UNIT 7 CONFLICT OVER RESOURCES

Structure
7.1 Introduction
Aims and Objectives
7.2 Type of Natural Resources
7.3 The Role of Natural Resources and the Environment in Fueling Conflict
7.3.1 The Conflicts
7.3.2 Efforts for Resolutions

7.4 Factors Leading to Resource Conflict

7.5 Resolving Resource Conflicts
7.6 Summary
7.7 Terminal Questions
Suggested Readings

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Historically, many wars have been fought over the possession or control of vital resources,
viz., water, arable land, gold and silver, diamonds, copper, petroleum etc. Conflict over
resources figured prominently in the inter-imperial wars of the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th
centuries, and laid the groundwork for World War I. Resource conflict was less prominent
during the Cold War period, when ideological disputes prevailed, but has become more
prominent in the Post-Cold War era. The current resurgence of conflict over resources is
nothing more than a return to past practice, when such disputes were a common feature
of the international landscape. However, it is also evident that resource conflict is
becoming more frequent and more pronounced in some areas as the demand for certain
materials comes to exceed the available supply. For example, an acute shortage of arable
land and fresh water seems to have been a significant factor in several conflicts, including
those in Chiapas, Rwanda, and Zimbabwe. The same conditions appear to be developing
in other areas of scarcity.
Competition over the control of valuable oil supplies and pipeline routes has emerged as
a particularly acute source of conflict in the 21st century. With the demand for oil growing
and many older sources of supply (such as those in the United States, Mexico, and
China) in decline, the pressure on remaining supplies, notably those in the Persian Gulf
area, the Caspian Sea basin, South America, and Africa is growing ever more intense. To
complicate matters, many of the major producing fields and pipelines are located in or
near areas of instability or have come under attack from guerrillas and terrorists. Many
analysts also believe that competition for oil was a factor in the 1991 Persian Gulf conflict
and the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq.
74 Conflicts and Peace : Global Perspectives

Aims and Objectives

After going through this unit, you should be able to understand:
 the importance of resources and its sustainability;
 the natural resources and its importance for the societies;
 role of natural resources towards conflict;
 factors that lead to resources conflict;
 relation between ecology and resources conflict; and
 ways of resolving resources conflict.

7.2 TYPE OF NATURAL RESOURCES

The World Bank defines natural resources as “materials that occur in nature and are
essential or useful to humans, such as water, air, land, forests, fish and wildlife, topsoil,
and minerals.” These resources can be classified as renewable or non-renewable. In most
cases, renewable resources such as cropland, forests, and water can be replenished over
time by natural processes and if not overused are indefinitely sustainable. Non-renewable
resources such as diamonds, minerals, and oil are found in finite quantities, and their value
increases as supplies dwindle. A nation’s access to natural resources often determines its
wealth and status in the world economic system. Some of the resources which sustain
community, society and States are analysed in the succeeding paragraphs.
Water
Water is a necessity of life, used for drinking, washing, agriculture, and industrial
requirement. Since water covers nearly three fourths of the globe, it may seem to be in
abundance, but in fact portable water can be very scarce. Drought affects almost every
continent and appears to be growing worse. Water also becomes scarce through pollution
or restricted access. According to the United Nations, 1.1 billion people live without clean
drinking water, and 3,900 children die every day from water-borne diseases. As the
global population continues to rise, some predict a 40–50 per cent increase within the
next 50 years water stress (when the demand for good quality water exceeds the supply)
will become even more problem. Water scarcity causes and sustains conflict in many parts
of the globe; violent conflicts over water resources have broken out in countries as
diverse as China (2000), Ethiopia (2006), India (2004), Kenya (2005), and Yemen
(1999). In the Darfur region of Sudan, for example, much of the unrest is due to water
shortages. Further bodies of water such as oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers can also be
linked to conflict due to their roles in transportation, development, and culture. A
population’s dependence on sources of income within bodies of water, such as fisheries
and offshore oil fields, can lead to conflict. In addition, neither fish nor water follow
country borders, nor both must often be shared among countries. Disputes over fishing led
to the “Cold Wars” between Britain and Iceland in the 1950s and 1970s, while natural
resources lie at the heart of the contested claims in the South China Sea. More than 260
river basins, for example, are shared by two or more countries mostly without adequate
legal arrangements.
Conflict over Resources 75

