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PSY1022 - WEEK 7
3. Mid Semester Test: 30 Multiple choice questions (MCQ) questions (5
Assignment questions x 6 topics from Weeks 1- 6) in 55 min (Closed Book) {20%}

Good
Confidence

Practice
quiz

Prescribed Readings Chapter 4: "Types of Observational Analysis" (p.

Readings 87-121); Chapter 9: "Correlational Research" (p. 243-255; 257-266);
Chapter 11: Qualitative methods (p. 292-302)

Readings
done

Types of Observational Analysis & Correlational Research &

Topic
Qualitative methods

Watch
Lecture

Chapter 4
4.1 Observational research
The major purpose of observational research is to produce this descriptive information.

Varieties of observational research

Observational research with the goal of describing behaviour can be divided into two
broad categories, depending on the degree of experimenter involvement with
participants in the study.

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 These types of studies are called naturalistic observation and participant observation
respectively

Naturalistic observation
In a naturalistic observation study, the goal is to study the behaviours of people or
animals as they act in their everyday environments.

Participant observation
Occasionally researchers will join a group being observed, or at least make their
presence known to the group, thus making the study a participant observation. The
chief virtue of this strategy is its power to get the investigator as close to the action
as possible.

4.2 Challenges facing observational methods

Absence of control
Some degree of control occurs in observational studies (e.g., operational definitions of
behaviours to be observed), but, in general, the observational researcher must take
what circumstances provide. Because of this lack of direct control, the conclusions from
observational studies must be drawn very carefully.

Observer bias
In observational research, observer bias means having preconceived ideas about what
will be observed and having those ideas colour one’s observations
Biasing effects can be reduced by using good operational definitions and by training
observers to
identify the precisely defined target behaviours. When actually making the observations,
behaviour
checklists are normally used.

Participant reactivity
Reactivity, that is, your behaviour would be influenced by the knowledge that you were
being observed and recorded.

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 Reactivity can be reduced by using unobtrusive measures.

Ethics
As you surely recognise by now, reducing reactivity raises the ethical problems of
invading privacy and lack of informed consent, particularly if children or members of
some other special population are being observed.

4.3 Survey research

A survey is a structured set of questions or statements given to a group of people to
measure their attitudes, beliefs, values or tendencies to act.

Probability sampling
This general sampling strategy is used whenever the goal is to survey a clearly
identifiable group of
individuals.

As a group, those individuals are referred to as a population and any subset of them is a
sample.
In probability sampling, each member of the population has a definable probability of
being
selected for the sample.

In survey research it is important for the sample to reflect the attributes of the target
population as a whole. When this happens, it is a representative sample, if it doesn’t
happen, the sample is biased

Self‐selection bias: the person reporting the survey will try to impress you with the total
number of returns rather than the representativeness of the sample.

Random sampling
The simplest form of probability sampling is to take a simple random sample. In
essence, this means each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected as a member of the sample.

Stratified sampling

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 In a stratified sample the proportions of important subgroups in the population are
represented
precisely

Cluster sampling

With this approach, the

researcher randomly selects a cluster of people, all having some feature in
common.

Non‐probability sampling
Convenience sample is a group of individuals who meet the
general requirements of the study and are recruited in a variety of non‐random ways.

Purposive sampling

Sometimes a specific type of person is recruited for the study; this is a convenience
sampling strategy called purposive sampling

Quota sampling

In quota sampling, the researcher attempts to accomplish the same goal as

stratified
sampling — representing subgroups proportionally — but does so in a non‐random
fashion

Snowball sampling
Once a member of a particular group has been surveyed, the researcher asks that
person
to help recruit additional subjects through a network of friends.

Varieties of survey methods

Interviews

The interview format for surveying has the advantages of being comprehensive and
yielding highly detailed information. Even though the interviewer typically asks a
standard set of questions, the skilled interviewer is able to elicit considerable
information through follow‐up questions or probes

Phone surveys

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 a ploy known in marketing research as sugging — Selling Under the Guise of a
survey

Electronic surveys

One of the most common forms of internet data collection involves electronic
surveying
(e‐surveying), which is accomplished in several ways.

Written surveys

The traditional survey is the paper‐and‐pencil type, or written survey.

Another problem with rate of return occurs when people who return surveys
differ in some important way from those who don’t return them, a problem called
non‐response bias

One important problem that exists with all forms of survey research is a social
desirability bias.
Sometimes people respond to a survey question in a way that reflects not how they truly
feel or what they truly believe but how they think they should respond

4.4 Creating an effective survey

Types of survey questions or statements
open‐ended question

requires a response beyond ‘yes’ or ‘no’; participants must provide narrative

information

closed question
Can be answered with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or by choosing a single response from several
alternatives.

Students might have a response bias called response acquiescence — a tendency to

agree with statements.

Assessing memory and knowledge

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 When inquiring about what a person knows, there is always the chance the honest
answer will be
‘I don’t know’. Hence, survey items that deal with knowledge often include a DK
alternative.

