Week 9 OSST/ Alternative Waste Systems (Part I)
Learning Objectives
1. Identified the effects of onsite wastewater treatment systems failure.

2. Read and demonstrated understanding on the history of onsite wastewater
treatment systems.
3. Discussed the importance of managing onsite wastewater treatment systems.
4. Differentiated residential from nonresidential wastewater.
5. Identified the process used in estimating residential wastewater flow.
6. Defined and discussed hydraulic overloading.
7. Enumerated the methods used in reducing water use.
8. Defined and discussed wastewater reuse and recycling.
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. OSST/ Alternative Waste Systems (Part I)
 Introduction
 Management of Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems
 Establishing treatment system performance requirements
OSST/ ALTERNATIVE WASTE SYSTEMS (PART I)
INTRODUCTION
Onsite wastewater treatment systems (OWTSs) have evolved from the pit privies used
widely throughout history to installations capable of producing a disinfected effluent that
is fit for human consumption. Although achieving such a level of effluent quality is seldom
necessary, the ability of onsite systems to remove settleable solids, floatable grease and
scum, nutrients, and pathogens from wastewater discharges defines their importance in
protecting human health and environmental resources. In the modern era, the typical
onsite system has consisted primarily of a septic tank and a soil absorption field, also
known as a subsurface wastewater infiltration system, or SWIS. In this manual, such
systems are referred to as conventional systems. Septic tanks remove most settleable
and floatable material and function as an anaerobic bioreactor that promotes partial
digestion of retained organic matter. Septic tank effluent, which contains significant
concentrations of pathogens and nutrients, has traditionally been discharged to soil, sand,
or other media absorption fields (SWISs) for further treatment through biological
processes, adsorption, filtration, and infiltration into underlying soils. Conventional
systems work well if they are installed in areas with appropriate soils and hydraulic
capacities; designed to treat the incoming waste load to meet public health, ground water,
and surface water performance standards; installed properly; and maintained to ensure
long-term performance.
These criteria, however, are often not met. System densities in some areas exceed the
capacity of even suitable soils to assimilate wastewater flows and retain and transform
their contaminants. In addition, many systems are located too close to ground water or
surface waters and others, particularly in rural areas with newly installed public water
lines, are not designed to handle increasing wastewater flows. Conventional onsite
system installations might not be adequate for minimizing nitrate contamination of ground
water, removing phosphorus compounds, and attenuating pathogenic organisms (e.g.,
bacteria, viruses). Nitrates that leach into ground water used as a drinking water source
can cause methemoglobinemia, or blue baby syndrome, and other health problems for
pregnant women. Nitrates and phosphorus discharged into surface waters directly or
through subsurface flows can spur algal growth and lead to eutrophication and low
dissolved oxygen in lakes, rivers, and coastal areas. In addition, pathogens reaching
ground water or surface waters can cause human disease through direct consumption,
recreational contact, or ingestion of contaminated shellfish. Sewage might also affect
public health as it backs up into residences or commercial establishments because of
OWTS failure.
Nationally, states and tribes have reported in their 1998 Clean Water Act section 303(d)
reports that designated uses (e.g., drinking water, aquatic habitat) are not being met for
5,281 waterbodies because of pathogens and that 4,773 waterbodies are impaired by
nutrients. Onsite systems are one of many known contributors of pathogens and nutrients
to surface and ground waters. Onsite wastewater systems have also contributed to an
overabundance of nutrients in ponds, lakes, and coastal estuaries, leading to overgrowth
of algae and other nuisance aquatic plants.
HISTORY OF ONSITE WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS
King Minos installed the first known water closet with a flushing device in the Knossos
Palace in Crete in 1700 BC. In the intervening 3,700 years, societies and the governments
that serve them have sought to improve both the removal of human wastes from indoor
areas and the treatment of that waste to reduce threats to public health and ecological
resources. The Greeks, Romans, British, and French achieved considerable progress in
waste removal during the period from 800 BC to AD 1850, but removal often meant
discharge to surface waters; severe contamination of lakes, rivers, streams, and coastal
areas; and frequent outbreaks of diseases like cholera and typhoid fever.
By the late 1800s, the Massachusetts State Board of Health and other state health
agencies had documented links between disease and poorly treated sewage and
recommended treatment of wastewater through intermittent sand filtration and land
application of the resulting sludge. The past century has witnessed an explosion in
sewage treatment technology and widespread adoption of centralized wastewater
collection and treatment services in the United States and throughout the world. Although
broad uses of these systems have vastly improved public health and water quality in
urban areas, homes and businesses without centralized collection and treatment systems
often continue to depend on technologies developed more than 100 years ago. Septic
tanks for primary treatment of wastewater appeared in the late 1800s, and discharge of
tank effluent into gravel-lined subsurface drains became common practice during the
middle of the 20th century (Kreissl, 2000).
Scientists, engineers, and manufacturers in the wastewater treatment industry have

developed a wide range of alternative technologies designed to address increasing
hydraulic loads and water contamination by nutrients and pathogens. These technologies
can achieve significant pollutant removal rates. With proper management oversight,
alternative systems (e.g., recirculating sand filters, peat-based systems, package
aeration units) can be installed in areas where soils, bedrock, fluctuating ground water
levels, or lot sizes limit the use of conventional systems. Alternative technologies typically
are applied to the treatment train beyond the septic tank. The tank is designed to equalize
hydraulic flows; retain oils, grease, and settled solids; and provide some minimal
anaerobic digestion of settleable organic matter. Alternative treatment technologies often
provide environments (e.g., sand, peat and artificial media) that promote additional
biological treatment and remove pollutants through filtration, absorption and adsorption.
All of the alternative treatment technologies in current use require more intensive
management and monitoring than conventional OWTSs because of mechanical
components, additional residuals generated, and process sensitivities (e.g., to
wastewater strength or hydraulic loading).
Replacing gravity-flow subsurface soil infiltration beds with better-performing alternative

distribution technologies can require float-switched pumps and/ or valves. As noted in
chapter 4, specialized excavation or structures might be required to house some
treatment system components, including the disinfection devices (e.g., chlorinators,
ultraviolet lamps) used by some systems. In addition, it is often both efficient and effective
to collect and treat septic tank effluent from clusters of individual sources through a
community or cluster system driven by gravity, pressure, or vacuum. These devices also
require specialized design, operation, and maintenance and enhanced management
oversight.
REGULATION OF ONSITE WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Public health departments were charged with enforcing the first onsite wastewater
“disposal” laws, which were mostly based on soil percolation tests, local practices, and
past experience. Early codes did not consider the complex interrelationships among soil
conditions, wastewater characteristics, biological mechanisms, and climate and
prescribed standard designs sometimes copied from jurisdictions in vastly different
geoclimatic regions. In addition, these laws often depended on minimally trained
personnel to oversee design, permitting, and installation and mostly untrained,
uninformed homeowners to operate and maintain the systems. During the 1950s states
began to adopt laws upgrading onsite system design and installation practices to ensure
proper functioning and eliminate the threats posed by waterborne pathogens (Kreissl,
1982). Despite these improvements, many regulations have not considered cumulative
ground water and surface water impacts, especially in areas with high system densities
and significant wastewater discharges
Although state lawmakers have continued to revise onsite system codes, most revisions
have failed to address the fundamental issue of system performance in the context of risk
management for both a site and the region in which it is located. Prescribed system
designs require that site conditions fit system capabilities rather than the reverse and are
sometimes incorrectly based on the assumption that centralized wastewater collection
and treatment services will be available in the future. Codes that emphasize prescriptive
standards based on empirical relationships and hydraulic performance do not necessarily
protect ground water and surface water resources from public health threats. Devising a
new regime for protecting public health and the environment in a cost-effective manner
will require increased focus on system performance, pollutant transport and fate and
resulting environmental impacts, and integration of the planning, design, siting,
installation, maintenance, and management functions to achieve public health and
environmental objectives.
MANAGEMENT OF ONSITE WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Effective management is the key to ensuring that the requisite level of environmental and
public health protection for any given community is achieved. It is the single most
important factor in any comprehensive wastewater management program. Without
effective management, even the most costly and advanced technologies will not be able
to meet the goals of the community. Numerous technologies are currently available to
meet a broad range of wastewater treatment needs. Without proper management,
however, these treatment technologies will fail to perform as designed and efforts to
protect public health and the environment will be compromised.
Good planning and management are inseparable. The capacity of the community to
manage any given technology should be factored into the decision-making process
leading to the planning and selection of a system or set of systems appropriate for the
community. As Kreissl and Otis noted in New Markets for Your Municipal Wastewater
Services: Looking Beyond the Boundaries (1999), appropriate technologies should be
selected based on whether they are affordable, operable, and reliable. The selection of
individual unit processes and systems should, at a minimum, be based on those three
factors. Although managing OWTSs is obviously far more complicated than assessing
whether the systems are affordable, operable and reliable, an initial screening using these
criteria is a critical element of good planning.
Historically, the selection and siting of OWTSs has been an inconsistent process.
Conventional septic tank and leach field systems were installed based on economic
factors, the availability of adequate land area, and simple health-based measures aimed
only at preventing direct public contact with untreated wastewater. Little analysis was
devoted to understanding the dynamics of OWTSs and the potential impacts on ground
water and surface waters. Only recently has there been an understanding of the issues
and potential problems associated with failing to manage OWTSs in a comprehensive,
holistic manner.
Many case studies and reports from across the country provide documentation that a
significant number of OWTSs lack adequate management oversight, which results in
inadequate pollutant treatment (USEPA, 2000). The lack of system inventories in many
communities makes the task of system management even more challenging.
As a result of the perception that onsite/decentralized systems are inferior, old-fashioned,

less technologically advanced, and not as safe as centralized wastewater treatment
systems from both an environmental and public health perspective, many communities
have pursued the construction of centralized systems (collection systems and sewage
treatment plants). Centralized wastewater collection and treatment systems, however,
are not the most cost-effective or environmentally sound option for all situations (e.g.,
sewage treatment plants can discharge high point source loadings of pollutants into
receiving waters). They are costly to build and operate and are often infeasible or
costprohibitive, especially in areas with low populations and dispersed households. Many
communities lack both the revenue to fund these facilities and the expertise to manage
the treatment operations. In addition, centralized treatment systems can contribute to
unpredicted growth and development that might threaten water quality.
As development patterns change and increased development occurs in rural areas and
on the urban fringe, many communities are evaluating whether they should invest in
centralized sewage treatment plants or continue to rely on OWTSs. The availability of
innovative and alternative onsite technologies and accompanying management
strategies now provides small communities with a practical, cost-effective alternative to
centralized treatment plants. For example, analysis included in USEPA’s Response to
Congress on Use of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems (1997) shows that
the costs of purchasing and managing an OWTS or a set of individual systems can be
significantly (22 to 80 percent) less than the cost of purchasing and managing a
centralized system.
The management tasks listed have become increasingly complex, especially given the
need to develop a management strategy based on changing priorities primarily driven by
new development activities. Rapid urbanization and suburbanization, the presence of
other sources that might discharge nutrients and pathogens, water reuse issues,
increasingly stringent environmental regulations, and recognition of the need to manage
on a watershed basis increase the difficulty of this task. Multiple objectives (e.g.,
attainment of water quality criteria, protection of ground water, efficient and affordable
wastewater treatment) now must be achieved to reach the overarching goal of
maintaining economically and ecologically sound communities. Investment by small
communities in collection and treatment systems increases taxes and costs to
consumers—costs that might be reduced substantially by using decentralized wastewater
treatment systems. From a water resource perspective achieving these goals means that
public health, contact recreation activities, fisheries, shellfisheries, drinking water
resources, and wildlife need to be protected or restored. From a practical standpoint,
achieving these goals requires that the management entity develop and implement a
program that is consistent with the goal of simultaneously meeting and achieving the
requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Clean Water Act, the Endangered
Species Act, and other applicable federal, state, tribal, and local requirements.
Changing regulatory contexts point to scenarios in which system selection, design, and
replacement will be determined by performance requirements tied to water quality
standards or maximum contamination limits for ground water. Cumulative effects
analyses and antidegradation policies might be used to determine the level of technology
and management needed to meet the communities’ resource management goals.
ESTABLISHING TREATMENT PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENT
This chapter outlines essential steps for characterizing wastewater flow and composition
and provides a framework for establishing and measuring performance requirements.
This chapter also describes methods for establishing and ensuring compliance with
wastewater treatment performance requirements that protect human health, surface
waters, and ground water resources. The chapter describes the characteristics of typical
domestic and commercial wastewaters and discusses approaches for estimating
wastewater quantity and quality for residential dwellings and commercial establishments.
Pollutants of concern in wastewaters are identified, and the fate and transport of these
pollutants in the receiving environment are discussed.
ESTIMATING WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS
Accurate characterization of raw wastewater, including daily volumes, rates of flow, and
associated pollutant load, is critical for effective treatment system design. Determining
treatment system performance requirements, selecting appropriate treatment processes,
designing the treatment system, and operating the system depends on an accurate
assessment of the wastewater to be treated. There are basically two types of onsite
system wastewaters—residential and nonresidential. Single-family households,
condominiums, apartment houses, multifamily households, cottages, and resort
residences all fall under the category of residential dwellings. Discharges from these
dwellings consist of a number of individual waste streams generated by water-using
activities from a variety of plumbing fixtures and appliances. Wastewater flow and quality
are influenced by the type of plumbing fixtures and appliances, their extent and frequency
of use, and other factors such as the characteristics of the residing family, geographic
location, and water supply (Anderson and Siegrist, 1989; Crites and Tchobanoglous,
1998; Siegrist, 1983).
A wide variety of institutional (e.g., schools), commercial (e.g., restaurants), and industrial
establishments and facilities fall into the nonresidential wastewater category. Wastewater
generating activities in some nonresidential establishments are similar to those of
residential dwellings. Often, however, the wastewater from nonresidential establishments
is quite different from that from of residential dwellings and should be characterized
carefully before Onsite Wastewater Treatment System (OWTS) design. The
characteristics of wastewater generated in some types of nonresidential establishments
might prohibit the use of conventional systems without changing wastewater loadings
through advanced pretreatment or accommodating elevated organic loads by increasing
the size of the subsurface wastewater infiltration system (SWIS).
In addition, a large number of seemingly similar nonresidential establishments are

affected by subtle and often intangible influences that can cause significant variation in
wastewater characteristics. For example, popularity, price, cuisine, and location can
produce substantial variations in wastewater flow and quality among different restaurants
(University of Wisconsin, 1978). Nonresidential wastewater characterization criteria that
are easily applied and accurately predict flows and pollutant loadings are available for
only a few types of establishments and are difficult to develop on a national basis with
any degree of confidence. Therefore, for existing facilities the wastewater to be treated
should be characterized by metering and sampling the current wastewater stream. For
many existing developments and for almost any new development, however,
characteristics of nonresidential wastewaters should be estimated based on available
data. Characterization data from similar facilities already in use can provide this
information.
ESTIMATING WASTEWATER FLOW
The required hydraulic capacity for an OWTS is determined initially from the estimated
wastewater flow. Reliable data on existing and projected flows should be used if onsite
systems are to be designed properly and cost-effectively. In situations where onsite
wastewater flow data are limited or unavailable, estimates should be developed from
water consumption records or other information. When using water meter readings or
other water use records, outdoor water use should be subtracted to develop wastewater
flow estimates. Estimates of outdoor water use can be derived from discussions with
residents on car washing, irrigation, and other outdoor uses during the metered period
under review, and studies conducted by local water utilities, which will likely take into
account climatic and other factors that affect local outdoor use.
Accurate wastewater characterization data and appropriate factors of safety to minimize

the possibility of system failure are required elements of a successful design. System
design varies considerably and is based largely on the type of establishment under
consideration. For example, daily flows and pollutant contributions are usually expressed
on a per person basis for residential dwellings. Applying these data to characterize
residential wastewater therefore requires that a second parameter, the number of
persons living in the residence, be considered. Residential occupancy is typically 1.0 to
1.5 persons per bedroom; recent census data indicate that the average household size
is 2.7 people (U.S. Census Bureau, 1998). Local census data can be used to improve the
accuracy of design assumptions. The current onsite code practice is to assume that
maximum occupancy is 2 persons per bedroom, which provides an estimate that might
be too conservative if additional factors of safety are incorporated into the design.
For nonresidential establishments, wastewater flows are expressed in a variety of ways.