Land
Because of population growth and environmental degradation, land that can be used for
personal, industrial, or agricultural purposes is becoming increasingly scarce. Possession of
land result in access to many other resources, such as minerals, timber, and animals, and
land therefore often holds high economic value. In addition, communities often have strong
emotional and symbolic attachments to land and the resources on it. It is easy to see why
competition for control of valuable land, including issues of government authority and
regulation, can cause or sustain conflict. Traditionally, most wars have been fought over
control of land (along with other issues); for example, Ecuador and Peru have fought
several wars over their disputed border. Besides, violent conflicts over land has occurred
inching, East Timor, Kosovo, Rwanda, and Tajikistan, in the recent past.
Timber
Timber functions primarily as a source of income. As is the case with water, timber is an
in caressingly scarce resource. Although forests cover 30 per cent of the world’s land
area, 46 per cent of the old growth forests have already been destroyed. Population
growth and industrialisation are destroying rainforests and causing environmental degradation.
As a commodity that is easily accessible, easy to transport, versatile, lucrative, and
necessary for reconstruction and development, timber can play an important role in all
stages of peace and conflict. Examples of conflict over timber can be found in Burma,
Cambodia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Liberia.
Oil and Gas
The two primary sources of fuel are oil (petroleum), a flammable liquid that can be
refined into gasoline and natural gas, a combustible gas used for fuel and lighting. Fuel
scarcity, or at least access to fuel, is one of the greatest concerns for developing and
developed countries, given their dependence on energy sources. With a greater global rate
of industrialisation, many countries have invested in and paid particular attention to
alternative types of energy such as nuclear, electrical, wind, and solar energy. The U.S.
Department of Energy estimates that by 2020, two thirds of the world’s known petroleum
reserves will be consumed. Expert also opinion, that easily accessible oil, especially in
Saudi Arabia, is rapidly disappearing and that the world will soon face the end of the oil
era. Moreover, many of the world’s largest petroleum reserves are located in areas
suffering from political instability or conflict, such as Iran, Iraq, Nigeria, Venezuela, and
Sudan. Thus the value and demand for fuel, especially petroleum, allows conflicts in these
areas to have an impact on the global economy. On the other hand, the developed
world’s increasing demand for oil, and its search for “supply security,” can exacerbate
existing conflicts.
Minerals
Minerals are naturally occurring substances obtained usually from the ground. According
to the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), “valuable minerals
become conflict minerals when their control, exploitation, trade, taxation or protection
contributes to, or benefits from, armed conflict.” Conflict minerals have varied commodity
values and occur in many geographical locations: for example, diamonds in Western
Africa, amber in Russia, and gold in Indonesia. While minerals such as gold and diamonds
hold significant value as gems, all minerals generate revenue and power for governments,
rebel groups, or whoever owns the land or has the ability legally or illegally to extract
76 Conflicts and Peace : Global Perspectives

them. Furthermore, conflicts over minerals do not necessarily stay within boundaries.
Neighbouring countries sometimes compete for resource wealth and thus exacerbate
conflict or prevent peace building. Diamonds are the conflict minerals that have received
the most attention. They have been used by several rebels groups in Africa as a source
of income, including groups in Angola and Sierra Leone. They are easy to steal and easy
to move to market and difficult to trace. Other examples of conflict minerals include colt
an (tantalite, used in cell phones, computers, and game consoles) in the Democratic
Republic of Congo and copper in Papua New Guinea.

7.3 THE ROLE OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND THE

ENVIRONMENT IN FUELING CONFLICT
The relationship between natural resources, the environment and conflict is multi-dimensional
and complex. By natural resources we mean sources of wealth that occur in a natural
state such as timber, water, land, wildlife, minerals, metals, stones, and hydrocarbons. By
environment we mean the physical conditions that affect natural resources (climate,
geology, hazards) and the ecosystem services that sustain them. Many countries currently
face challenges related to the use of natural resources, and to the allocation of natural
wealth. In some cases, these challenges have led to internal, occasionally violent, tensions.
Conflicts over natural resources appear to fall into two broad categories:
i) Conflicts over the fair apportioning of wealth from extractive resources, such as
minerals, metals, stones, hydrocarbons and timber, which stem primarily from a failure
of national governance; and
ii) Conflicts over the direct use of land, forestry, water and wildlife resources, which are
caused by physical scarcity when local demand for resources exceeds supply. When
certain groups are prevented sufficient access, governance and distribution factors can
be an additional cause.
Environmental factors are rarely, if ever, the sole cause of conflict – ideology, ethnicity,
poor economic conditions, rapid regime change, low levels of international trade, and
conflict in neighbouring countries are all important factors. However, the exploitation of
natural resource and related environmental degradation can be significant drivers of
conflict, increasing the severity and duration of violence and complicating its resolution.
Three principal pathways connecting environment, natural resources, and conflict include:
i) Contributing to the outbreak of conflict: Attempts to control or gain access to
scarce or extractive natural resources can contribute to the outbreak of conflict;
ii) Financing and sustaining conflict: Once a conflict has broken out, extractive
resources may be exploited to finance arms and armies, or become a strategic
consideration in gaining territory. In such cases, the duration of the conflict is
extended due to the new sources of financing or in an effort to gain control over a
resource rich territory.
iii) Spoiling the prospects for peace: The prospect of peace may be undermined by
individuals or factions that will lose access to revenues gained from resource
exploitation.
In such cases, they may actively undermine peace processes in order to benefit from
conflict conditions.
Conflict over Resources 77