Adding demographic information

Demographic information is the basic data that identifies the survey respondent. These
data can include age, gender, socioeconomic status, marital status and so on.

A key problem: survey wording

A major problem in survey construction concerns the wording of the items. Although it is
impossible
for the survey writer to ensure that all respondents interpret each question or statement
the same way, guidelines can help in the construction of a good survey.

The most important one is to do a pilot study to test the instrument on several groups of
friends, colleagues and even people you don’t like.

double‐barrelled question

Second, survey writers sometimes include too much in an item, resulting in one that
actually asks for two responses at once.

leading question
A leading question is one structured so that it is likely to produce an answer
desired by the asker.

Chapter 9
9.2 Correlation and regression: the basics
In a positive correlation, the relationship is such that a high score on one variable is
associated with a high score on the second variable

A negative correlation is an inverse relationship; high scores on one variable are

associated with low scores on the second variable and vice versa

Scatterplots

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 A scatterplot provides a visual representation of the relationship shown by a correlation.

Examples

Restricting the range of one (or both) of the measured variables weakens the
correlation.

An outlier is a score that is dramatically different from the remaining scores in a dataset.
When a dataset has an outlier or two, central tendency is best represented with a
median instead of a mean.

Coefficient of determination — r2
r2
Is defined as the portion of variability in one of the variables in the correlation that
can be accounted for by variability in the second variable

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 Regression analysis — making predictions
Making predictions on the basis of correlational research is referred to as doing a
regression analysis.

A regression line is used for making the predictions and is called the line of best fit;
it provides the best possible way of summarising the points on the scatter-plot.

9.3 Interpreting correlations

Correlations and causality
Directionality

If there is a correlation between two variables, A and B, it is possible that A is

causing B to occur
(A → B), but it also could be that B is causing A to occur (B → A). That the causal
relation could occur in either direction is known as the directionality problem. The
existence of the correlation by itself does not allow one to decide about the direction
of causality.

Third variable problem

Because correlational research may not attempt to control extraneous variables
directly, these variables often provide an explanation for the correlation found

9.4 Using correlations

Varieties of correlational research
Split‐half reliability

This involved dividing in half the items that make up a particular subtest (e.g., even‐
numbered versus odd‐numbered items) and correlating the two halves. The
correlation should be high if the test is reliable — someone scoring high on one half
should score high on the other half as well.

Test‐retest reliability

The relationship between two separate administrations of the test. Again, these
reliabilities should be high — a reliable test yields consistent results from one
testing to another.

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 Chapter 11
11.1 Fundamentals of qualitative research
Understanding qualitative research
Qualitative research is an umbrella term used for a range of methodologies and
approaches.

A methodology is a set of procedures that governs how you conduct research

A theoretical approach is a way of thinking about how you conduct your research

Sampling in qualitative research

Sampling methods in qualitative research are typically purposive. That is, individuals are
chosen for the sample because they add to the sample in a meaningful way.

In a homogenous sample, the people in your sample are similar across a number of
characteristics that you consider relevant to the study.

In a heterogeneous sample, the people in your sample differ on one or several

important characteristics

Theoretical sampling, you invite people to take part in the research study because they
have
had an experience that will contribute to the ongoing development of a theory.

Collecting qualitative data

Face‐to‐face method to collect qualitative data

That is, a researcher collects data from a person or a group of people by meeting
them
in person and interviewing them.

Conducting interviews

Structured interviews

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 They have a set list of questions that you want the participant to answer. These
questions usually require short answers, so the information you get from this
type of interview isn’t very detailed. A structured interview ensures that you ask
all the participants the same questions, meaning you are covering the same
topics with each participant in the same order.

Unstructured interviews
You don’t have a specific list of questions. You and the participant know which
general topic you’ll be discussing. You may have an opening question, but after
that you just let the conversation run in whatever direction it goes

Semi‐structured interviews

Follow an interview schedule to help guide the interview

Interview schedule

An interview schedule is a list of the main questions or topics that you want
to
address with the participant during the course of the interview. The
interview schedule may also contain a series of prompts or potential follow‐
up questions under each main question, which helps participants develop
their thoughts about the main question. These questions are particularly
useful in situations where a participant struggles to think of something to
say.

Working with focus groups

A focus group is a meeting of several people to discuss their perceptions or beliefs

about a particular topic that is provided to them by a researcher.

Transcribing qualitative data

Once you obtain your qualitative data, you need to store it appropriately and transform it
into a suitable format for analysis.

Transcribing the words as you hear them on the recording (verbatim) is known as
orthographic transcription

Transcribing how things were said as well as what was said is known as
Jeffersonian transcription

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 Your choice of transcription will depend upon the qualitative methodology and/or
approach that you use. Thematic analysis typically requires orthographic transcription,
whereas some discursive approaches require Jeffersonian transcription.

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