Although per person units may also be used for nonresidential wastewaters, a unit that
reflects a physical characteristic of the establishment (e.g., per seat, per meat served, per
car stall, or per square foot) is often used. The characteristic that best fits the wastewater
characterization data should be employed (University of Wisconsin, 1978).
When considering wastewater flow it is important to address sources of water

uncontaminated by wastewater that could be introduced into the treatment system.
Uncontaminated water sources (e.g., storm water from rain gutters, discharges from
basement sump pumps) should be identified and eliminated from the OWTS. Leaking
joints, cracked treatment tanks, and system damage caused by tree roots also can be
significant sources of clear water that can adversely affect treatment performance. These
flows might cause periodic hydraulic overloads to the system, reducing treatment
effectiveness and potentially causing hydraulic failure.
RESIDENTIAL WASTEWATER FLOW
AVERAGE DAILY FLOW
The average daily wastewater flow from typical residential dwellings can be estimated
from indoor water use in the home. Several studies have evaluated residential indoor
water use in detail (Anderson and Siegrist, 1989; Anderson et al., 1993; Brown and
Caldwell, 1984; Mayer et al., 1999). These studies were conducted primarily on homes
in suburban areas with public water supplies. Previous studies of rural homes on private
wells generally indicated slightly lower indoor water use values. However, over the past
three decades there has been a significant increase in the number of suburban housing
units with onsite systems, and it has recently been estimated that the majority of OWTSs
in the United States are located in suburban metropolitan areas (Knowles, 1999). Based
on the data, estimated average daily wastewater flows of approximately 50 to 70 gallons
per person per day (189 to 265 liters per person per day) would be typical for residential
dwellings built before 1994.
NON RESIDENTIAL WASTEWATER FLOWS
Actual monitoring of specific wastewater flow and characteristics for nonresidential

establishments is strongly recommended. State and local regulatory agencies should be
consulted for approved design flow guidelines for nonresidential establishments. Most
design flows provided by regulatory agencies are very conservative estimates based on
peak rather than average daily flows. These agencies might accept only their established
flow values and therefore should be contacted before design work begins.
MINIMIZING RESIDENTIAL WASTEWATER VOLUMES
The most commonly reported failure of residential OWTS infiltration systems is hydraulic
overloading. Hydraulic overloads can be caused by wastewater flow or pollutant loads
that exceed system design capacity. When more water is processed than an OWTS is
designed to handle, detention time within the treatment train is reduced, which can
decrease pollutant removal in the tank and overload the infiltration field. Reducing water
use in a residence can decrease hydraulic loading to the treatment system and generally
improve system performance. If failure is caused by elevated pollutant loads, however,
other options should be considered.
Indoor residential water use and resulting wastewater flows are attributed mainly to toilet
flushing, bathing, and clothes washing. Toilet use usually accounts for 25 to 30 percent
of indoor water use in residences; toilets, showers, and faucets in combination can
represent more than 70 percent of all indoor use. Residential wastewater flow reduction
can therefore be achieved most dramatically by addressing these primary indoor uses
and by minimizing wastewater flows from extraneous sources.
ELIMINATING EXTRANEOUS FLOWS
Excessive water use can be reduced or eliminated by several methods, including

modifying water use habits and maintaining the plumbing system appropriately.
Examples of methods to reduce water use include:
• Using toilets to dispose of sanitary waste only (not kitty litter, diapers, ash tray
contents, and other materials.)
• Reducing time in the shower
• Turning off faucets while brushing teeth or shaving
• Operating dishwashers only when they are full
• Adjusting water levels in clothes washers to match loads; using machine only
when full
• Making sure that all faucets are completely turned off when not in use
• Maintaining plumbing system to eliminate leaks
These practices generally involve changes in water use behavior and do not require
modifying of plumbing or fixtures. Homeowner education programs can be an effective
approach for modifying water use behavior (USEPA, 1995). Wastewater flow reduction
resulting from eliminating wasteful water use habits will vary greatly depending on past
water use habits. In many residences, significant water use results from leaking plumbing
fixtures. The easiest ways to reduce wastewater flows from indoor water use are to
properly maintain plumbing fixtures and repair leaks when they occur. Leaks that appear
to be insignificant, such as leaking toilets or dripping faucets, can generate large volumes
of wastewater. For example, a 1/32-inch (0.8 millimeters) opening at 40 pounds per
square inch (207 mm of mercury) of pressure can waste from 3,000 to 6,000 gallons (11,
550 to 22,700 liters) of water per month. Even apparently very slow leaks, such as a
slowly dripping faucet, can generate 15 to 20 gallons (57 to 76 liters) of wastewater per
day.
WASTEWATER REUSE AND RECYCLING SYSTEMS
Many arid and semiarid regions in the United States have been faced with water
shortages, creating the need for more efficient water use practices. Depletion of ground
water and surface water resources due to increased development, irrigation, and overall
water use is also becoming a growing concern in areas where past supplies have been
plentiful (e.g., south Florida, central Georgia). Residential development in previously rural
areas has placed additional strains on water supplies and wastewater treatment facilities.
Decentralized wastewater management programs that include onsite wastewater
reuse/recycling systems are a viable option for addressing water supply shortages and
wastewater discharge restrictions. In municipalities where water shortages are a
recurring problem, such as communities in California and Arizona, centrally treated
reclaimed wastewater has been used for decades as an alternative water supply for
agricultural irrigation, ground water recharge, and recreational waters.
Wastewater reuse is the collection and treatment of wastewater for other uses (e.g.,
irrigation, ornamental ponds, and cooling systems). Wastewater recycling is the collection
and treatment of wastewater and its reuse in the same water-use scheme, such as toilet
and urinal flushing (Tchobanoglous and Burton, 1991). Wastewater reuse/recycling
systems can be used in individual homes, clustered communities, and larger institutional
facilities such as office parks and recreational facilities. The Grand Canyon National Park
has reused treated wastewater for toilet flushing, landscape irrigation, cooling water, and
concerns associated with wastewater reuse/recycling
INTEGRATING WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION AND OTHER DSIGN

INFORMATION
Predicting wastewater characteristics for typical residential and nonresidential
establishments can be a difficult task. Following a logical step-by-step procedure can
help simplify the characterization process and yield more accurate wastewater
characteristic estimates.
In designing wastewater treatment systems, it is recommended that designers consider

the most significant or limiting parameters, including those that may be characterized as
outliers, when considering hydraulic and mass pollutant treatment requirements and
system components. For example, systems that will treat wastewaters with typical mass
pollutant loads but hydraulic loads that exceed typical values should be designed to
handle the extra hydraulic input. Systems designed for facilities with typical hydraulic
loads but atypical mass pollutant loads (e.g., restaurants, grocery stores, or other facilities
with high strength wastes) should incorporate pretreatment units that address the
additional pollutant loadings, such as grease traps.
TRANSPORT AND FATE OF WASTEWATER POLLUTANTS IN THE REEIVING

ENVIRONMENT
Nitrate, phosphorus, pathogens, and other contaminants are present in significant
concentrations in most wastewaters treated by onsite systems. Although most can be
removed to acceptable levels under optimal system operational and performance
conditions, some may remain in the effluent exiting the system. After treatment and
percolation of the wastewater through the infiltrative surface biomat and passage through
the first few inches of soil, the wastewater plume begins to migrate downward until nearly
saturated conditions exist. The worst case scenario occurs when the plume is mixing with
an elevated water table. At that point, the wastewater plume will move in response to the
prevailing hydraulic gradient, which might be lateral, vertical, or even a short distance up
slope if ground water mounding occurs. Moisture potential, soil conductivity, and other
soil and geological characteristics determine the direction of flow.
Further treatment occurs as the plume passes through the soil. The degree of this
additional treatment depends on a host of factors (e.g., residence time, soil mineralogy,
particle sizes). Permit writers should consider not only the performance of each individual
onsite system but also the density of area systems and overall hydraulic loading, the
proximity of water resources, and the collective performance of onsite systems in the
watershed. Failure to address these issues can lead ultimately to contamination of lakes,
rivers, streams, wetlands, coastal areas, or ground water.
Materials
references.
Activity
1. Discus the effects of onsite wastewater treatment systems failure.
2. As an engineer, what is the proper of managing an onsite wastewater treatment

system?
3. Differentiate residential wastewater from non-residential wastewater.
4. What is hydraulic overloading? How does it affect the onsite wastewater

treatment?
5. In what ways can we reduce water use?
Learning Assessment
effects of onsite
wastewater treatment
systems failure.
demonstrate
history of onsite
systems.
importance of managing
onsite wastewater
treatment systems.
I was able to differentiate
residential from
nonresidential
wastewater.
process used in
estimating residential
wastewater flow.
I was able to define and
discuss hydraulic
overloading.
the methods used in
reducing water use.
discuss wastewater
reuse and recycling.

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:

Week 10 OSST/ Alternative Waste Systems (Part II)
Learning Objectives
1. Identified the three components of a conventional system.

2. Enumerated and discussed the treatment options of onsite wastewater treatment
systems.
3. Stated the design considerations of onsite wastewater treatment systems.
4. Named and discussed the construction considerations of onsite wastewater
treatment systems.
5. Explained the importance of septic tanks in wastewater treatment.
6. Discussed the process of selecting the appropriate system to be used in wastewater
treatment through the given design conditions.
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. OSST/ Alternative Waste Systems (Part II)
 Treatment Process and Systems

 Treatment System Selection
OSST/ ALTERNATIVE WASTE SYSTEMS (PART II)
TREATMENT PROCESS AND SYSTEMS
This part contains information on individual onsite/decentralized treatment technologies

or unit processes. Information on typical application, design, construction, operation,
maintenance, cost, and pollutant removal effectiveness is provided for most classes of
treatment units and their related processes. This information is intended to be used in the
preliminary selection of a system of treatment unit processes that can be assembled to
achieve predetermined pollutant discharge concentrations or other specific performance
requirements. Complete design specifications for unit processes and complete systems
are not included in the manual because of the number of processes and process
combinations and the wide variability in their application and operation under various site
conditions.
CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS AND TREATMENT OPTIONS
The three primary components of a conventional system are the soil, the subsurface
wastewater infiltration system (SWIS; also called a leach field or infiltration trench), and
the septic tank. The SWIS is the interface between the engineered system components
and the receiving ground water environment. It is important to note that the performance
of conventional systems relies primarily on treatment of the wastewater effluent in the soil
horizon(s) below the dispersal and infiltration components of the SWIS. Information on
SWIS siting, hydraulic and mass loadings, design and geometry, distribution methods,
and construction considerations is included in this chapter. The other major component
of a conventional system, the septic tank, is characterized by describing its many
functions in an OWTS.
Treatment options include physical, chemical, and biological processes. Use of these
options is determined by site-specific needs. Special issues that might need to be
addressed in OWTS design include treatment of high-strength wastes (e.g., biochemical
oxygen demand and grease from schools and restaurants), mitigation of impacts from
home water softeners and garbage disposals, management of holding tanks, and
additives.
SUBSURFACE WATER INFILTRATION
Subsurface wastewater infiltration systems (SWISs) are the most commonly used
systems for the treatment and dispersal of onsite wastewater. Infiltrative surfaces are
located in permeable, unsaturated natural soil or imported fill material so wastewater can
infiltrate and percolate through the underlying soil to the ground water. As the wastewater
infiltrates and percolates through the soil, it is treated through a variety of physical,
chemical, and biochemical processes and reactions.
Many different designs and configurations are used, but all incorporate soil infiltrative
surfaces that are located in buried excavations. The primary infiltrative surface is the
bottom of the excavation, but the sidewalls also may be used for infiltration. Perforated
pipe is installed to distribute the wastewater over the infiltration surface.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Onsite wastewater treatment system designs vary according to the site and wastewater
characteristics encountered. However, all designs should strive to incorporate the
following features to achieve satisfactory long-term performance:
 Shallow placement of the infiltration surface (< 2 feet below final grade)
 Organic loading comparable to that of septic tank effluent at its recommended
hydraulic loading rate
 Trench orientation parallel to surface contours
 Narrow trenches (< 3 feet wide)
 Timed dosing with peak flow storage
 Uniform application of wastewater over the infiltration surface
 Multiple cells to provide periodic resting, standby capacity, and space for future
repairs or replacement
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT AND CONTINGENCY OPTIONS
Onsite wastewater systems can and do fail to perform at times. To avoid threats to public
health and the environment during periods when a system malfunctions hydraulically,
contingency plans should be made to permit continued use of the system until appropriate
remedial actions can be taken. Contingency options should be considered during design
so that the appropriate measures are designed into the original system.
1. Construction Considerations
Construction practices are critical to the performance of SWISs. Satisfactory SWIS

performance depends on maintaining soil porosity. Construction activities can
significantly reduce the porosity and cause SWISs to hydraulically fail soon after being
brought into service. Good construction practices should carefully consider site protection
before and during construction, site preparation, and construction equipment selection
and use. Good construction practices for at-grade and mound systems can be found
elsewhere (Converse and Tyler, 2000; Converse et al., 1990). Many of them, however,
are similar to those described in the following subsections.
A. Site protection
Construction of the onsite wastewater system is often only one of many

construction activities that occur on a property. If not protected against
intrusion, the site designated for the onsite system can be damaged by other,
unrelated construction activities. Therefore, the site should be staked and
roped off before any construction activities begin to make others aware of the
site and to keep traffic and materials stockpiles off the site. The designer should
anticipate what activities will be necessary during construction and designate
acceptable areas for them to occur. Site access points and areas for traffic
lanes, material stockpiling, and equipment parking should be designated on the
drawings for the contractor.
B. Site preparation
Site preparation activities include clearing and surface preparation for filling.
Before these activities are begun, the soil moisture should be determined. In
non-granular soils, compaction will occur if the soil is near its plastic limit. This
can be tested by removing a sample of soil and rolling it between the palms of
the hands. If the soil fails to form a “rope” the soil is sufficiently dry to proceed.
However, constant care should be taken to avoid soil disturbance as much as
possible.
C. Clearing
Clearing should be limited to mowing and raking because the surface should
be only minimally disturbed. If trees must be removed, they should be cut at
the base of the trunk and removed without heavy machinery. If it is necessary
to remove the stumps, they should be ground out. Grubbing of the site
(mechanically raking away roots) should be avoided. If the site is to be filled,
the surface should be moldboard- or chisel-plowed parallel to the contour
(usually to a depth of 7 to 10 inches) when the soil is sufficiently dry to ensure
maximum vertical permeability. The organic layer should not be removed.
Scarifying the surface with the teeth of a backhoe bucket is not sufficient.
D. Excavation
Excavation activities can cause significant reductions in soil porosity and

permeability (Tyler et al., 1985). Compaction and smearing of the soil infiltrative
surface occur from equipment traffic and vibration, scraping actions of the
equipment, and placement of the SWIS medium on the infiltration surface.
Lightweight backhoes are most commonly used. Front-end loaders and blades
should not be used because of their scraping action. All efforts should be made
to avoid any disturbance to the exposed infiltration surface. Equipment should
be kept off the infiltration field. Before the SWIS medium is installed, any
smeared areas should be scarified and the surface gently raked. If gravel or
crushed rock is to be used for SWIS medium, the rock should be placed in the
trench by using the backhoe bucket rather than dumping it directly from the
truck. If damage occurs, it might be possible to restore the area, but only by
removing the compacted layer. It might be necessary to remove as much as 4
inches of soil to regain the natural soil porosity and permeability (Tyler et al.,
1985). Consequences of the removal of this amount of soil over the entire
infiltration surface can be significant. It will reduce the separation distance to
the restrictive horizon and could place the infiltration surface in an unacceptable
soil horizon. To avoid potential soil damage during construction, the soil below
the proposed infiltration surface elevation must be below its plastic limit. This
should be tested before excavation begins. Also, excavation should be
scheduled only when the infiltration surface can be covered the same day to
avoid loss of permeability from wind-blown silt or raindrop impact. Another
solution is to use lightweight gravelless systems, which reduce the damage and
speed the construction process. Before leaving the site, the area around the
site should be graded to divert surface runoff from the SWIS area. The backfill
over the infiltration surface should be mounded slightly to account for settling
and eliminate depressions over the system that can pond water. Finally, the
area should be seeded and mulched.
2. OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING
Subsurface wastewater infiltration systems require little operator intervention. However,

more complex pretreatment, larger and more variable flows, and higher-risk installations
increase the need for maintenance and monitoring.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR LARGE AND COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS
Designs for systems treating larger flows follow the same guidelines used for residential
systems, but they must address characteristics of the wastewater to be treated, site
characteristics, infiltration surface sizing, and contingency planning more
comprehensively.
WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS
Wastewaters from cluster systems serving multiple homes or commercial establishments