7.3.1 The Conflicts

The last twenty years has witnessed seventeen intra-state conflicts fuelled by the trade in
natural resources. Resources such as diamonds, timber, minerals and cocoa have been
exploited by armed groups in several countries, including Angola, Cambodia, the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Liberia and Sierra Leone, thereby contributing to conflict and
undermining peace efforts. The existence of easily captured and exploited natural resources
not only makes insurgency economically feasible (and, therefore, war more likely); it may
also alter the dynamics of conflict itself, as natural resource revenues allow combatants to
fight longer and encourage them to orient their activities towards gaining tangible assets
like diamond mines. Thus, revenues and riches can alter the mindset of combatants,
turning war and insurgency from a purely political activity to an economic one, with
conflicts becoming less about grievance and more about greed.
In other cases, local-level conflict over natural resources occurs in stressed or degraded
environments, where demand for scarce resources, such as land and water, exceeds
available supplies. This is often compounded by demographic pressures and disasters such
as drought. Unless local institutions or practices can mitigate these threats, scarcity
pressures can result in forced migration or violent conflict. In Darfur, for example, the
steady loss of fertile land, coupled with rapidly increasing human and livestock populations,
is one of several specific stresses that have driven the region into conflict. Worldwide,
demographic pressure and urbanization, inequitable access to and shortage of land, and
resource depletion are widely predicted to worsen in the coming decades, with profound
effects on the stability of both rural and urban settings. With 75 million people added to
the planet annually, the population of the 50 least-developing countries is expected to
more than double by 2050. Already, one out of seven people on the planet live in urban
slums, and one out of three live on USD $2 or less per day.
Finally, climate change is increasingly seen as a threat to international security. Analysts
and advocates argue that by redrawing the maps of water availability, food security, and
disease.
Prevalent coastal boundaries, population distribution, climate change could exacerbate
existing tensions and trigger new conflicts. The spring 2008 food crisis manifests how the
convergence of various global trends dramatically affects the most vulnerable groups and
how this can also lead to instability in various locations around the globe, businesses and
their affiliates can recognise illicit economies and require certification of legal import,
export, and trade. Finally, NGOs are often present in post-conflict situations to deliver
humanitarian relief, help resettle refugees and internally displaced persons who have often
been forcefully removed from resource rich areas, and monitor human rights violations.
International negotiations and agreements have provided ways to mediate natural resource
conflicts and build peace. North and South Korea have been engaged in talks to
negotiate a joint fishing area to prevent dangerous military standoffs that regularly occur
on disputed waters on the western sea border, which was not clearly divided at the end
of the Korean War conflict. Due to the significant economic impact of marine activities
such as fishing and oil extraction, oceans and their boundaries can be a cause of conflict
even among developed nations. For example, the dispute over the Kuril Islands between
Japan and Russia has prevented the countries from signing a peace treaty to formally end
World War II, and this dispute hinders their political and trade relations.
78 Conflicts and Peace : Global Perspectives

7.3.2 Efforts for Resolutions

Environmental organisations at all levels attempt to coordinate international laws and
regulations on exclusive economic zones (EEZ), boundaries in international waters, fisheries
management, and conservation and sustainability efforts, among other issues. Such efforts
attempt to establish agreement over use of oceans to prevent conflict, environmental
degradation, and other unsustainable outcomes. Although marine competition does sometimes
lead to conflict, the existence of strong standards often allows for quick dispute resolution
and effective resource management. Similarly, respect for international law allows for the
existence and safety of important waterways such as the Strait of Hormuz in the Persian
Gulf, through which 25–40 per cent of the world’s petroleum output passes each day.
Another example of trying to address natural resource issues that extend past boundaries
is the allocation of international water resources. Both Israelis and Arabs have used the
water from the Jordan River basin for generations. The Jordan River basin is an
international watercourse that covers four states and one occupied territory: Lebanon,
Syria, Israel, Jordan, and the West Bank and Gaza. The river and its tributaries are an
essential source of water to these states in the arid Middle East region. Many experts
believe that if the natural resources of water could be managed in a comprehensive,
cooperative nature it would significantly aid the process of finding a sustainable peaceful
solution to the conflict as a whole. Over the last century, numerous efforts have been
made through negotiations to establish cooperative water-management agreements. However,
the on-going political conflicts and other obstacles of historical and cultural context have
impeded negotiations for a comprehensive water agreement. After the Oslo Accords were
signed in 1993, the Palestinians and Israelis established the Joint Water Committee
(JWC), a body charged with approving every new water and sewage project in the West
Bank. All its decisions are made by consensus, but no mechanism was established to
settle disputes where a consensus cannot be reached. In effect, Israel is able to veto any
request by the Palestinians to drill a new well or gain additional access to the aquifers.
On the other hand, the Joint Water Committee has provided assistance when existing
water sources were in need of repairs or spare parts. On occasion Israel has provided
needed water when West Bank sources have run low but Israel has retained effective
control over almost all sources of water in the West Bank. Prevalence, coastal boundaries,
population distributions, climate change could exacerbate existing tensions and trigger new
conflicts. The spring 2008 food crisis manifests now the convergence of various global
trends dramatically affects the most vulnerable groups, and how this can also lead to
instability in various locations around the globe.

7.4 FACTORS LEADING TO RESOURCE CONFLICT

Several factors that are likely to increase the frequency and intensity of resource conflict
in the 21st Century can be deliberated as under:
 Economic Globalisation: The growing economy and expansion of trade is having an
effect on many worldwide phenomena, including the demand for and consumption of
basic resources. Globalisation increases the demand for resources in several ways,
most notably through the spread and acceleration of industrialisation. As nations
become industrialised, their need for resources, especially energy, timber, and minerals
grows substantially. Most manufacturing processes require large supplies of energy
plus a wide range of raw materials. With globalisation, therefore, there is a substantial
increase in the consumption of these materials by the fast progressing countries. For
Conflict over Resources 79

example, the consumption of energy by the developing countries is rising by 3.7 per
cent per year; nearly three times the rate for the older industrialised countries. This
means that the competition for access to energy supplies (and other vital materials)
will grow ever more intense in the years ahead.
 Unsustainable Consumption: Although the global stocks of most vital materials are
sufficient for current requirements, the consumption of many of them is growing at
much rapid pace that serious scarcities could arise in the years ahead. This is
especially true for oil and water, two of the world’s most vital resources. The earth
possesses only a certain amount of conventional petroleum, perhaps 2,500 billion
barrels and, over the past 140 years, approximately one-third of this amount has
been consumed. Since the global consumption of oil is rising so quickly, the next
one-third is likely to be consumed by 2020. At this point, it will prove very difficult
to satisfy the global demand for oil unless vast new reserves are found or new more
fuel-efficient vehicles enter widespread use. Worldwide water use is also growing at
an unsustainable rate as more and more people acquire water-intensive devices like
dishwashers and indoor showers as also use more conservation methods. As the
available supply of these and other vital materials dwindle, the competition for access
to remaining resources will surely increase.
 Population Growth: As per estimates the world’s human population is expected to
grow by about three billion people by 2050 (rising from 6.2 billion people in 2002
to about 9.3 billion in 2050). Obviously, all of these additional humans will require
food, shelter, clothing, energy, and other necessities. Severe scarcities of critical
materials viz., water and arable land have already emerged in parts of Africa, Asia,
and Latin America where population rates are especially high. This could lead to
intense competition for access to these resources in the years ahead. In particular, it
could provoke conflict over the distribution of shared water resources in such areas
as the Nile and Jordan River basins, where water is already scarce and the
combined population is expected to triple over the next 50 years.
 Economic Warfare: Conflict over resources often occurs in poor and divided
countries that possess only one or two major sources of wealth, such as diamonds,
copper, or old-growth timber. In these countries, whoever exercises control over
these resources has a chance of accumulating significant wealth, while everyone else
is usually destined to live in poverty. In well-regulated states, these resources are
controlled by the government and the proceeds from their exploitation are divided
reasonably fairly among the population at large. In dysfunctional or failed states,
however, various factions or warlords are likely to fight over these critical sources of
wealth. These factions may exploit ethnic or religious animosities in order to recruit
supporters for the endeavours, but it is the pursuit of resource wealth and not the
legacy of ethnic hatred that drives these conflicts. This was true, for conflicts in
Angola and Sierra Leone, which were largely driven by a struggle over lucrative
diamond fields. It is the combination of all these factors, more than anything else that
is contributing to the growing intensity of global resource competition.