can differ substantially in flow pattern and waste strength from wastewaters generated by
single family residences. The ratio of peak to average daily flow from residential clusters
is typically much lower than what is typical from single residences. This is because the
moderating effect associated with combining multiple water use patterns reduces the daily
variation in flow. Commercial systems, on the other hand, can vary significantly in
wastewater strength. Typically, restaurants have high concentrations of grease and BOD,
laundromats have high sodium and suspended solids concentrations, and toilet facilities
at parks and rest areas have higher concentrations of BOD, TSS, and nitrogen. These
differences in daily flow patterns and waste strengths must be dealt with in the design of
SWISs. Therefore, it is important to characterize the wastewater fully before initiating
design.
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
The proposed site for a SWIS that will treat wastewater from a cluster of homes or a
commercial establishment must be evaluated more rigorously than a single-residence site
because of the larger volume of water that is to be applied and the greater need to
determine hydraulic gradients and direction. SWIS discharges can be from 10 to more
than 100 times the amount of water that the soil infiltration surface typically receives from
precipitation. For example, assume that an area receives an average of 40 inches of
rainfall per year. Of that, less than 25 percent (about 10 inches annually) infiltrates and
even less percolates to the water table. A wastewater infiltration system is designed to
infiltrate 0.4 to 1.6 inches per day, or 146 to 584 inches per year. Assuming actual system
flows are 30 percent of design flows, this is reduced to 44 to 175 inches per year even
under this conservative approach.
The soils associated with small systems can usually accommodate these additional flows.
However, systems that treat larger flows load wastewaters to the soil over a greater area
and might exceed the site’s capacity to accept the wastewater. Restrictive horizons that
may inhibit deep percolation need to be identified before design. Ground water mounding
analysis should be performed to determine whether the hydraulic loading to the saturated
zone (secondary design boundary), rather than the loading to the infiltration surface,
controls system sizing. If the secondary boundary controls design, the size of the
infiltration surface, its geometry, and even how wastewater is applied will be affected.
INFILTRATION SURFACE SIZING
Selection of the design flow is a very important consideration in infiltration surface sizing.
State codified design flows for residential systems typically are 2 to 5 times greater than
the average daily flow actually generated in the home. This occurs because the design
flow is usually based on the number of bedrooms rather than the number of occupants.
As a result, the actual daily flow is often a small fraction of the design flow.
This is not the case when the per capita flows for the population served or metered flows
are used as the design flow. In such instances, the ratio of design flow to actual daily flow
can approach unity. This is because the same factors of safety are typically not used to
determine the design flow. In itself, this is not a problem. The problem arises when the
metered or averaged hydraulic loading rates are used to size the infiltration surface.
These rates can be more than two times what the soil below the undersized system is
actually able to accept. As a result, SWISs would be significantly undersized. This
problem is exacerbated where the waste strength is high.
To avoid the problem of under sizing the infiltration surface, designs must compensate in
some way. Factors of safety of up to 2 or more could be applied to accurate flow
estimates, but the more common practice is to design multiple cells that provide 150 to
200 percent of the total estimated infiltration surface needed. Multiple cells are a good
approach because the cells can be rotated into service on a regular schedule that allows
the cells taken out of service to rest and rejuvenate their hydraulic capacity. Further, the
system provides standby capacity that can be used when malfunctions occur, and
distribution networks are smaller to permit smaller and more frequent dosing, thereby
maximizing oxygen transfer and the hydraulic capacity of the site. For high-strength
wastewaters, advanced pretreatment can be specified or the infiltration surface loadings
can be adjusted.
CONTINGENCY PLANNING
Malfunctions of systems that treat larger flows can create significant public health and
environmental hazards. Therefore, adequate contingency planning is more critical for
these systems than for residential systems. Standby infiltration cells, timed dosing, and
flow monitoring are key design elements that should be included. Also, professional
management should be required.
SEPTIC TANKS
The septic tank is the most commonly used wastewater pretreatment unit for onsite
wastewater systems. Tanks may be used alone or in combination with other processes
to treat raw wastewater before it is discharged to a subsurface infiltration system. The
tank provides primary treatment by creating quiescent conditions inside a covered,
watertight rectangular, oval, or cylindrical vessel, which is typically buried. In addition to
primary treatment, the septic tank stores and partially digests settled and floating organic
solids in sludge and scum layers. This can reduce the sludge and scum volumes by as
much as 40 percent, and it conditions the wastewater by hydrolyzing organic molecules
for subsequent treatment in the soil or by other unit processes (Baumann et al., 1978).
Gases generated from digestion of the organics are vented back through the building
sewer and out of the house plumbing stack vent. Inlet structures are designed to limit
short circuiting of incoming wastewater across the tank to the outlet, while outlet
structures (e.g., a sanitary “tee” fitting) retain the sludge and scum layers in the tank and
draw effluent only from the clarified zone between the sludge and scum layers. The outlet
should be fitted with an effluent screen (commonly called a septic tank filter) to retain
larger solids that might be carried in the effluent to the SWIS, where it could contribute to
clogging and eventual system failure. Inspection ports and manways are provided in the
tank cover to allow access for periodically removing the tank contents, including the
accumulated scum and sludge.
1. TREATMENT
A septic tank removes many of the settleable solids, oils, greases, and floating debris in
the raw wastewater, achieving 60 to 80 percent removal (Baumann et al., 1978; Boyer
and Rock, 1992; University of Wisconsin, 1978). The solids removed are stored in sludge
and scum layers, where they undergo liquefaction. During liquefaction, the first step in the
digestion process, acid-forming bacteria partially digest the solids by hydrolyzing the
proteins and converting them to volatile fatty acids, most of which are dissolved in the
water phase. The volatile fatty acids still exert much of the biochemical oxygen demand
that was originally in the organic suspended solids. Because these acids are in the
dissolved form, they are able to pass from the tank in the effluent stream, reducing the
BOD removal efficiency of septic tanks compared to primary sedimentation. Typical septic
tank BOD removal efficiencies are 30 to 50 percent (Boyer and Rock, 1992; University of
Wisconsin, 1978). Complete digestion, in which the volatile fatty acids are converted to
methane, could reduce the amount of BOD released by the tank, but it usually does not
occur to a significant extent because wastewater temperatures in septic tanks are
typically well below the optimum temperature for methane-producing bacteria.
Gases that form from the microbial action in the tank rise in the wastewater column. The
rising gas bubbles disturb the quiescent wastewater column, which can reduce the
settling efficiency of the tank. They also dislodge colloidal particles in the sludge blanket
so they can escape in the water column. At the same time, however, they can carry active
anaerobic and facultative microorganisms that might help to treat colloidal and dissolved
solids present in the wastewater column (Baumann and Babbit, 1953).
2. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The primary purpose of a septic tank is to provide suspended solids and oil/grease
removal through sedimentation and flotation. The important factor to achieving good
sedimentation is maintaining quiescent conditions. This is accomplished by providing a
long wastewater residence time in the septic tank. Tank volume, geometry, and
compartmentalization affect the residence time.
VOLUME
Septic tanks must have sufficient volume to provide an adequate hydraulic residence time
for sedimentation. Hydraulic residence times of 6 to 24 hours have been recommended
(Baumann and Babbitt, 1953: Kinnicutt et al., 1910). However, actual hydraulic residence
times can vary significantly from tank to tank because of differences in geometry, depth,
and inlet and outlet configurations (Baumann and Babbitt, 1953). Sludge and scum also
affect the residence time, reducing it as the solids accumulate.
GEOMETRY
Tank geometry affects the hydraulic residence time in the tank. The length-to-width ratio
and liquid depth are important considerations. Elongated tanks with length-to-width ratios
of 3:1 and greater have been shown to reduce short-circuiting of the raw wastewater
across the tank and improve suspended solids removal (Ludwig, 1950). Prefabricated
tanks generally are available in rectangular, oval and cylindrical (horizontal or vertical)
shapes. Vertical cylindrical tanks can be the least effective because of the shorter
distance between the inlets and outlets. Baffles are recommended. Among tanks of equal
liquid volumes, the tank with shallower liquid depths better reduces peak outflow rates
and velocities, so solids are less likely to remain in suspension and be carried out of the
tank in the effluent. This is because the shallow tank has a larger surface area. Inflows to
the tank cause less of a liquid rise because of the larger surface area. The rate of flow
exiting the tank (over a weir or through a pipe invert) is proportional to the height of the
water surface over the invert (Baumann et al., 1978; Jones, 1975). Also, the depth of
excavation necessary is reduced with shallow tanks, which helps to avoid saturated
horizons and lessens the potential for ground water infiltration or tank flotation. A typically
specified minimum liquid depth below the outlet invert is 36 inches. Shallower depths can
disturb the sludge blanket and, therefore, require more frequent pumping.
COMPARTMENTALIZATION
Compartmentalized tanks or tanks placed in series provide better suspended solids

removal than single-compartment tanks alone, although results from different studies vary
(Baumann and Babbitt, 1953; Boyer and Rock,1992; Weibel et al., 1949, 1954; University
of Wisconsin, 1978). If two compartments are used, better suspended solids removal
rates are achieved if the first compartment is equal to one-half to two thirds the total tank
volume (Weibel et al., 1949, 1954). An air vent between compartments must be provided
to allow both compartments to vent. The primary advantage of these configurations is
when gas generated from organic solids digestion in the first compartment is separated
from subsequent compartments.
Two-compartment tank with effluent screen and surface risers
INLETS AND OUTLETS
The inlet and outlet of a septic tank are designed to enhance tank performance. Their
respective invert elevations should provide at least a 2- to 3-inch drop across the tank to
ensure that the building sewer does not become flooded and obstructed during high
wastewater flows. A clear space of at least 9 inches should be provided above the liquid
depth (outlet invert) to allow for scum storage and ventilation. Both the inlet and outlet are
commonly baffled. Plastic sanitary tees are the most commonly used baffles. Curtain
baffles (concrete baffles cast to the tank wall and fiberglass or plastic baffles bolted to the
tank wall) have also been used. The use of gasket materials that achieve a watertight
joint with the tank wall makes plastic sanitary tees easy to adjust, repair, or equip with
effluent screens or filters. The use of a removable, cleanable effluent screen connected
to the outlet is strongly recommended.
TANK ACCESS
Access to the septic tank is necessary for pumping septage, observing the inlet and outlet
baffles, and servicing the effluent screen. Both manways and inspection ports are used.
Manways are large openings, 18 to 24 inches in diameter or square. At least one that can
provide access to the entire tank for septage removal is needed. If the system is
compartmentalized, each compartment requires a manway. They are located over the
inlet, the outlet, or the center of the tank. Typically, in the past manway covers were
required to be buried under state and local codes. However, they should be above grade
and fitted with an airtight, lockable cover so they can be accessed quickly and easily.
Inspection ports are 8 inches or larger in diameter and located over both the inlet and the
outlet unless a manway is used. They should be extended above grade and securely
capped.
Septic tank designs for large wastewater flows do not differ from designs for small
systems. However, it is suggested that multiple compartments or tanks in series be used
and that effluent screens be attached to the tank outlet. Access ports and manways
should be brought to grade and provided with locking covers for all large systems.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Septic tanks smaller than 6,000 gallons are typically premanufactured; larger tanks are
constructed in place. The materials used in premanufactured tanks include concrete,
fiberglass, polyethylene, and coated steel. Precast concrete tanks are by far the most
common, but fiberglass and plastic tanks are gaining popularity. The lighter weight
fiberglass and plastic tanks can be shipped longer distances and set in place without
cranes. Concrete tanks, on the other hand, are less susceptible to collapse and flotation.
Coated steel tanks are no longer widely used because they corrode easily. Tanks
constructed in place are typically made of concrete.
Tanks constructed of fiberglass-reinforced polyester (FRP) usually have a wall thickness

of about 1/4 inch (6 millimeters). Most are gel- or resin-coated to provide a smooth finish
and prevent glass fibers from becoming exposed, which can cause wicking. Polyethylene
tanks are more flexible than FRP tanks and can deform to a shape of structural weakness
if not properly designed. Concrete tank walls are usually about 4 inches thick and
reinforced with no. 5 rods on 8-inch (20-centimeter) centers. Sulfuric acid and hydrogen
sulfide, both of which are present in varying concentrations in septic tank effluent, can
corrode exposed rods and the concrete itself over time. Some plastics (e.g., polyvinyl
chloride, polyethylene, but not nylon) are virtually unaffected by acids and hydrogen
sulfide (USEPA, 1991).
Quality construction is critical to proper performance. Tanks must be properly designed,

reinforced, and constructed of the proper mix of materials so they can meet anticipated
loads without cracking or collapsing. All joints must be watertight and flexible to
accommodate soil conditions.
WATER TIGHTNESS
Water tightness of the septic tank is critical to the performance of the entire onsite
wastewater system. Leaks, whether ex-filtrating or infiltrating, are serious. Infiltration of
clear water to the tank from the building storm sewer or ground water adds to the hydraulic
load of the system and can upset subsequent treatment processes. Exfiltration can
threaten ground water quality with partially treated wastewater and can lower the liquid
level below the outlet baffle so it and subsequent processes can become fouled with
scum. Also, leaks can cause the tank to collapse.
Tank joints should be designed for water tightness. Two-piece tanks and tanks with
separate covers should be designed with tongue and groove or lap joints. Manway covers
should have similar joints. High-quality, preformed joint sealers should be used to achieve
a watertight seal. They should be workable over a wide temperature range and should
adhere to clean, dry surfaces; they must not shrink, harden, or oxidize. Seals should meet
the minimum compression and other requirements prescribed by the seal manufacturer.
Tongue and groove joint and sealer
Pipe and inspection port joints should have cast-in rubber boots or compression seals.
Septic tanks should be tested for water tightness using hydrostatic or vacuum tests, and
manway risers and inspection ports should be included in the test. The professional
association representing the materials industry of the type of tank construction (e.g., the
National Pre-cast Concrete Association) should be contacted to establish the appropriate
testing criteria and procedures.
TREATMENT SYSTEM SELECTION
DESIGN CONDITIONS AND SYSTEM SELECTION
An appropriate onsite wastewater treatment system concept for a given receiver site—
proposed location of the system, regional geologic and hydrologic features, and
downgradient soils used for treatment—depends on the prevailing design conditions.
Designers must consider and evaluate the design conditions carefully before selecting a
system concept. Design conditions include the characteristics of the wastewater to be
treated, regulatory requirements, and the characteristics of the receiver site. With
sufficient knowledge of these factors, the designer can develop an effective preliminary
design concept. This chapter focuses on general guidance for evaluation of the receiver
site, identification of the site’s design boundaries and requirements, and selection of
suitable designs to meet the performance requirements.
MATCHING DESIGN CONDITIONS TO SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Design conditions include wastewater characteristics; system owner preferences for

siting, operation and maintenance, and cost; regulatory requirements prescribed by the
permitting agency’s rules; and the receiver site’s capability to treat or otherwise assimilate
the waste discharge. Each of these must be evaluated in light of the others before an
appropriate system design concept can be developed.
WASTEWATER SOURCE CONSIDERATIONS
Wastewater source considerations include projections of wastewater flow, wastewater

composition, and owner requirements. The owner’s needs, capabilities, and expectations
might be explicit or implied. The first consideration is the owner’s use of the property
(present and projected), which informs analyses of the character and volume of the
wastewater generated. The footprint and location of existing or planned buildings, paved
areas, swimming pools, and other structures or uses will limit the area available for the
onsite system. Second, the owner’s concern for the system’s visual impact or odor.
REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
Designs must comply with the rules and regulations of the permitting entity. Onsite
wastewater systems are regulated by a variety of agencies in the United States. At the
state level, rules may be enacted as public health codes, nuisance codes, environmental
protection codes, or building codes. In most (but not all) states, the regulatory authority
for onsite single-family residential or small cluster systems is delegated to counties or
other local jurisdictions. The state might enact a uniform code requirement that all local
jurisdictions must enforce equally, or the state might have a minimum code that local
jurisdictions may adopt directly or revise to be stricter. In a few states, general guidance
rather than prescriptive requirements is provided to local jurisdictions. In such cases, the
local jurisdictions may enact more or less strict regulations or choose not to adopt any
specific onsite system ordinance.
Traditionally, state and local rules have been prescriptive codes that require specific
system designs for a set of specific site criteria. Such rules typically require that treated
wastewater discharged to the soil be maintained below the surface of the ground, though
a few states and local jurisdictions do allow discharges to surface waters under their
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permitting programs, as
authorized by the federal Clean Water Act. If applications are proposed outside the
prescriptive rules, the agency usually requires special approvals or variances before a
permit can be issued. Circumstances that require special action (approvals, variances)
and administrative processes for approving those actions are usually specified in state or
local codes.
RECEIVER SITE SUITABILITY
The physical characteristics of the site (the location of the proposed system, regional
geologic and hydrologic features, and the soils to be used in the treatment process)
determine the performance requirements and treatment needs. A careful and thorough
site evaluation is necessary to assess the capacity of the site to treat and assimilate
effluent discharges. Treatment requirements for a proposed system are based on the
performance boundary requirements established by rule and the natural design
boundaries identified through the site evaluation.
DESIGN BOUNDARIES AND BOUNDARY LOADINGS
Wastewater system design must focus on the critical design boundaries: between system
components, system/soil interfaces, soil layer and property boundaries, or other places
where design conditions abruptly change. System failures occur at design boundaries
because they are sensitive to hydraulic and mass pollutant loadings. Exceeding the mass
loading limit of a sensitive design boundary usually results in system failure. Therefore,
all critical design boundaries must be identified and the mass loadings to each carefully
considered to properly select the upstream performance and design requirements
needed to prevent system failure (Otis, 1999).
The approach discussed in this chapter is based on characterizing the assimilative

capacity of the receiving environment (ground water, surface water) and establishing
onsite system performance requirements that protect human health and ecological
resources. Desired system performance, as measured at the final discharge point (after
treatment in the soil matrix or other treatment train components), provides a starting point
for considering performance requirements for each preceding system component at each
design boundary (e.g., septic tank-SWIS interface, biomat at the infiltrative surface,
surface of the saturated zone). Through this approach, system designers can determine
treatment or performance requirements for each component of the treatment train by
assessing whether each proposed component can meet performance requirements
(acceptable mass loading limits) at each subsequent design boundary.
Materials
references.
Activity
1. Identify the three components of a conventional system.
2. Enumerate and discuss the treatment options of onsite wastewater treatment

systems.
3. What are the design considerations of onsite wastewater treatment systems?
4. Discuss the construction considerations of onsite wastewater treatment

systems.
5. Explain the process of selecting the appropriate system to be used in

wastewater treatment through the given design conditions.
Learning Assessment
three components of a
conventional system.
and discuss the
treatment options of
onsite wastewater
treatment systems.
I was able to state the
design considerations of
onsite wastewater
treatment systems.
I was able to name and
discuss the construction
considerations of onsite
systems.
importance of septic
tanks in wastewater
treatment.
process of selecting the
appropriate system to be
used in wastewater
treatment through the
given design conditions.