7.5 RESOLVING RESOURCE CONFLICTS

Despite the woes highlighted by the violence surrounding competition for natural resources
such as conflict diamonds, natural resources can play a positive role in conflict resolution.
80 Conflicts and Peace : Global Perspectives

Indicators of successful management of natural resources that have contributed to peace

include establishment of standards and agreements and efforts at cooperation, co-
management, and conservation. Numerous agreements are already in place relating to
water, oil and gas as well as examples of benefit sharing concerning timber. Such
cooperative actions by parties in conflict can be stepping-stones to continued diplomatic
engagement that is necessary to alleviate conflict and build peace.
Many actors and organisations can play a vital role in shaping natural resource conflict
management as well as handling post-conflict situations. International demand drives the
value of many natural resources, and International organisations, foreign investors, and
trade-partner countries can influence the local market and governance. In conflict situations,
cooperation from these key actors is necessary for the alleviation of improper natural
resource use that can escalate and sustain conflict. These organisations/actors can help in
negotiations and agreements, suggests solutions such as eco-parks or sustainable
development and conservation mechanisms, pushed for adherence to international standards,
and provide the necessary aid and economic incentives to make changes a possibility and
help resolve conflicts. The United Nations, for example, passes resolutions and organises
arms embargos or sanctions to help the natural resource business curb illicit economies
and move toward transparency. UN peacekeepers and outside security forces can
establish peaceful zones and barriers around disputed land, pipelines, oil fields, and other
resource-related structures, to help prevent the return of violence. International financial
institutions such as the World Bank Group can help with advice on revenue transparency
and management, economic stability, and financing resource-driven debts. Some nations
have tried to dePoliticise natural resources through a co-management approach that
involves the local community, the government, and other stakeholders in the management
of the resource in question. Guatemala has a long history of political conflict over the
issue of land ownership. Near the Guatemalan border with Mexico, approximately 50 per
cent of the forest cover has been lost over the past thirty years; commercial logging, cattle
ranching, oil exploration, illegal drug plantings, roads, and agriculture have brought
substantial deforestation. Guatemala chose the biosphere-reserve model to address the
environmental conflict that was exacerbated by the years of political conflict the country
had experienced. The biosphere-reserve model seeks to solve environmental degradation
and poverty in developing countries by balancing environmental protection with the needs
of a growing population that relies heavily on natural resources for subsistence. The
biosphere-reserve model dePoliticises the local and regional landscapes, encouraging an
institutional framework that will hold the indigenous farmers responsible for degradation
and allow for conservation without perpetuating poverty in Guatemala. The project seeks
the collaboration of the Guatemalan government, NGOs, international aid partners, and the
local population including the indigenous people and migrants living in the region. The
reserve encompasses a vast forest that carries many vital natural resources but also carries
a rich cultural and ecological history as the home to the Maya civilisation. Another
example of collaboration is the eco-park, which can be a means through which countries
that have past and present conflicts can cooperate. After being engaged in boundary
disputes over the Cordillera del Condor region for more than one hundred and fifty years,
Peru and Ecuador negotiated a peace treaty that set a boundary and established a plan
to designate the area as a peace park. Biosphere reserves and eco-parks are innovative
solutions to deal with territory-based domestic and international conflicts that address
natural resource issues.
Businesses and their affiliates can recognise illicit economies and require certification of
Conflict over Resources 81

legal import, export, and trade. Finally, NGOs are often present in post-conflict situations
to deliver humanitarian relief, help resettle refugees and internally displaced persons who
have often been forcefully removed from resource rich areas, and monitor human rights
violations. International negotiations and agreements have provided ways to mediate
natural resource conflicts and build peace. North and South Korea have been engaged
in talks to negotiate a joint fishing area to prevent dangerous military standoffs that
regularly occur on disputed waters on the western sea border, which was not clearly
divided at the end of the Korean War conflict. Due to the significant economic impact
of marine activities such as fishing and oil extraction, oceans and their boundaries can be
a cause of conflict even among developed nations. For example, the dispute over the
Kuril Islands between Japan and Russia has prevented the countries from signing a peace
treaty to formally end World War II, and this dispute hinders their political and trade
relations.