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:

Week 11 Plumbing/ Water Systems Review
Learning Objectives
1. Read and demonstrated understanding on the standards used in plumbing systems.

2. Expressed understanding on the standards used plumbing systems through
discussion.
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. Plumbing/ Water Systems Review
 Standards
PLUMBING/ WATER SYSTEMS REVIEW
STANDARD ORGANIZATIONS
ANSI – American National Standards Institute

www.ansi.org
ANSI facilitates the development of Standards by accrediting the procedures of those

agencies that develop standards. The following agencies are ANSI certified to perform
third party inspections for plumbing products:
CSA International – Plumbing Products

ICC Evaluation Services – Plumbing Fixtures and Systems
IAPMO – Other Plumbing Products, Manufactured Housing Plumbing Products
Intertek Testing Services, NA Inc. – Plumbing Products
NSF International – Plastic and Plumbing Systems and Components
Truesdail Laboratories – Plumbing Products
Underwriters Laboratories – Plumbing, Sewer Handling, and Piping Products
ASSE – American Society of Sanitary Engineers

www.asse-plumbing.org
ASSE Standard # 1001- 2002

Performance Requirements for Atmospheric Type Vacuum Breakers
ANSI Approved 2002
This standard applies to devices classified as atmospheric type vacuum breakers that
are single pipe-applied (does not apply to tank ball cocks or similar devices that depend
on float operated valves to control flow). The purpose of these devices is to provide
protection of the potable water supply against pollutants or contaminants that enter the
system due to backsiphonage through the outlet. Under backsiphonage conditions, a
small amount of water is permitted to exit through the air ports.
ASSE Standard #1002-1999

Performance Requirements for Anti-Siphon Fill Valves (Ballcocks) for Gravity
Water Closet Flush Tanks
This standard provides dimensional and minimum performance requirements for anti-
siphon fill valves (ballcocks) for gravity water closet flush tanks including protection of the
potable water supply against back siphonage of water from the flush tank.

Performance Requirements for Water Pressure Reducing Valves
ANSI Approved – 2001
Devices covered by this standard are self-contained, direct acting, single diaphragm
types. Devices shall be permitted to have an integral strainer, separate strainer
connected to the valve inlet, or be without strainer. Devices shall be permitted to be with
or without an integral bypass relief valve. The purpose of this device is to reduce static
and flowing pressures in water distribution systems.

Performance Requirements for Backflow Prevention Requirements for Commercial
Dishwashing Machines
This standard covers the requirements for the protection of the potable water supply from
pollution as a part of and within a commercial dishwashing machine and the means of
discharging waste.
Performance Requirements for Water Heater Drain Valves
This standard covers those water heater drain valves, 3/4 pipe size used as a component
of water heaters for the purpose of drawing water from or draining a water heater.

Performance Requirements for Residential Use Dishwashers
This standard applies to residential use (household) type dishwashers, both front loading
and top loading, requiring connection to the potable water supply and discharging into the
plumbing drainage system.

Performance Requirements for Home Laundry Equipment
This standard applies to household type automatic and semiautomatic clothes washers,
combination washer-dryers, and dryers including those household types that are coin
operated, requiring connection to the potable water supply and discharging into the
building plumbing drainage system.

Performance Requirements for Household Food Waste Disposer Units
This standard applies to household type food waste disposers intended for installation in
the household kitchen sink outlet, supplied with water from the sink supply faucet and
discharged into the household plumbing drainage system. This standard does not apply
to commercial food waste disposers intended for installation in a food handling
establishment.

Performance Requirements for Commercial Food Waste Grinder Units
This standard applies to food waste grinders designed and intended for use in food
establishments, supplied with water and which discharges waste into a plumbing
drainage system.

Performance Requirements for Water Hammer Arresters
ANSI Approved - 2004
This standard applies only to those devices classified as water hammer arresters having
a permanently sealed cushion of water or gas isolated from the waterway, and designed
to provide continuous protection, without maintenance, against detrimental surge
pressures within the water distribution system. Water hammer arresters are installed on
water distribution system piping to prevent over pressures within water distribution
systems, thereby prolonging the service life of valves, piping, fittings, trim, equipment,
appliances, appurtenances, and other devices which are part of the distribution system;
and to eliminate noise.

Performance Requirements for Hose Connection Vacuum Breakers
This standard applies only to those devices classified as Vacuum Breakers, Hose
Connection Type, which are designed to be installed on the discharge side of the hose
bibb, hydrant or faucet which is fitted with hose threads. The design embraces a check
valve member force loaded, or biased, to a closed position, and an atmospheric vent
valve, force loaded, or biased, to an open position when the device is not under pressure.
This device shall not be subjected to continuous pressure. Continuous pressure shall
mean twelve (12) hours use in a twenty-four (24) hour period. Mechanical means used
to defeat the vacuum breaker shall not be used. This device shall only be used on
systems where the only source of low head back pressure comes from an elevated hose
equal to or less than three (3.0) meters (10 feet) in height.

Performance Requirements for Backflow Preventer with Intermediate Atmospheric
Vent
The devices covered by this standard are those, which have functional capabilities for
preventing both backsiphonage and backpressure backflow in the potable water supply
lines, and which can operate under continuous or intermittent pressure conditions. These
devices have two independently operating check valves separated by an intermediate
chamber with a means for automatically venting it to the atmosphere. The check valves
are force loaded to a normally closed position and the venting means is force loaded to
a normally open position.

Performance Requirements for Reduced Pressure Principle Backflow Preventers
and Reduced Pressure Fire Protection Principle Backflow Preventers
This standard applies only to two types of backflow prevention assemblies identified as
(RP) “Reduced Pressure Principle Backflow Preventers” and (RPF) “Reduced Pressure
Principle Fire Protection Backflow Preventers.” These assemblies consist of two (2)
independently acting check valves, internally force loaded to a normally closed position,
and separated by an intermediate chamber (or zone) in which there is an hydraulically
operated relief means for venting to atmosphere, internally force loaded to a normally
open position. These assemblies are designed to operate under continuous pressure
conditions. The assembly shall include two (2) tightly closing shut-off valves, and contain
properly located test cocks. This standard also applies to Manifold Reduced Pressure
Principle Backflow Assemblies. They consist of two or more complete Reduced Pressure
Principle Backflow Preventers in parallel. The assemblies do not need to be of the same
pipe size. The manifold size shall be identified by the single inlet and outlet of the manifold
reduced pressure principal backflow assembly. It shall consist of shut-off valves on the
inlet and outlet of each of the assemblies in the manifold and the shut-off valves shall be
line sized to each backflow assembly in the manifold

Performance Requirements for Hand-Held Showers
This standard covers only products which consist of a hose and a hand held discharge
piece (shower head, spray, etc.). These products include a backflow preventer.

Performance Requirements for Double Check Backflow Prevention Assemblies
and Double Check Fire Protection Backflow Prevention Assemblies
This standard applies to two types of backflow prevention assemblies identified as a (DC)
Double Check Backflow Prevention Assembly and (DCF) Double Check Fire Protection
Backflow Prevention Assembly. These devices consists of two (2) independently acting
check valves, internally force loaded to a normally closed position, two (2) tightly closing
shut-off (isolation) valves, and properly located test cocks. This device is designed and
constructed to operate under intermittent or continuous pressure conditions. This
standard also applies to Manifold Double Check Backflow Prevention Assemblies. They
consist of two or more complete Double Check Backflow Prevention Assemblies in
parallel. The devices do not need to be of the same pipe size. The manifold size shall be
identified by the single inlet and outlet of the manifold device. It shall consist of shut-off
valves on the inlet and outlet of each of the devices in the manifold and the shut-off valves
shall be line sized to each backflow device in the manifold.

Performance Requirements for Individual Thermostatic, Pressure Balancing, and
Combination Pressure Balancing and Thermostatic Control Valves for Individual
Fixture Fittings
The three types of individual control valves covered by this standard are: (1) Pressure
balancing valve (Type P) senses incoming hot and cold water pressures and
compensates for fluctuations in either to stabilize outlet temperature; (2) Thermostatic
valves (Type T) senses outlet temperature and compensates for fluctuations in either
incoming hot and cold water temperature and/or pressure; and (3) Combination
thermostatic/pressure balancing valve (Type T/P) senses outlet temperature and
incoming hot and cold water pressures and compensates for fluctuation in incoming hot
and cold water temperatures or pressures to stabilize outlet temperature.

Performance Requirements for Temperature Actuated Mixing Valves for Hot Water
Distribution Systems
Temperature Actuated Mixing Valves for Hot Water Distribution Systems are used for
controlling in-line water temperatures in domestic potable hot water systems. They are
not intended for end use application.

Performance Requirements for Trap Seal Primer Valves - Potable Water Supplied
Devices covered by this standard are designed primarily to supply water to drain traps
which have infrequent use and in which water evaporation would allow sewer gas to enter
the premises. This type of device is located in the domestic water distribution system and
is designed to supply potable water to a drain trap to maintain the water seal. A means
for the prevention of backsiphonage shall be incorporated as part of the device.
Performance Requirements for Pressure Vacuum Breaker Assembly
Pressure vacuum breaker assemblies are for installation in water supply lines to prevent
the entrance of non-potable material into the potable water supply by backsiphonage
only. It is not for use in any system where backpressure can be applied to the assembly.

Performance Requirements for Drain Air Gaps for Domestic Dishwasher
Applications
ANSI Approval Pending
Products covered by the standard are devices for installation in the drain line of
residential dishwashers. The purpose of this device is to prevent the backflow of
contaminated liquid and entrained material into the dishwasher.

Performance Requirements for Hot Water Dispensers Household Storage Type -
Electrical
The hot water dispensers covered by this standard are those which are designed for
household use and which are installed at the sink and supplied with water from the
kitchen sink water supply. They are storage types, continuously vented to atmosphere
and heated electrically.
Performance Requirements for Dual Check Backflow Preventers
This standard applies only to the type of backflow preventer identified as a dual check
backflow preventer. This device consists of two (2) independently acting check valves,
internally force loaded to a normally closed position, designed and constructed to operate
under intermittent or continuous pressure conditions. The purpose of the dual check
backflow preventer is to keep polluted water from flowing back into the potable water
system, when pressure is temporarily higher in the polluted part of the system than in the
potable water piping. The devices covered by this standard are intended to protect the
potable water supply from low hazard pollution at residential service lines and individual
outlets. These devices are intended for cold water service under continuous or
intermittent pressure conditions. Usage with hot water is limited to the temperature
specified by the manufacturer.

Performance Requirements for Diverters for Plumbing Faucets with Hose Spray,
AntiSiphon Type, Residential Applications
Covers complete and independent components of plumbing faucets intended for use in
sink type plumbing fixtures to which is connected a flexible hose and spray assembly.

Performance Requirements for Pressurized Flushing Devices (Flushometers) for
Plumbing Fixtures
This standard establishes basic performance requirements for pressurized flushing

devices, for the safe and sanitary operation of plumbing fixtures.

Performance Requirements for Cast Iron Sovent Sanitary Drainage Systems
This standard establishes functional performance requirements for cast iron sovent
drainage fittings, aerators and deaerators, and installation guidelines for the system. A
cast iron sovent system is a single-stack drainage, waste and vent system that uses
special fittings (aerators and deaerators) to maintain the differential pressures within the
system near atmosphere, thereby protecting the trap seals of the connected fixtures.

Performance Requirements for Trap Seal Primer Devices - Drainage Types and
Electronic Design Types
Devices covered by this performance standard are designed primarily to supply water to
floor drain traps which have infrequent use and in which water evaporation would allow
sewer gas to enter the premises. The type of device covered by this standard is designed
to supply water to a drain trap to provide and maintain its water seal using a supply from
a fixture drain line, ballcock, or flushometer valve tailpiece or an electronic primer device.
The rate of water flow to the trap shall be permitted to be fixed or adjustable. The devices
are of four (4) types: (a) Those which are installed on waste line tail pieces from fixtures,
such as lavatories, sinks and similar fixtures where grease is not normally generated; (b)
Those which are used in conjunction with ballcock assemblies; (c) Those which receive
flow from flushometer valves; and (d) Those electronics devices which discharge water
automatically and which are upstream of the air gap or vacuum breaker.
Performance Requirements for Stack Air Admittance Valves for Sanitary Drainage
Systems
Stack Air Admittance Valves for Sanitary Drainage Systems (herein referred to as
"device") are devices used as vent terminals for stacks in plumbing drainage systems.
These devices shall not be used to relieve back pressure, but only to allow air to enter
the system. When these devices are installed in a building, there shall be at least one (1)
open vent terminal which extends to atmosphere outside of the building serving the
building drain on which these devices are installed. These devices are designed to be
installed on stacks where branches on multiple floors are connected. These devices
consist of a one-way valve designed to allow air to enter the plumbing drainage system
when a pressure less than atmospheric develops. The device closes and seals by gravity
under zero (0) differential pressure (static or no flow condition) and under positive
pressure. These devices prevent sewer gases from entering a building. The device
consists of a hooded or shielded body which contains a movable guided diaphragm which
seats and seals air flow when closed and allows air to enter when open.

Performance Requirements for Individual and Branch Type Air Admittance Valves
for Sanitary Drainage Systems
Individual and Branch Type Air Admittance Valves for Sanitary Drainage Systems
(AAV’s) (herein referred to as “device”) are devices used as vent terminals for individual
and branch fixtures in plumbing drainage systems. These devices shall not be used to
relieve back pressure, but only to allow air to enter the system. When the devices are
installed in a building, there shall be at least one (1) open vent terminal which extends to
atmosphere outside of the building serving the same building drain on which these
devices are installed. These devices are designed to be used for individual fixtures or for
a branch serving multiple fixtures. These devices consist of a one-way valve designed to
allow air to enter the plumbing drainage system when a pressure less than atmospheric
develops. The device closes and seals by gravity under positive pressure. These devices
prevent sewer gases from entering the building. The device consists of a hooded or
shielded body which contains a movable guided diaphragm which seats and seals air
flow when closed and allows air to enter when open.

Performance Requirements for Hose Connection Backflow Preventers
This standard establishes physical requirements, basic performance requirements and

test procedures for hose connection backflow preventers. This device is designed to be
installed on the discharge side of a hose threaded outlet on a potable water system. This
two-check device protects against backflow, due to backsiphonage and low-head
backpressure, under the high hazard conditions present at a hose threaded outlet. This
device shall only be used on systems where sources of backpressure are not introduced.
This device shall only be used on systems where the low-head backpressure does not
exceed that generated by an elevated hose equal to or less than 3 m (10 ft.) in height.
This device shall not be subjected to more than twelve (12) hours of continuous water
pressure. A hose connection backflow preventer shall consist of two independent checks,
force loaded or biased to a closed position, with an atmospheric vent located between
the two check valves, which is force loaded or biased to an open position, and a means
for attaching a hose.

Performance Requirements for Spill Resistant Vacuum Breaker
Spill Resistant Vacuum Breakers (herein referred to as “device”) are installed in the
potable water supply lines to prevent the backflow or non-potable material into the
potable water supply caused by backsiphonage only. They are not for use in any system
where back pressure is applied to the device. When the system is pressurized, the vent
closes to prevent a flow through the upstream check valve, and to eliminate vent
spillage. This standard applies only to those devices classified as Spill Resistant
Vacuum Breakers - SVB. These devices are designed for installation in those portions
of the domestic potable water systems that are normally under continuous pressure
conditions. The device includes one (1) check valve force loaded closed and an air inlet
vent valve force loaded open to atmosphere, positioned downstream of the check valve,
and located between and including two (2) tightly closing shutoff valves and two (2) test
cocks.
Performance Requirements for Outdoor Enclosures for Backflow Prevention
Assemblies
This standard details the requirements of an outside enclosure for various types of
backflow prevention assemblies. It includes enclosure types for freezing and non-freezing
locations. The enclosures incorporate features to provide for freeze protection, positive
drainage to prevent submergence of the assembly, security and accessibility for testing
and repair.

Performance Requirements for Temperature Actuated Flow Reduction (TAFR)
Valves for Individual Fixture Fittings
This standard applies to Temperature Actuated, Flow Reduction (TAFR) Valves for
Individual
Fixtures Fittings which react to high temperature water. These valves reduce flow to 0.95
L/min (0.25 GPM) or less automatically in response to outlet temperatures greater than a
preset actuation temperature not to exceed 49 °C (120 °F) so as to limit exposure to high
temperature water discharge from an individual fixture fitting. TAFR valves covered by
this standard are intended for use in-line with or are integrated into individual plumbing
fixtures fittings, such as shower heads; bath and utility faucets; and sink and lavatory
faucets. TAFR with disabilities shall also comply with ANSI/CABO Standard A117.1.
Devices covered by this standard shall be mechanically or electrically operated, shall be
installed in-line with or integrated into fixture fittings; and after actuation, shall reset open
automatically or use a manual reset mechanism.
Performance Requirements for Backflow Prevention Assembly Field Test Kits
Portable backflow prevention assembly field test kits (herein referred to as "BFTK") shall
be used in testing the performance of backflow prevention assemblies. This standard
covers the performance requirements, and accuracy of a BFTK. This standard is confined
to analog dial type and digital instrumentation. Duplex gauges are not a part of this
standard. They shall be designed to indicate the operation of a backflow prevention
assembly to pre-established testing procedures. The backflow field test kit shall include
all gauges, hoses, valves and fittings as required for testing purposes.

Performance Requirements for Individual Pressure Balancing In-Line Valves for
Individual Fixture Fittings
This standard applies to automatic pressure balancing in-line valves which are used to
equalize incoming hot and cold water line pressures for the purpose of minimizing mixed
water temperature variations due to pressure fluctuations when used in conjunction with
a mixing valve or two handle valve set. They are not designed to limit the maximum outlet
temperature at the point-of-use. These devices are intended for use in individual
plumbing fixtures fittings such as shower heads, bath utility faucets, and sink and lavatory
faucets.

Performance Requirements for Water Temperature Limiting Devices
Water Temperature Limiting Devices shall control and limit the water temperature to
fittings for fixtures such as sinks, lavatories or bathtubs and are intended to reduce the
risk of scalding. These devices are intended to supply tempered water to plumbing fixture
fittings, or be integral with plumbing fixture fittings supplying tempered water. The device
shall be equipped with an adjustable and lockable means to limit the setting of the device
towards the hot position. Where the device is integral to the fixture fitting, it shall comply
with the requirements of ASME A112.18.1.
AWWA – American Water Works Association

www.awwa.org
Topics include water sources, water treatment, pipe and accessories, disinfection,
meters, and more.
NSF – National Sanitary Foundation

www.nsf.org
NSF assesses and certifies plumbing products as follows:
Plastic Plumbing Products
NSF International developed Standard 14 - Plastics Piping System Components and

Related Materials in October, 1965. NSF Standard14 establishes minimum physical,
performance, health effects, quality assurance, marking, and record keeping
requirements for plastic piping components and related materials.
Mechanical Plumbing Products
The Mechanical Plumbing Program works with voluntary standard NSF/ANSI Standards
24 and 61 that represent consensus of manufacturers, users, and regulatory people. NSF
offers a conformity assessment program which includes performance and health effects
testing, certification, and production facility inspections -- to verify compliance.
Faucets
The 1996 amendments to the U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) require that pipe,
fittings, and fixtures introduced into commerce after August 6, 1998, be lead-free. For
pipe, fittings, and devices, this requires that the products not contain more than 8.0%
lead.
In addition, for devices that are intended by the manufacturer to dispense water for
human ingestion (faucets, drinking fountains, etc.), these SDWA amendments also
require that the product comply with the lead leaching requirements of NSF/ANSI
Standard 61, Section 9. Under this standard, certified products are limited to 11 parts
per billion (ppb) of lead in water from endpoint devices.
Endpoint devices subject to the lead leaching requirements of NSF/ANSI Standard 61
include faucets, hot and cold water dispensers, drinking fountains, drinking fountain
bubblers, water coolers, glass fillers, residential refrigerator ice-makers, supply stops,
and endpoint control valves.
Codes
There are two primary model codes that have minimum standards for the installation of
plumbing systems into the home. These are the Uniform Plumbing Code and the
International Plumbing Codel.
UPC - Uniform Plumbing Code

www.iapmo.org
This code provides
standards and requirement to safeguard life and limb, health, property, and public
welfare by regulating and controlling design, construction, installation, quality of
materials, location, operation and maintenance or use of plumbing systems. The
provisions of the code apply erection, installation, alteration, repair, relocation, and
replacement, in addition to use or maintenance of plumbing systems.
International Plumbing Code (IPC) – International Code Council

www.intlcode.org
The IPC is designed to protect public health and safety through provisions that do not
unnecessarily increase construction costs or restrict the use of new materials, products
or methods of construction, and without giving preferential treatment to particular types
or classes of materials, products, or methods of construction.
Federal Regulations
National Plumbing Products Efficiency Act of 1989
Established national standards for the manufacture and labeling of certain plumbing
products in order to conserve and protect water resources.
Components of the Plumbing System
ASTM. (2000). “New Test Method Provides Solid Evaluation of PEX Plumbing”.
ASTM Standardization News. v. 28 (9).
ASTM developed a standard to measure the effectiveness of PEX piping. The standard
outlines a method for evaluating the oxidative resistance of PEX piping to the effects of
chlorinated water. This standard is aimed to evaluate the PEX under very aggressive
conditions due to the questionable suitability for application in potable water systems.
Materials
references.
Activity
1. Write an essay consisting of at least 2 paragraphs explaining the importance of

having a set of standards in plumbing systems and the need of following them
during construction.
Learning Assessment
demonstrate
standards used in
plumbing systems.
I was able to express
standards used plumbing
systems through
discussion.

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:

Week 12 Life Safety Systems in Buildings (Part I)
Learning Objectives
1. Defined and explained life safety system in buildings.

2. Discussed the relevance of safety engineering in the civil engineering profession.
3. Enumerated the factors to consider in building an earthquake resistant structure.
4. Stated the benefits of having a fire protection system in a building.
5. Identified other components that may be added in a fire protection system.
6. Explained the uses of the added components in a fire protection system.
7. Enumerated and discussed the seven important components of a life safety system .
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. Life Safety Systems in Buildings (Part I)
 Earthquake Resistant Construction

 Safety Engineering
 Fire System Benefits
 7 Important Components of Life Safety Systems.
LIFE SAFETY SYSTEM
A life-safety system is any interior building element designed to protect and evacuate the
building population in emergencies, including fires and earthquakes, and less critical
events, such as power failures. Fire-detection systems include electronic heat and smoke
detectors that can activate audible alarms and automatically notify local fire departments.
For fire suppression, hand-operated fire extinguishers and, often, building sprinkler
systems are provided. Smoke is as dangerous as fire, so protective measures include the
automatic shutdown of ventilating systems and elevators and the division of the building
into smoke proof compartments. Occupants evacuate through protected exits (which
include exit corridors and stairways in smoke proof enclosures in multistory buildings)
leading to the exterior.
Safety, those activities that seek either to minimize or to eliminate hazardous conditions
that can cause bodily injury. Safety precautions fall under two principal headings,
occupational safety and public safety.
 Occupational safety is concerned with risks encountered in areas where people

work: offices, manufacturing plants, farms, construction sites and commercial and
retail facilities.
 Public safety involves hazards met in the home, in travel and recreation and other
situations not falling within the scope of occupational safety.
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION
Earthquake-resistant construction is the fabrication of a building or structure that is able

to withstand the sudden ground shaking that is characteristic of earthquakes, thereby
minimizing structural damage and human deaths and injuries. Suitable construction
methods are required to ensure that proper design objectives for earthquake-resistance
are met. Construction methods can vary dramatically throughout the world, so one must
be aware of local construction methods and resource availability before concluding
whether a particular earthquake-resistant design will be practical and realistic for the
region. There is a fundamental distinction between the design of a building and the
construction methods used to fabricate that building. Advanced designs intended to
withstand earthquakes are effective only if proper construction methods are used in the
site selection, foundation, structural members, and connection joints. Earthquake-
resistant designs typically incorporate ductility (the ability of a building to bend, sway, and
deform without collapsing) within the structure and its structural members. A ductile
building is able to bend and flex when exposed to the horizontal or vertical shear forces of
an earthquake. Concrete buildings, which are normally brittle (relatively easy to break),
can be made ductile by adding steel reinforcement. In buildings constructed with steel-
reinforced concrete, both the steel and the concrete must be precisely manufactured to
achieve the desired ductile behavior.
Building failures during earthquakes often are due to poor construction methods or
inadequate materials. In less-developed countries, concrete often is not properly mixed,
consolidated, or cured to achieve its intended compressive strength, so buildings are thus
extremely susceptible to failure under seismic loading. This problem is often made worse
by a lack of local building codes or an absence of inspection and quality control.
Building failures are also frequently attributed to a shortage of suitable and locally
available materials. For instance, when a building is designed with steel-reinforced
concrete, it is critical that the amount of steel used is not reduced to lower the building
cost. Such practices substantially weaken a building’s ability to withstand
the dynamic forces of an earthquake.
Under normal conditions, a building’s walls, columns, and beams primarily experience
only vertical loads of compression. However, during an earthquake, lateral and shear
loading occurs, which results in tensile and torsional forces on structural elements. Those
forces result in high stresses at the building’s corners and throughout various joints.
Strong construction joints are critical in building a structure that will withstand the shear
loading of an earthquake. Since stress is concentrated at the joints between the walls, it
is important that all the joints be properly prepared and reinforced. Concrete joints must
also be properly compacted and anchored in order to achieve optimum strength. In the
case of unreinforced masonry joints (mortar joints, such as those found in brick buildings),
the anchoring between adjacent walls is especially important. When all the joints are tied
together well, the building will act as a single integrated unit, enabling the forces of an
earthquake to be transferred from one section to the next without catastrophic failure.
Earthquake-resistant construction requires that the building be properly grounded and

connected through its foundation to the earth. Building on loose sands or clays is to be
avoided, since those surfaces can cause excessive movement and non - uniform stresses
to develop during an earthquake. Furthermore, if the foundation is too shallow, it will
deteriorate, and the structure will be less able to withstand shaking. The foundation
should therefore be constructed on firm soil to maintain a structure that settles uniformly
under vertical loading.
SAFETY ENGINEERING
Safety engineering is the study of the causes and the prevention of accidental deaths and
injuries. The field of safety engineering has not developed as a unified, specific discipline,
and its practitioners have operated under a wide variety of position titles, job descriptions,
responsibilities, and reporting levels in industry and in the loss-prevention activities of
insurance companies. The general areas that have been identified as the major functions
carried out by the professional safety engineer or safety professional are:
 the identification and appraisal of accident-producing conditions and practices and

 the evaluation of the severity of the accident problem; the development of accident
and loss-control methods, procedures, and programs; the communication of
accident and loss-control information to those directly involved; and the
measurement and evaluation of the accident and loss-control systems and the
modifications that are required to obtain optimum results.
The most recent trends in safety engineering include increased emphasis on prevention
by the anticipation of hazard potentials; changing legal concepts with regard to product
liability and negligent design or manufacture, as well as the developing emphasis on
consumer protection; and the development of national and international legislation and
controls, not only in the areas of transportation safety, product safety, and consumer
protection but also in occupational health and environmental control.
Building Security Systems (BSS) fire and life safety systems ensure employee safety and
the overall welfare of a business. Up-to-date alarm systems guard against invisible
hazards such as carbon monoxide and natural gas, both of which can pose a serious
threat to life and property.
FIRE SYSTEM BENEFITS
 Field devices do not require shielded wire, making them less costly and easier to
install.
 Input/output modules can be “ganged” in groups of six, requiring less conduit,
boxes and wiring.
 Integrated dialer eliminates the need for the installation of an external unit.
ADD VALUE TO YOUR SYSTEM WITH
 Water-flow detectors— installed in fire alarm sprinkler systems, they monitor the
flow of water to sprinkler heads with a specially designed paddle to detect sprinkler
malfunctions.
 Smoke detectors— provide early detection of fires before the fire spreads. Can
be mounted on the wall or ceiling, and can be seamlessly integrated with a variety
of other security systems.
 Natural gas/carbon monoxide detectors— maximize safety by detecting gas
and sounding an audible alarm before it reaches dangerous conditions.
 Manual activation— employees who discover smoke or fire can pull the station
handle to activate an alarm. Alarm is triggered both locally and in the BSS alarm-
monitoring center, and can be integrated with other security systems, such
as CCTV, so the event can be recorded.
 Voice evacuation— voice evacuation provides clear, yet compelling commands
that quickly guide people to safety. It can be integrated with fire alarm systems, so
when a fire alarm sounds, an emergency announcement is made simultaneously.
7 IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF A LIFE SAFETY SYSTEM
Life safety systems are made up of elements that are designed to protect your building
and its occupants during a fire or emergency situation. There are many components that
make up life safety systems. Having an integrated and fully functioning life safety system
can improve the safety of your business. Here are some things elements that should be
considered when designing a building’s life safety system:
1. Fire Sprinklers or Suppression
Sprinklers and suppression systems are critical to the safety of the people in your building.
These systems are designed to react to a fire by extinguishing or suppressing a fire before
it causes extensive damage to the building or harms the people inside.
2. Fire Alarm & Detection System
These systems detect the presence of a fire and alert the people within the building. This
allows people to evacuate the building safely before the fire becomes too large.
3. CCTV Security Cameras
Having security cameras installed in your facility can help to deter crime and monitor the
activities of your facility. CCTV cameras provide peace of mind by recording videos of
your property.
4. Access Control Systems
An access control system helps to secure your building by controlling who can enter your
facility. This prevents unauthorized personnel from entering your property and causing
damage or harm.
5. Alarm & Security Monitoring
Monitoring your alarm and security systems provides 24-hour protection for your building
in emergency situations. When an alarm in your building activates, authorities will be
alerted immediately to make sure that your building is attended to as quickly as possible.
6. Emergency and Exit Lighting
It is important to have emergency and exit lighting in your facility to allow occupants to
safely find their way to an exit. These emergency lighting systems work when the power
is out in a facility.
7. Fire Extinguishers
A fire extinguisher can be used to extinguish small fires before they grow into larger
uncontrollable fires. Having fire extinguishers throughout your building and along with
personnel who are trained to operate them can help save lives.
Materials
references.
Activity
1. Discuss briefly the importance of having a life safety system in buildings.

2. Define safety engineering and discuss its significance in the construction of
vertical structures.
3. How do we construct an earthquake resisting structure? What adjustments are

needed in the structure and in building materials?
4. Identify the components that may be added to a fire protection system and
discuss the function of each component.
5. Enumerate the important components of a life safety system and explain each
briefly.
Learning Assessment
explain life safety system
in buildings.
relevance of safety
engineering in the civil
engineering profession.
the factors to consider in
building an earthquake
resistant structure.
benefits of having a fire
protection system in a
building.
I was able to identify
other components that
may be added in a fire
protection system.
uses of the added
components in a fire
protection system.
and discuss the seven
important components of
a life safety system.

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:

Week 13 Life Safety Systems in Buildings (Part II)
Learning Objectives
1. Identified the frequency of inspecting a fire protection system.