7.6 SUMMARY
Growing demand for natural resources and the increasing complexity of conflicts make
conflict management and resolution more difficult; however, in a world of globalisation,
there is also more incentive for states and communities to work together to establish
peace. Since natural resources are necessary for life and growth, it is not surprising that
resource scarcity, environmental degradation, and unsustainable consumption sometimes
contribute to or cause violent conflicts. Nonetheless, there are ways to address natural
resource issues that will prevent, manage, or resolve such conflicts. We have described
a few cases in which natural resources have had roles in sustaining or managing violent
conflicts.
Resource wars have occurred in the past, are occurring now, and will likely continue in
the future. They may even become more frequent in the coming years as the demand for
resources spikes while the supply diminishes. Conflicts in which resources play a role
present unique challenges and opportunities for those interested in preventing the outbreak
of violence in these situations. First of all, the effective prevention of violent conflicts
requires that there is some type of warning, and resource scarcity can become an
indicator, that when interpreted historically and contextually, can help predict the possible
outbreak of violent conflict.
Secondly, resources should be managed in order to help prevent the outbreak of violent
conflict and to prevent the reoccurrence of more violence in those conflicts which have
been previously resolved. In the first case, dual policies aimed at fair and equitable
resource sharing plus managing resources in a manner that alleviates poverty may be most
effective for preventing the outbreak of violent conflict. In the second case, violent conflict
may be prevented if the peace agreement can address natural resource management by
building mechanisms for this into the agreement.

7.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) Identify objects that are produced from natural resources and name the natural
resources.
2) How should natural resources be distributed or controlled? Should the proceeds and
control of natural resources be distributed equitably? If so, how would one determine
if something is equitable?
82 Conflicts and Peace : Global Perspectives

3) What roles do natural resources play in conflict?

4) Why are some conflicts over resources resolved more easily than others?
5) Do resources play a different role in internal conflicts than in conflicts that cross
borders?
6) Which works better: sole ownership of natural resources, or joint arrangements that
share benefits?

SUGGESTED READINGS
Paul Collier, (2003) “The Market for Civil War”, Foreign Policy, No. 136.
“Meeting Basic Needs”, World Water Assessment Programme Report, http://
www.unesco.org/water/wwap/facts_figures/basic_needs.shtml.
“Drought’s Growing Reach: NCAR Study Points to Global Warming as Key Factor”,
National Centre for Atmospheric Research, http://www.ucar.edu/ news/releases /2005/
drought_research.shtml,2005.
“Water Crisis”, World Water Council, http:// www. worldwatercouncil.org /index.php?id=25.
UN News Centre, “From Water Wars to Bridges of Cooperation: Exploring the Peace-
building Potential of a Shared Resource”, http://www.un.org/events/tenstories/story.asp ?
storyID=2900.
USAID, Forests and Conflict Toolkit, http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/ crosscutting_
programs/conflict/publications/toolkits.html.
James Cahill, “Prepare Now for the Post-Oil Era,” Business Week,
2005,www.businessweek.com/technology/content/mar2005/tc20050318_5819.htm; and
Alexander Jung, “The End of the Oil Era Looms,” Spiegel Online International, 2006;
www.spiegel.de/ international/spiegel/0,1518,426728,00.html.\
Ackerman, A. (2001) “The Idea and Practice of Conflict Prevention” Journal of Peace
Research.
Bercovitch, J. and Richard J. (2009) Conflict Resolution in the Twenty-first Century:
Principles, Methods, and Approaches. Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press.
Bercovitch J., Kremenyuk V. and Zartman I.W. (2009) “Economic and Resource Causes
of Conflicts”. In The SAGE Handbook of Conflict Resolution, Thousand Oaks: Sage
Publications.
Danielsen F., et al (2009) Local Participation in Natural Resource Monitoring: A
Characterisation of Approaches, Conversation Biology.
Enough Project (2009) A Comprehensive Approach to Congo’s Conflict Minerals -
Strategy Paper. Washington: Enough Project. http://www.enoughproject.org/publications/
comprehensive-approach-conflict-minerals-strategy-paper.
Kameri-Mbote, P. (2004) Environment & Conflict Linkages: An Overview. Geneva.
International Environmental Law Research Centre.http://www.ielrc.org/ activities/
presentation_0410.htm