2. Enumerated the equipment used in the inspection of a fire protection system.
3. Differentiated the equipment used in the inspection of a fire protection system.
4. Identified and described the components of a fire protection system.
5. Identified the frequency of inspecting alarm systems and notification systems.
6. Discussed the procedures to be done in inspecting alarm systems and notification
systems.
7. Explained the importance of having fire extinguishers and smoke control systems
in buildings.
8. Discussed the relevance of retro – commissioning in fire protection systems.
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. Life Safety Systems in Buildings (Part II)
 A Guide to Fire Protection System Inspections
A GUIDE TO FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM INSPECTION
Whether you are enlisting the help of a service provider or doing most of the work yourself,
it is important for you to know the basics of fire safety system inspection. Staying code
compliant and protecting your building and occupants is a vitally important responsibility.
What do you need to do to properly inspect your fire safety systems? For systems that
work in conjunction with one another, it is often important to test them together to improve
your odds of preventing catastrophe for your building and its occupants.
WHEN TO INSPECT SPRINKLERS
Besides the obvious reasons for maintaining fire sprinkler systems on a tight schedule,
regularly scheduled checks can save your organization money in the long run. Sticking
to a clear schedule for inspections will allow you to keep your system up to date and ready
for use in case of an emergency.
Inspection for fire sprinklers is an ongoing process requiring different actions over time.
Some tasks will be easy for your facilities staff to do on their own. Other modes of
inspection will be more involved, often requiring the use of a fire safety service provider
to deliver a greater overview of the sprinkler system.
Weekly inspections will involve quick checks like making sure control valves are open,
the heating works properly to prevent freezing and gauges are functioning correctly. Each
month, you should also check parts of the sprinkler system that are electrically
supervised, as well as the basic functionality of accessible and visible components.
AVERAGE FAILURE RATE BY DEVICE TYPE
A fire and life safety compliance reporting technology firm, has listed in its annual Fire
and Life Safety Benchmarking Report a compilation of data on inspections and device
failure of fire safety systems in a variety of building types. Based on the names of the
inspection software they sell, the various types of devices covered in the report are
grouped into five categories that address similar functionality. These equipment types are
listed as the following:
 Safety Scan: portable fire extinguishers, lighting, personal protective and

safety equipment in any facility
 Sprinkler Scan: sprinkler systems and water-based fire protection systems
 Security Scan: burglar and security systems, access control, CCTV and
nurse call stations
 Suppression Scan: clean agent, gas detection and kitchen hood systems
 Fire Scan: control equipment, auxiliary functions, monitoring equipment and
notification appliances.
In the accompanying graph, safety equipment including fire extinguishers are most prone
to failure, followed by sprinklers and water-based protection systems. Notification
systems were among the least defective device types listed in the report.
ENLISTING A SPRINKLER INSPECTOR
Beyond basic checks, you will need to perform more complicated and time-consuming
inspections that ensure all of the mechanisms of sprinkler systems function. These should
happen quarterly, annually and in multiple-year increments. In a quarterly inspection,
you’re going in and checking the functionality of the switches and making sure your
supervised valves and flow switches are reporting to the panel. Annual inspections
involve a full run-through of the system, looking more specifically at the hardware that a
sprinkler system hinges on for proper day-to-day functionality. In these inspections you
walk the entire system looking for defective sprinkler heads, rusted sprinkler pipes and
anything that looks like it could impair the system while going through the same
procedures you did with the quarterly inspection.
You get a longer period of time in between the more involved and invasive sprinkler
inspection checks. Because they more adequately evaluate the inner workings and
quality of a system, they are only needed every three and five years.
In the third year inspection you have the dry pipe valves and pre - action systems where
you would do full trips on them and make sure you’re getting the right water timing. Do
this in addition to what you do for annual inspections. During the five-year inspection, you
are taking apart the check valves and pulling systems apart to make sure there’s no kind
of obstructions or organic matter in the piping. If you have fire pumps, they are required
to be flowed off the roof every five years in multi-story buildings. Check the functionality
of the standpipes and pressure reducing valves. If you have dry standpipes, they need to
be hydro tested. Finding a trusted fire inspection service provider to take care of these
advanced inspections is key to ensuring your sprinklers work during a crisis.
CONNECTING AND COMMUNICATING WITH ALARMS
For facilities facing a fire threat, alarms and notification systems are perhaps the most
important component of fire protection systems because they provide the first alert of a
threat and they often communicate with other systems like sprinklers. Thus, it is critical to
provide regular inspection checks of alarms and notification systems, especially in
conjunction with sprinklers.
While the letter of the law regarding mandated alarm system testing will vary city by city
and state by state for addressing fire alarm system testing. Every week you should
visually inspect the system, particularly at the panel, any lights and the power source.
Because most alarm systems work hand-in-hand with sprinkler systems, you should
inspect how they work in conjunction with one another. For quarterly inspections, testing
should scale outward from weekly checks, inspecting sprinkler systems that are
connected to alarms and making sure they work together. Semiannual testing goes even
further than quarterly testing by more closely inspecting the electrical mechanisms of
sprinklers, as well as batteries and load voltage of the alarm system. Annual inspections
add testing and visually inspecting the alert sounds themselves, the various detectors
your system employs, voice notification and any other part that relies on electrical
operation. The exact nature of these inspections will vary under monitored and
unmonitored systems, so be sure to consult with a fire safety professional to enact a
facility-specific plan of action for your systems.
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
For fire extinguishers requires regular inspection, maintenance and testing. The most
basic of these involves visually inspecting portable extinguishers or hoses each month.
Stored pressure extinguishers are exempt from these internal examinations, but you
should record when you perform this maintenance and keep the record available for
review for at least a year after the last entry or life of the shell. For dry chemical
extinguishers that require 12-year hydrostatic tests emptying and maintaining them every
six years is a must. Finally, it is important to have a backup plan in place for when you
are performing maintenance and extinguishers are out of commission. You will need
some kind of alternate and equivalent means of protection.
SMOKE CONTROL
One of the most overlooked fire safety systems is smoke control, in part because
regulation hadn’t been codified until more recently compared to other systems and also
because they tend to be out of sight. Buildings with open spaces – like atriums, for
example – need the most sophisticated smoke control systems. For the most part, they
will already have a system in place, but these types of facilities need to make sure that
they fulfill building requirements as codes and standards change because updates to
codes now require proof that they operate properly.
When you have an atrium or big, open, vertical spaces, they usually need to have a
smoke control system designed to handle it. For smoke control inspections, it will usually
go in at the end of a new construction or retrofit involving remodeling. For buildings with
open, vertical spaces that need to make greater use out of an atrium-like area, it might
require more thorough examination. If a remodel puts more people on the floor of an
atrium throughout the day, a city might require a different smoke control system because
of increased activity.
UNDERFOING CHANGES
You have an obligation to look at the individual systems that protect buildings against
fires, but it is important to remember that they are nevertheless part of the entire facility
ecosystem, and actions meant for one part of a building can impact that of others. This is
especially the case with some commonly overlooked components of fire safety. Because
an office space might undergo a lot of changes, you have to make sure that when you
change something you are updating where the exits go or that you aren’t blocking exits.
Stair and exit access is an often overlooked part of fire safety in buildings. Small changes
in an office area’s layout can affect occupants’ ability to find and use at least two exits in
the event of an emergency. Moreover, older buildings that have used fire protective
building materials can be susceptible. Over time, altering walls and other structural
elements to a building that have some level of fireproofing can undo some of its protective
abilities.
RETRO – COMMISSIONING
For organizations that want to make a greater effort in ensuring compliance in their
existing buildings with fire safety systems, retro-commissioning is a process that provides
building owners with a representative referred to as the fire commissioning agent who
organizes the inspection, testing and maintenance of fire safety systems.
It is a systematic process that provides documented confirmation that building systems

function according to the intended design criteria set forth in the project documents and
satisfy the owner’s operational needs, including compliance with applicable laws,
regulations, codes and standards. It also includes analysis of current systems and the
development of improvements and inspection, testing and maintenance plans. Much of
the responsibility for retro - commissioning is coordinated through the building owner and
the retro – commissioning representative. Operations personnel are then expected to do
the following:
 Attend systems training sessions

 Review and comment on the Owner’s Project Requirements
 Review and comment on the systems manuals
 Organize, coordinate and implement system inspection, testing and maintenance
as required by the systems manuals
Materials
references.
Activity
1. How often must a fire protection system undergo inspection? Discus the
procedures done in every inspection.
2. What are the components of a fire protection system? Explain the function of
each component.
3. How often must an alarm system and notification system undergo inspection?
Discus the procedures done in every inspection.
4. Discuss the importance of having a smoke control system and a fire extinguisher
in multi – storey buildings.
5. What is the importance of retro – commissioning in a fire protection system?
Learning Assessment
frequency of inspecting a
fire protection system.
the equipment used in
the inspection of a fire
protection system.
the equipment used in
the inspection of a fire
protection system.
described the
components of a fire
protection system.
frequency of inspecting
alarm systems and
notification systems.
procedures to be done in
inspecting alarm systems
and notification systems.
importance of having fire
extinguishers and smoke
control systems in
buildings.
relevance of retro –
commissioning in fire
protection systems.

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:

Week 14 Acoustical Control in Buildings (Part I)
Learning Objectives
1. Defined and explained Sound Transmission Class.

2. Enumerated and differentiated the construction techniques in acoustic planning of
a building.
3. Identified the measures that can be employed to reduce the noise entering the
building.
4. Stated the techniques for Noise Control in Buildings through Architectural Acoustic
Design.
5. Discussed the techniques used for Noise Control in Buildings through Architectural
Acoustic Design.
6. Explained the use of Solid Walls in Buildings for Noise Control.
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. Acoustical Control in Buildings (Part I)
 Construction Techniques in Acoustic Planning a Building

 Noise Control in Buildings through Architectural Acoustic Design
Techniques
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES IN ACOUSTIC PLANNING A BUILDING
Noise control inside a building can be achieved by following construction techniques

while constructing a building. The construction techniques of walls, windows, doors and
floors and selection of appropriate building materials are discussed for better acoustic
control in buildings.
The discomfort of noise within the building goes on increasing if the structural elements
within the building too don’t show any resistance against the noise. It is found that the
noise transmission is intercepted when it passes through the walls, floors, windows,
ceilings and the building doors.
THE SOUND TRANSMISSION CLASS (STC)
A certain parameter has to be used in order to compare the performance of different

construction materials. One such parameter is the sound transmission class (STC). The
sound transmission class can be defined as the numerical value equal to the number of
decibels in terms of reduction of sound when it passes through a material, which is
intended to have some insulating property. This can make one understand that a high
value of STC implies the material possess a high insulating property. It basically works
on the influence of external frequencies of the areas of the partition where the sound
originates and where the receiving of the sound takes place.
This can be explained by an example. Let us assume the desired level of sound internally
is 45 decibels and the external level of noise is 85 decibels, then we require a partition
material that has a sound transmission class value of 40 STC for adequate acoustic
comfort. STC is a sound transmission class rating which is put forward by the American
Society of Testing and Measurement. This acts as a parameter to guide an architect to
know which material would suit the most, to have an essential acoustic feature by the
reduction of noise.
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES IN ACOUSTIC PLANNING OF A BUILDING
The structural elements and their construction for controlling noise in buildings are
mentioned below.
CONSTRUCTION OF WALLS FRO NOISE CONTROL IN BUILDINGS
Walls are an important structural element in all kind of buildings that provides protection
from the noise externally as well as internally. The usage of different wall materials or the
usage of different design for the wall would bring variation in the insulating properties of
the element. The figure below shows the difference in sound attenuation with variation in
wall design.
The methods employed for noise control in buildings are explained in the following:
1. Wall Mass and the Thickness are Increased
The massiveness of a material is an efficient parameter that resists noise. Hence concrete
walls are more insulating than wooden walls. Another way of increasing the insulating
property is to add more thickness to the walls. The increase of thickness of walls would
result in more mass which in turn will increase insulation. A reduction of 6 decibel sound
happens by this method of construction. But the techniques must be carried out keeping
in mind the cost and economy. Wall construction that undergoes vibration under huge
frequencies of sound has to be avoided.
Fig.1. Different Wall Design Techniques Showing the Variation of Sound

Attenuation
2. Use of Cavity Partition in Buildings for Noise Control
The sound transmission can be resisted by the usage of airspace between the two
partition walls. The air space can also be placed in between two or more layers. This
concept is more effective than a single wall of equal weight which is found to be more
economical.
3. Increase Airspace Width of Walls
The increase in airspace will obviously increase the noise insulation property. But the
huge increase in the width of air space is difficult to design and consumes more space.
4. Increasing the Stud Spacing
It is found by a study that the spacing between the studs would increase the sound
transmission capacity of the room. Say an increase of 2 to 5 decibel STC is determined
for a stud spaced 24 inches than those spaced at 16 inches.
5. Usage of Studs in a Staggered Manner
The arrangement of studs in a staggered manner as shown in figure-2, where studs are
placed alternatively would help in noise absorption, thus reducing noise intensity.
Fig.2. Figure Shows Variety of Wall Types, their Cost Comparison and STC Values
6. Studs and Panels held together by Resilient Materials
Making use of inexpensive resilient layers like glass or fiber board, or semi-resilient
attachments which are inert in nature, will help in reducing the STC rate by two to five
decibels.
7. Panels Used are Dissimilar
Using different thickness and materials for panels would help in reduction of noise, thus
increasing the sound insulating quality of walls.
8. Sound Absorbing Blankets Used in the Airspace
The sound absorbing blankets are also called as isolation blankets which are placed in
the airspace arrangement, that are provided between the panels. This blanket enables
an increase in sound attenuation. Mineral or rock wool, wood fibers or fiberglass are some
the materials used to make these blankets. These blankets have an attenuation capability
up to 10 decibels. The method is more effective where lightweight construction is more
prominent.
9. The Cracks and Edges are Sealed
The full advantage of a high-performance wall can be brought out only when it is properly
sealed and crack free. The perimeter of the wall must be properly sealed. Formation of
cracks or holes would affect the insulation property of the wall. It has been observed that
a hole of the 1-inch square will result in a reduction of STC of the wall by 10.
Fig.3. Depicts Before and After the Sealing of Cracks
CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOWS FOR ACOUSTIC CONTROL IN BUILDINGS
Windows are one of the weakest elements of a building. Their inappropriate position or
open condition would affect the performance of insulating walls. Therefore, it is
recommended to have acoustical consideration in the arrangement of windows. The
graph below shows the variation of STC values of the wall, for the different area occupied
by the windows which are shown in percentages.
The following measures can be employed to reduce the noise entering the building
through the windows:
1. Windows can be Closed
Permanent sealing or closing of the windows are the best measures to reduce the direct
effect of noise. Permanent sealing becomes essential when an air conditioning system
must be enabled. So, sealing acts as a constant solution for noise. The masking of noise
is an effect that is facilitated by the air conditioning system, which is discussed in the
following topics.
2. Windows Size can be Reduced
The loss of contribution of total partitions can be reduced by making the window size to
small. Small windows do have certain other advantages like:
 Expensive acoustic windows can be excluded

 Usage of glass is reduced
The method faces certain disadvantages too. The decrease of window size is limited, as
the window size should follow certain rules and regulations. Its decrease by, say from 50
to 20 % would only bring up a change of 3 decibels.
3. Glass Thickness can be Increased
The more thickness the glass gains, the more resistant towards the noise. If sealing is
not desired, the glass thickness can be increased. Further, the glass can be laminated
with a tough plastic, which is transparent in nature. This is both shatter and noise
resistant.
CONSTRUCTION O DOORS FOR ACOUSTIC CONTROL IN BUILDINGS
Doors are considered very difficult to handle than windows, acoustically. Replacing a
hollow core door by a solid door is one of the solutions. This is found relatively expensive.
The sound insulation can be increased if at the bottom and at the top, a drop bar or gasket
stops are installed. Another solution is to reduce their use in walls facing noise directly.
Install doors on the wall that is shielded.
CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS FOR ACOUSTIC CONTROL IN BUILDINGS
Special acoustical treatment is the only way to reduce the vibration of floors due to heavy
noise. Installing a heavy concrete floor or using a floating floor is some of the treatment
methods. Floating floor involves using a concrete or wooden slab over the existing one,
which is separated by a resilient material.
NOISE CONTROL IN BUILDINGS BY USE OF MASKING
This method involves the drowning of noise with the help of a background noise. This is
effective during noise fluctuations. Masking can be created by soft music, electronic
devices or air conditioning systems and heating systems.
A proper architectural design helps in noise control in buildings to a great extent. It helps
in minimizing many costly techniques of noise control in buildings. The arrangement of
elements like window placing, door, the position of the bedroom, balcony, courtyard by
proper acoustical planning help in reduction of unwanted noise within the building.
Fig. 4: Sources of Noise in Buildings

Focus must be given to certain main elements that are explained briefly as follows.
TECHNIQUES FOR NOISE CONTROL IN BUILDINGS THROUGH ARCHITECTURAL

ACOUSTIC DESIGN
Noise in the building can be control by following methods:
 Room arrangement
 Use of solid walls
 Planning for single story houses
 Proper arrangement of balconies
 Having courtyards
1. Room Arrangement in Buildings for Noise Control
Considering the rooms in a building based on sensitivity, we can divide into less sensitive
rooms and more sensitive room. Now less sensitive rooms are the kitchen, bathroom etc.
More sensitive rooms are bedrooms and living rooms.
The arrangement of rooms must be made in such a way that more sensitive rooms are
away from the noise and the less sensitive rooms are toward or closer to the noise source.
The arrangement of rooms for noise control is shown in figure-5. This planning was
applied widely over a 100-acre land which comprises of residential buildings. The building
was near to a planned expressway.
As per the concept of arrangement the kitchens and bathrooms were placed near to the
expressway and the bedrooms, living rooms where keep way from it. Thus, more sensitive
rooms get a shielding effect.
Fig. 5: Room Arrangement in Buildings for Noise Control through Architectural
Acoustic Design
2. Use of Solid Walls in Buildings for Noise Control
The use of solid walls means, to use a wall with fewer openings. Mostly walls used in
building construction are masonry. When it comes to high-rise, concrete walls are used.
Whatever be the material chosen, both behave massive and resist noise in a very efficient
manner. Now having an opening in walls will reduce its efficiency in noise control. The
openings in the forms of windows or doors that are facing directly towards the noise,
would welcome noise into the building.
The efficiency of walls can be explained in figure-6. Here the wall barrier between the
building and the noise is not at an adequate height, but the lower floors must feel
comfortable with less noise. This is possible because the barrier has no opening. To have
the complete role of a barrier, opening in walls facing the direct noise must be planned
accordingly and if possible, eliminated. In a case where elimination is not possible,
reduction in the size of openings is recommended.
Fig. 6: Use of Solid Walls in Buildings for Noise Control
3. Planning for Single Story Houses
This is an architectural planning step taken before planning the design of the building. For
example, consider that we have a land where the construction has to be conducted, but
we have a noise source at a particular distance from the site. The plan is to construct a
two-story building. We also have a barrier in between the site and the noise source. The
situation is that the reduction of noise from the source is efficient only when the building
is a single story as shown in figure-7. When a more story building is planned, the barrier
height will be insufficient. Under such situation, it is always recommended to compromise
with the plan and go for an economical and quality construction. Another option is to adopt
a split-level design for the building that would meet all the requirements.
Fig. 7: Use of Single Story Houses to Reduce Noise Impacts
4. Proper Arrangement of Balconies for Noise Control
Balconies provide access to the external environment as well as ventilation in the form of
light and air. But the improper arrangement of balconies would give complete discomfort,
hiding all its advantages through noise. Balconies have higher exposure to outside
environment. If the building is faced towards a highly traffic prone area, with balcony
facing the same side, it would promote the intensity of noise entering the building, as
shown in figure 8.
Fig. 8: Balcony Facing the Road attracts Noise into the Building
The problem is mainly seen in highly populated cities, where high rise building facing the
highway is constructed. In such cases, measures to reduce direct impact of noise must
be carried out. Balconies can be placed in a shielded area than direct open area.
5. Having Courtyards for Noise Control
Having courtyards helps in reduction noise control in buildings. This can be an added
measure of noise reduction in architectural planning and design. The proper architectural
design may also provide for noise reduction in an area outside of the building. They
provide an acoustical privacy. A shielding effect is provided by these courtyards. It is
constructed in residences, schools, hospitals, colleges etc.
Fig. 9: Courtyards for Noise Control in Buildings
Materials
references.
Activity
1. Explain Sound Transmission Class.
2. Differentiate the construction techniques in acoustic planning of a building.

3. Discuss the techniques used for Noise Control in Buildings through Architectural
Acoustic Design.
4. Explain the use of Solid Walls in Buildings for Noise Control.
Learning Assessment
i. How well did I do?
explain Sound
Transmission Class.
and differentiate the
construction techniques
in acoustic planning of a
building.
measures that can be
employed to reduce the
noise entering the
building.
techniques for Noise
Control in Buildings
through Architectural
Acoustic Design.
techniques used for
Noise Control in
Buildings through
Architectural Acoustic
Design.
use of Solid Walls in
Buildings for Noise
Control.

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:

Week 15 Acoustical Control in Buildings (Part II)
Learning Objectives
1. Identified the methods used to decrease noise impact in buildings.

2. Discussed the methods used to decrease the noise impact in buildings.
3. Enumerated examples on acoustic planning techniques.
4. Stated and explained the techniques to reduce unwanted sound in buildings.
5. Enumerated and explained the acoustic properties of building materials.
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. Acoustical Control in Buildings (Part II)
 How to Plan for Better Acoustic Control in Building?

 Acoustic Properties of Building Materials for Noise Control
HOW TO PLAN FOR BETTER ACOUSTIC CONTROL IN BUILDING?
The acoustic feature of a building can be taken care at the initial stages of planning of the
project. The ignorance at the initial stage would force us to make use of costly techniques
at later stages. The site planning initiates to arrange the building in such a way that
minimum exposure to noise is there. When a project has been proposed to initiate a noise
sensitive activity, then acoustic planning would help in reduction of noise impact to a far
extent.
CONSTRUCTION SITE PLANNING FOR BETTER ACOUSTIC CONTROL IN
BUILDING
Hence based on the land details and project plan, the following methods can be employed
to decrease noise impact:
 Setting up Distance
 Placement of non-residential elements as buffers
 Buildings acting as shields
 Building orientation away from noise
The above-mentioned techniques are explained in the following:
1. SETTING UP DISTANCE
The distance between the noise source and the noise receiving building is an efficient
parameter that can be increased to reduce the intensity of noise reaching the receiver.
As the distance increases the intensity of the noise decreases. Wherever there is an
option to place a building far away from the noise source, we must adopt this. Because
this method alone can solve many noise impact problems. This method is more applicable
for high-rise buildings, as it is very difficult to provide them with acoustic shield, due to
their height as shown in figure-1.
Fig.1: The Noise Barrier only Shields Lower Floors
For example, it is better to build the structure at an appreciable distance away from the
highway, to reduce the impact of noise formed from high traffic.
2. PLACEMENT OF NON – RESIDENTIAL ELEMENTS AS BUFFERS
Another method is making use of noise compatible land areas, which is to be located in
between the noise source and the receiver. These land areas may have non-residential
elements. A proper planning is done to arrange this element between the two units, say
the highway (noise source) and the residential units (receiver). It should be kept in mind
that the compatible unit should be near to the source. Figure-2 shows a real arrangement
of acoustic planning. Here the parking garage behaves as the noise compatible area. The
main sources of traffic are Fitzgerald Expressway and Callahan Tunnel as shown in
figure-2.
Fig.2: Parking Garage for Better Acoustic Control in Building
The garage not only behaves as a compatible area but also act as a convenience for the
occupants residing to park their vehicle. So, the planning method chosen is compatible
with everything surrounding it.
3. BUILDING ACTING AS SHIELDS
This planning makes use of already existing buildings as barriers for buildings located
parallel but far away, from the former. If a row of buildings (B1) are located near to a
highway, buildings (B2) can be constructed in the back of this row in such a way that, B1
shields B2 from the traffic noise. When the barrier buildings are subjected to high noise,
acoustic shielding is provided. When a situation arises, where this method does not work,
we plan the kitchen and bathroom as facing towards the noise and the other rooms away
from the noise. Under the extreme situation, the windows and door facing the noise are
shielded.
4. BUILDING ORIENTATION AWAY FROM NOISE
Special planning in the orientation of the building or the activity area would help in
reducing the impact of noise on it. Buildings that have openings or rooms facing towards
high noise source will have high discomfort. So, it is better to arrange it in such a way that
it is more exposed to certain natural features. If we lack such features certain artificial
features can be created that give a better beauty as well as reduces direct exposure to
the noise.
EXAMPLES OF ACOUSTIC PLANNING TECHNIQUES
1. An example showing the location of noise-compatible uses near a highway (West

Street) in Springfield, Massachusetts. It is clear from the plan that parking spaces, ends
of buildings, and a baseball diamond are located near to the highway. A berm is
constructed shielding the residential units. Trees are planted to shield residences from
traffic noise.
Fig.3: Acoustic Control for Residential Buildings
2. As shown in figure-4, the residential units are covered by the high traffic noise impact
by means of commercial buildings, that is not a part of residential units. These commercial
buildings act as compatible areas, shielding the residential units.
Fig.4: Commercial Buildings Shielding Noise for Residential Buildings
Acoustic Properties of Building Materials for Noise Control
Acoustic property of a building is based on acoustic nature of building materials and how
sound is transmitted through the adjacent structural elements. Noise is unwanted sound,
that is considered as a nuisance in buildings for residential or domestic purposes. The
buildings must possess good sound insulation property to have good acoustic feature.
Sound insulation of buildings is a property that must be considered in the initial stages of
planning. Planning for the structural elements, to make them sound proof is one of the
consideration. And the other one is the planning of the area, where the building should
be located.
A building planned near to a roadway, which is highly traffic prone, would result in high
inconvenience to the occupants residing there. More detailed view on the subject and its
considerations are explained below.
SOUND INSULATION IN BUILDINGS
The sound insulation property of building materials is the ability in the reduction of sound
across a partition. For a good conventional office building construction, the sound
insulation is experienced well when it is in the range of 45dB.
This value can be explained as follows. If the room creates a sound of 65dB, then the
receiver sitting in the adjacent room receives the sound at 20dB. This value is barely
audible. Now if the level increase to 75dB, which is a raised voice, then the sound levels
at the adjacent room will be 30 dB, which is clearly audible.
We must keep in mind that sound insulation gives the property of how much sound is lost
and not the sound regained within the room. The unwanted and unexpected sound is
always considered to be a noise and that really is a question of the acoustic property of
the building.
TECHNIQUES TO REDUCE UNWANTED SOUND IN BUILDINGS
Certain physical techniques that are employed by engineers, architects, and builders to
reduce noise impacts are explained under this section. Due to the scarcity of land as well
as increasing population, the engineers are forced to undertake the available land and
treat it as per our need.
So, major four actions which can be employed to reduce noise impacts that are
compatible with any type of land, activity or use are:
 Site Planning
 Design
 Methods in Construction
 Barriers in Construction
BUILDING SITE PLANNING
The site planning method in acoustic property of buildings is to arrange the buildings on
a zone of land that would minimize severe noise impacts. This is done by capitalizing the
natural shape as well as contours of the site. One such step is to shield the residential
area or other non-sensitive activities from noises by non-residential land, or an open
space or by barrier buildings.
BUILDING DESIGN
The architecture design method implements the noise reduction concepts in the details
of the individual building elements. This stage is more concerned about the height, the
room arrangement, the placement of balconies and the window.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
The individual elements of buildings can be improved by the variation of structural

element materials or internal design to facilitate good sound insulation. This would reduce
the noise transmission through wall, windows, doors, ceiling and floors. New
soundproofing concepts have been developed which are related to this stage.
BARRIERS FOR CONSTRUCTION
Barriers for resisting noise, which is placed in between the noise sensitive areas and the
source of noise. Different types of barriers are possible, like walls, fences made of
different materials, planting trees and shrubs in thick, making berms out of earth and
combination of individual elements.
ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS
In many cases help from an acoustic designer is required after the building construction
is complete and is occupied to high level of sound. The discomfort faced by the occupant
residing or using it have to go for redesigning the building for noise insulation. So, it is
always necessary to have a pre-planning, mainly for the building constructions that are
prone to noise disturbances.
Now being aware of the acoustic properties of building materials to some extent would
help us to have a right choice on what material to be selected when acoustics is a
concerned factor. Some of them are explained below:
1. Acoustic Properties of Masonry, Concrete or Stone Materials

Mass and rigidity property are the two factors that make a material to be highly noise
resistant. The concrete wall is highly efficient than masonry. Masonry material made floor
or wall do perform appreciably. Massive materials like stone, concrete can stop high
sound waves that are less resistant to less massive materials. Concrete slabs do perform
well in the sound insulation activity.
2. Acoustic Properties of Wood and Related Products
These are less dense than masonry. They have a smaller performance in sound isolation.
MDF woods are more massive that are added to certain interior walls to increase the
massiveness. The most common material plywood, which is used in multilayer in interiors,
to make it sound proof. Mainly wood is used in rooms where perfect sounding is required.
It can reflect sound which can be considered as an important property for sound
treatment. It resonates easily which promotes absorption of sound, some of which pass
through the material and some reflects. Therefore, these are used in making the
instruments.
3. Acoustic Properties of Steel
Based on performance and structure, steel is one of the best material for sound insulation.
Because of high cost, it has less application. It is highly dense and massive in nature.
Steel carries the sound through vibration within the material. This sound transfer is called
as the structure-borne vibration. The normal case is airborne vibration which is not
appreciable.
4. Acoustic Properties of Glass & Transparent Materials
The glass is massive in nature. There is a new development of absorptive glass-like

materials that have the property to absorb more sound waves instead of reflecting. The
material is made from Plexiglas or transparent foil thinner in nature with tiny holes. Their
application comes in sound studios.
5. Acoustic Insulating Materials
Foam, fiberglass, rock wool etc. can be considered as the insulating materials we are
familiar with. The fiberglass material gains higher sound absorption property. These
materials absorb sound by reducing the velocity of particles that carry the sound waves
in the air. Under low velocity, the pressure is high. Wood materials absorb more sound at
high pressure. Sound waves gain higher pressure at room boundaries. So, care must be
taken in the arrangement of boundaries or walls. For multiple boundaries like dihedral or
trihedral walls, the sound waves are at higher pressures.
6. Acoustic Properties of Rubber and Plastic

The known materials are vinyl, neoprene etc. These materials are used to make low cost
economical acoustical devices. But their use is almost considered limited. They can be
used as mechanical isolators for floating glass, by preventing vibrations of the diaphragm
to be transmitted to the walls.
Materials
references.
Activity
1. Enumerate the different methods used in decreasing noise impact in buildings

and discuss each method briefly.
2. Give examples of acoustic planning techniques that can be used when

designing buildings.
3. Identify the techniques used in reducing unwanted noise in buildings and

discuss each technique briefly.
4. What are the different acoustic properties of building materials?
Learning Assessment
methods used to
decrease noise impact in
buildings.
methods used to
decrease the noise
impact in buildings.
examples on acoustic
planning techniques.
explain the techniques to
reduce unwanted sound
in buildings.
and explain the acoustic
properties of building
materials.

______________________________________ __________________
Essay:

Week 16 Basic Principles in Building Conveying Systems
Learning Objectives
1. Identified the building conveying systems used in transporting people and goods.
2. Described the building conveying systems used in transporting people and goods.
3. Discussed the functions of the different building conveying systems.
4. Enumerated the components of an elevator.
5. Explained the function of the components of an elevator.
6. Identified the types of conveyor systems.
7. Differentiated the types of elevators.
Assignment

Assessment Section.
Lesson Summary
1. Basic Principles in Building Conveying Systems
 Dumbwaiters
 Elevators
 Escalators
 Lifts
 Facility Chute
 Shuttle Transit
 Conveyors
 Pneumatic Tubes
 Crane and Hoists
CONVEYING SYSTEMS
DUMBWAITERS
Dumbwaiters transport small items between floors in a building. They are most often
found in large homes and buildings that offer food service to their clients or guests.
Dumbwaiters are also found in hospitals, libraries and office buildings where they can
transport medicine, books and mail. A dumbwaiter is a mechanism that consists of a
movable frame in a shaft with platforms attached to the frame that moves up and down.
https://www.mckinleyelevator.com/products/commercial-dumbwaiters/
ELEVATORS
Elevators are vertical transport systems that transport people between floors of a building.
An elevator system consists of a hoisting mechanism that is connected to a car or
platform. This car or platform then moves vertically, in most cases, on guides that are
attached to the fire-resistant sides of a hoistway.
https://www.scienceabc.com/innovation/how-safe-are-you-in-an-elevator.html
Residential Elevators
Residential elevators are designed to move people from one floor to another in a building.
They come in a variety of sizes and may be wheelchair accessible. Residential elevators
may use hydraulic or electric traction systems very similar to commercial passenger
systems. The cars are steel reinforced, come in a variety of finishes, range in size from
36- 48 inches and handle up to 450 pounds, depending on its load capacity.
https://residentialelevators.com/
Elevator Hoistway
A hoistway is a vertical fire-resistant shaft. It is enclosed and the elevator moves through
this shaft. The hoistway is accessed by doors that open into the shaft when the elevator
is called to the opening on that floor. It has a pit at the bottom of it, where buffers are
required. Buffers are energy-absorbing units that absorb any impact should the elevator
descend below the normal level. Some hoistways have penthouses at the top where the
machine room can be placed. Code may require that the hoistway be vented in case of
fire.
http://www.electrical-knowhow.com/2012/04/basic-elevator-components-part-two.html
Hoistway Doors
Hoistway doors are installed in the openings of the shaft at each floor level. They are
rated as a 1-1/2 hour fire door and are controlled by an automatic operating system.
Codes specify the type of doors required for each type of elevator. Doors close
automatically when the elevator car leaves the landing zone, an area 18 inches above or
below the floor. The elevator car will not move if all doors are not closed and locked. The
doors cannot be opened from the landing side except for emergencies.
https://pezcame.com/ZWxldmF0b3IgZG9vciBkaW1lbnNpb25z/
Hoistway Sizes
Hoistway sizes are specified in the National Elevator Industry Standard and the Elevator
Engineering Standard Layouts. Each hoistway must be sized according to the clear inside
dimensions that a hoistway must be to accommodate the elevator car and all required
cables and moving equipment.
https://www.elevatorboutique.com/residential-elevators/e1/
Machine Rooms
Machine rooms are designed as part of the hoistway. They provide a fire-resistant area
that will house the required equipment to operate the elevator car, such as hoisting
machinery, controls, hydraulic oil and pumps. The area must be air-conditioned to control
the temperature. If the machine room is located in a penthouse, the floor must be strong
enough to hold the dead weight of the machinery and accessories plus the live weight of
the maintenance crew. With new technology; traction motors that boast gearless units;
permanent magnet drive units that are more efficient and compact and electronic
processors that replace the mechanical relays, traction elevators can now be built without
a dedicated machine room.
https://fml.osu.edu/fs/our-services/elevators-and-vertical-transportation/
Car Safeties
Car safeties are a device designed to stop movement of the car and hold it in position.
When the car exceeds a safe speed, it is automatically activated by applying brake shoes
against the rails, stopping the car and switching off the power to the motor.
https://www.britannica.com/technology/elevator-vertical-transport
Roping
Elevator cars must be suspended from a minimum of three hoisting ropes. This wire rope
is made of steel strands laid helically around a hemp core and each strand is made of
steel wires helically wrapped around a steel core. The roping affects the performance of
the traction type elevator.
Elevator Code Standard
Codes are established by the American National Standard Safety Code for Elevators,
Dumbwaiters, Escalators and Moving Walks, ANSI/ASME A17.1 and local building codes.
Standard sizes and shapes for elevators are determined by the National Elevator
Industries, Inc. (NEII).
ELEVATOR TYPES
There are passenger elevators, freight elevators and hospital elevators.
1. PASSENGER ELEVATORS
Passenger elevators are designed to transport people from one floor of a building to
another. Freight elevators carry materials from one floor to another, can be large enough
to transport heavy equipment such as cars, and fully loaded trucks and trailers.
https://www.asgelevators.com/commercial-passenger-elevators/
2. HOSPITAL ELEVATORS
Hospital elevators are found in medical facilities. These elevators are equipped with a
“Code Blue” service for emergencies.
https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/hospital-elevator-11571143362.html
3. ELECTRIC TRACTION ELEVATORS
Electric elevators are operated by traction machines. This is an electric motor connected
to a driving sheave. Gear-driven traction machines provide slower rise speeds and
gearless direct drive machines provide high riser speeds. When power is lost in an electric
traction elevator system, all elevators come to a halt and one by one, each car returns to
the ground floor, opens its doors and shuts itself down.
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/371054456773772669/
4. GEARED TRACTION ELEVATORS
Geared traction machines are driven by AC (alternating current) or DC (direct current)

electric motors that use worm gears to control movement of the car. This is achieved by
rolling steel hoist cables over a drive sheave (gearbox) that is attached to a high-speed
motor. Typical riser speeds range from 350 to 500 ft/min for passenger elevators and 50
to 200 ft/min for freight elevators.
https://www.tradeindia.com/manufacturers/geared-traction-elevator.html
5. GEARLESS TRACTION ELEVATORS
Gearless traction elevators are low speed, high torque motors that are driven by AC or
DC motors. With gearless traction machines, the drive sheave is directly attached to the
end of the motor. They can reach speeds up to 2000 ft/min or higher but typically range
from 500 to 1200 ft/min. A brake is mounted between the drive sheave and motor to hold
the elevator. In each case, geared or gearless, cables are attached to a hitch plate on top
of the elevator car and then looped over the drive sheave to a counterweight attached to
the other end of the cables. The counterweights are located in the hoistway on a separate
rail system that works the opposite direction that the car is driven. This counterweight is
equal to the weight of the elevator car and 40-50% of the load capacity of the elevator.
http://www.electrical-knowhow.com/2012/04/elevators-types-and-classification-part.htm
6. HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS
Hydraulic elevators are used for low-rise situations because the pressure cylinder must
be sunk into the ground a distance equal to the length of the cylinder. The car is mounted
on top of the hydraulic pressure cylinder and is forced to rise as hydraulic oil is pumped
under pressure to the bottom of the piston. The car lowers when oil is released from the
pressure cylinder into a tank until needed again. Hydraulic elevators are used to transport
freight and people, are cheaper than electric and the mechanism is simpler.
https://www.base-4.com/electric-mrl-vs-hydraulic-2/
ESCALATORS
http://www.al-sus.com.sg/products/escalators/
Escalators are inclined, continuous moving stairs and handrails that transport people from
one floor to another. They are used where elevators may be impractical but use of
stairways may be too slow for the anticipated crowd. Common places they are found are
in airports, arenas, convention centers, department stores, hotels, shopping malls, transit
systems, and public buildings.
Escalators have little or no waiting interval, can be used to guide people toward exhibition
areas, main entrances or exits and be waterproofed for outdoor use. Escalators can be
used as a required means of egress if they meet all requirements for emergency egress
stairways, such as providing smoke and fire protection and a sprinkler system. Escalators
can move many more people faster than elevators, traveling at typical speeds of 90-100
ft/min.
Escalators are powered with constant-speed alternating current motors. Maximum

inclination of an escalator, from a horizontal surface, is 30 degrees, with a standard rise
up to approximately 60 feet. Escalator widths are typically 24, 32 and 40 inches wide.
Newer escalators have single pieces of aluminum or steel steps that move on a system
of tracks in a continuous loop attached to a welded steel truss structural frame.
COMPONENTS OF AN ESCALATOR
Landing platforms - where the gears and curved sections of the tracks are kept truss- a
hollow metal structure that is attached to the top and bottom landings by supports two
tracks- built into the truss to guide the stop chain stops handrails There are three typical
configurations:
a. Parallel- up and down escalators side by side or close to each other

b. Crisscross- stacked and all going in the same direction
c. Multiple parallel-two or more together that travel in one direction next to one
or more traveling in the opposite direction
REGULATION
The American National Standard Safety Code for Elevators, Dumbwaiters and
Escalators, ANSI/ASME A17.1 and the Life Safety Code of the National Fire Protection
Association regulate escalator standards.
Moving Walks and Ramps
Moving walks are slow moving, approximately 1.5 mph, or high speed, approximately 9-
12 mph, horizontal conveyor belts designed to move people. Moving ramps have a
maximum incline of 12 degrees and may move people up or down an inclined area. They
may be connected together or used individually. Both come in varying widths and are
capable of going very long distances. The sides of the moving walks and ramps usually
have balustrades covered with a moving handrail going at the same speed as the walk or
ramp. The steel structural system supports the moving walk or ramp that is electrically
driven.
Moving walks and ramps are built in two styles:
a. Pallet type-a continuous set of flat metal plates joined together; may
or may not have rubber added for better traction
b. Moving belt- built with mesh metal belts or rubber walking surface
over metal rollers.
LIFTS
https://access-lifts.co.uk/gallery/commercial-buildings-lifts-gallery/commercial-buildings-gallery/
Wheelchair lifts are used to move a wheelchair and its passenger from one level to
another. One type of lift is a steel platform with steel sides, entry and exit gates. The
platform is covered with a rubber skid-proof surface and is operated by an electric motor
that is controlled by the passenger. The wheelchair lift does not operate until all gates are
secure and the wheelchair and its passenger are in place. These lifts can be installed in
vans, buses and other vehicles of transportation. A wheelchair stair lift moves the
wheelchair and its passenger up or down stairs on a platform with side closures that are
attached to a steel rail system, that is fastened to the wall or the stair treads. This system
can transport up or down a multilevel straight stair. For stairs with turns, two lifts are
required.
Another type of stair lift is for people who have difficulty climbing stairs. This lift has a
chair that runs along a steel or extruded aluminum rail that is mounted to the wall or the
stair treads. This stair lift is capable of moving around corners and across landings,
allowing the passenger to disembark safely away from the top of the stairs. Controls are
usually located on the arm of the chair and many have radio frequency or infrared remote
controllers.
Chairlifts are a type of aerial lift that consists of a continuous steel cable loop strung
between two terminals. The cable continuously circulates between the terminals and
intermediate towers allowing the chairs to move in opposite directions. Chairlifts are
commonly used at ski resorts, amusement parks, tourist attractions and in urban
transport.
FACILITY CHUTES
A facility chute is a vertical or inclined passage through which objects can be passed
through by means of gravity. Chutes are common in older high-rise residential and
commercial buildings. This is to allow rapid transport of trash, laundry, mail, or
construction debris from upper floors to the exterior of the building, the entry floor or the
basement area.
https://ryson.com/news/ryson-conveyor-replaces-gravity-spiral-at-distribution-center/
SHUTTLE TRANSIT
Shuttle transit systems are fast, efficient means of horizontal transportation where the
distance between points are impractical to walk. A few usages for shuttles are between
airport terminals, remote parking areas and office and retail complexes. Shuttle transit
systems operate much like elevators, only horizontally rather than vertically. Several cars
operate within the same system, allowing passengers to board cars as needed. They use
standard gearless traction machine drives and cable equipment to operate. The steel
cable is attached to the side of the shuttle car. A steel guide and power rails are adjacent
to the running surface where the vertical load is supported by air-cushioned pads on the
bottom of the car and the guideway. The guideway running surface can be a single or
double lane track.
CONVEYORS
https://neoconveyors.wordpress.com/tag/heavy-duty-conveyors/
Several types of conveyor and pneumatic tube systems are used to move materials within
commercial buildings. A conveyor system moves materials from one place to another
within the building. They allow quick and efficient transportation for most materials that
make them popular in the packaging and material handling industries. Conveyor systems
are commonly used in many industries to move items of all sizes, shapes and weights.
They include a belt, rollers and segmented moving surfaces. Some types of conveyor
systems are:
 Gravity Roller Conveyor

 Gravity Skatewheel Conveyor
 Belt Conveyor
 Wire Mesh
 Plastic Belt
 Belt Driven Line Roller
 Line Shaft Roller Conveyor
 Chain Conveyor
 Screw Conveyor
PNEUMATIC TUBES
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OPhILg-G7J8
Pneumatic tubes use compressed air or a vacuum system to transport small items
through a complex of tubes. Although very popular at one time, modern methods of
transportation have replaced many. Still using this method are banks, hospitals,
pharmacies, factories, and larger stores and restaurants that transport money from the
cash registers, to a safe in a remote area of the building. Pneumatic tube systems are
computerized to serve many purposes. They transport tube-like carriers, typically 3-3/4
inches to 5-3/4 inches in diameter and 15-16 inches long. The carriers move through a
system of piping and are controlled by a computerized control center. It can be a single
zone route or have multiple zones, depending on its usage.
Another pneumatic system used in hospitals and hotels is larger and used to transport
linens and/or trash. These are an improvement over gravity fed chutes that may become
clogged and have to be cleaned out. With a pneumatic tube system, linens or trash can
be placed in bags sized to fit through the tube.
CRANES AND HOISTS
https://thundercranes.com/offshore-cranes/stiff-leg-cranes/
Cranes and hoists are lifting machines used to move heavy materials from one place to
another. There are many types of cranes and hoists designed to do specific jobs. Cranes
and hoists are generally supported by the structural frame of the building so it becomes
an important part of the design. Other types have an independent structural system and
are much more versatile because they can be moved from one side to another.
An overhead crane is attached to two fixed overhead tracks. The crane bridge can move
back and forth along the top of the track, accessing materials and carrying them to
another site along the tracks. The hoist is what lifts the materials using an electric motor
and winch that is attached to a trolley that moves along the crane bridge. Monorails have
the hoist slung low, below a single steel track. The electric hoist is attached to a trolley
that travels along the bottom flange of the single track that is attached to the buildings
structural frame. The operator of these crane types is usually on the floor using a control
to move the materials.
Another type of crane is the gantry crane. There is also a powered mobile gantry crane
available in two-wheel or four-wheel drive. A typical crane is capable of lifting several
hundred ton at one time. The gantry crane has an overhead track and a trolley that runs
on a steel track or steel web truss. This track or truss is attached to legs that have wheels
and run across the top of rails that are attached structurally to the building frame or the
foundation. Gantry cranes are operated with controls located in an operator cab mounted
to one of the structural steel legs.
Materials
references.
Activity
1. Enumerate and differentiate the conveying systems used in buildings.

2. What are the components of an elevator? Discuss the function of each
component.
3. Identify the other types of conveyor systems used in buildings and describe each
type of system.
4. Enumerate and differentiate the types of elevators.
Learning Assessment
building conveying
systems used in
transporting people and
goods.
I was able to describe
the building conveying
systems used in
transporting people and
goods.
functions of the different
building conveying
systems.
the components of an
elevator.
function of the
components of an
elevator.
types of conveyor
sysytems.
the types of elevators.

______________________________________ __________________
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CE10-Engineering Utilities 2

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COLEGIO DE SEBASTIAN - PAMPANGA

City of San Fernando, Pampanga

Prepared by: Jenilyn A. Aquino

 Learning Objectives – This contains the desired learning

Rubric to be used in the Evaluation of Students’ Outputs in Lecture

Week 3 Week 6 Week 11 Week 14

Week 4 Week 5 Week 12 Week 13

Requirements and Outputs:

 3 Major Exams (Prelims, Midterms and Finals) for Lecture

U nlocking your P otentials

Welcome to your guide through Numerical Solutions to CE Problems. We are happy at

1. Read and demonstrated understanding on the elements of plumbing.

In this lesson, you are tasked to do the following:

1. Read the topics presented in the Lesson Summary.

 The Demand of Water

The system constitutes the following:

3. Master plumber- a person technically and legally qualified and licensed to

We sometimes tend to think of water as an inexhaustible natural resource.

THE DEMAND OF WATER

Laundry Generally clean and wholesome, soft and

WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS AND THEIR CORRECTION

PROBLEM CAUSE EFFECT CORRECTION

2. Hardness Presence of Clogging of pipes. Introduction of water

3. Turbidity Silt or suspended Discoloration and Filtration

THE METROPOLITAN CEBU WATER DISTRICT (MCWD)

MCWD has two sources or its water supply:

SURFACE WATER BASIC TREATMENT PROCESS EMPLOYED BY MCWD

The Buhisan Dam (Tisa Filtration)

I. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the relevance of engineering utilities in the civil engineering

I. How well did I do?

I was able to identify and

I was able to state and

II. Share Your Thoughts

Name: Program, Year and Section:

Send output on or before ________________ to: jenilynaquino1987@gmail.com.

1. Read and demonstrated understanding on the Basic Principles Governing the

In this lesson, you are tasked to do the following:

1. Read the topics presented in the Lesson Summary.

1. Basic Principles Governing the National Plumbing Code

THE PLUMBING CODE

THE BASIC PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE NATIONAL PLUMBING CODE

7. Plumbing fixtures shall be made of smooth non-absorbent material, free from

8. The drainage system shall be designed, constructed and maintained to safeguard

9. All piping shall be of durable NAMPAP-approved materials, free from defective

18. Where a plumbing drainage system may be subject to backflow of sewage,

19. Plumbing systems shall be maintained in serviceable condition by Registered

MASTER PLUMBER’S CODE OF ETHICS

A registered master plumber shall maintain a professional bearing consistent with

3. Underbid another Registered Master Plumber by reducing his/ her professional

4. Take the advantage of a salaried government position to compete unfairly with

6. Injure falsely or maliciously, directly or indirectly, the reputation of another

I. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the importance of having a code of ethics in every profession?

I. How well did I do?

II. Share Your Thoughts

Name: Program, Year and Section:

Send output on or before ________________ to: jenilynaquino1987@gmail.com.

1. Identified the common types of plumbing fixtures used in residences.

In this lesson, you are tasked to do the following:

1. Read the topics presented in the Lesson Summary.

 Common Types of Plumbing Fixtures Used in Residences

2. Other Plumbing Fixtures