ELK Sujay On The Origin of Spoken Language Final Final Final Sujay Rao Mandavilli

ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)
www.elkjournals.com
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ON THE ORIGIN AND SPREAD OF LANGUAGES: PROPOSITIONING TWENTY-

FIRST CENTURY AXIOMS ON THE EVOLUTION AND SPREAD OF
LANGUAGES WITH CONCOMITANT VIEWS ON LANGUAGE DYNAMICS
Sujay Rao Mandavilli
ABSTRACT
This paper purports to be a starting point to revisit existing approaches dealing with the origin and spread of
languages in the light of the changed circumstances of the Twenty-first century without in any way undermining
their applicability across space and time. The origin of spoken languages is intricately and inseparably
interwoven and intertwined with the origin of human species as well, and in this paper, we propose a ‘Wholly-
independent Multi-Regional hypothesis of the origin of Homo sapiens’ in response to both the highly-controversial
and arguably antiquated ‘Out-of-Africa theory’ which we have stridently and vehemently opposed, along with all
its protuberances and the contending Multi-Regional Hypothesis as well. The key tenets of this paper are therefore
articulated based on this fundamental premise which is likely to upend existing presumptions and paradigms to a
significant degree. Having said that, we must hasten to add that the evolutionary biology of language
encompassing physical anthropology or genetics and other related areas of study, are wholly outside the purview
of this paper. Structural linguistics and semantics are also outside the scope of this paper. In this paper, we
examine the origins of spoken and written languages in pre-historic, proto-historic, historic, pre-globalized and
post-globalized contexts and propose an ‘Epochal Polygenesis’ approach. As a part of this paper, we also provide
a broad overview of early and current theories of the origin and spread of languages so that readers can compare
our approaches with already existing ones and analyse the similarities and differences between the two. We
propose and define several new concepts under the categories of contact-based scenarios and non-contact based
scenarios such as the autochthonous origin of languages, the spread of properties of languages from key nodes,
‘Theory of linguistic osmosis’ and the need to take historical and political factors into account while analysing
the spread of languages. In this paper, we also propose among others, the ‘Theory of win-win paradigms’ and the
‘Net benefits approach’. We also emphasize the need to carry out a diachronic and synchronic assessment of the
dynamics of languages spread and propose that this be made a continuous process so that the lessons learnt can
be used to tweak and hone theories and models to perfection. This paper is likely to significantly up the ante in
favour of a dynamics-driven approach by undermining the relative torpor now observed in this arguably vital
sub-discipline and contribute greatly to the rapidly emerging field of language dynamics. We also hope that
synchronic linguistics will finally get its due place under the sun in the post-globalised world, and will become a
major driving force in linguistics in the Twenty-First Century.
An Introduction to language languages in the world today, some of

A language may be defined as a mode of which are unlikely to be full-blown or
communication which is intrinsic to all independent languages in their own right,
human societies around the globe and some of which are unaccompanied by
regardless of their social or intellectual scripts or literary traditions. The count of
advancement or accomplishments. A languages, of course varies widely from
language is usually specific to a source to source, and depending in part on
community and is a mode of the methodology adopted for considering
communication with a set of rules which languages as full-fledged ones. According
are formalized over a period in time. to one survey carried out by the Academie
According to Noam Chomsky, “A francaise, there were only 2,796 full-blown
language is a either a finite or infinite set of languages in the world towards the end of
sentences, each finite in length and the Twentieth century, though other
constructed out of a finite set of elements.” sources and surveys suggest a larger
According to Edward Sapir, language, may number of full-fledged languages. At the
be defined as “A purely human and non- other end of the spectrum, The Ethnologue,
instinctive method of communicating listed the total number of languages in the
ideas, emotions and desires by means of world as 6,809. Unlike written languages,
voluntarily produced symbols.” (Sapir the date of origin of spoken languages
1921:8) According to Bloch and Trager, cannot also be pinpointed with accuracy in
“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal the absence of direct or indirect evidence,
symbols by means of which a social group despite the fact that some work has been
co-operates.” (1942:5) According to Hall, done by researchers such as Alello and
“Language is an institution whereby Dunbar, among others and estimates of the
humans communicate and interact with date of origin of spoken language vary very
each other by means of habitually and oral- widely between 75,000 years before the
auditory arbitrary symbols.” (Hall present to over a million years before the
1968:158) Languages have been known present. Languages may be primarily
and attested from at least the dawn of classified into two forms i.e. spoken and
human history, although they are likely to written. Written languages typically
be much, much older. There are believed to comprise of a formal dictionary of symbols
be between five to seven thousand or lexemes, while spoken language itself is
comprised of a formal grammar, and relies

on patterns or combinations of sounds to with nationalism and ethnocentrism … is
express ideas and thoughts, and so closely tied to the individual self. Fear
combinations of such ideas or thoughts, to of being deprived of communicating skills
express extremely complex ideas and seems to raise political passion to a fever
thoughts. All languages spoken around the pitch.” 1 2 3
world today demonstrate some level of
Properties of language
standardization and complexity, although
this may not necessarily have been the case Language is characterized by several
during the dawn of spoken language. distinct properties such as Displacement
Language is typically acquired by humans (Ability to encode messages that refer to
early in childhood by imitation, and the past, present, future or other locations),
language is typically formal or structured Semanticity or meaning, Syntax or
with a set of codified or uncodified rules. combination of phonemes to convey more
Language is the basis of much of human complex ideas, Encapsulation of messages,
accomplishment in the fields of science, Arbitrariness (Absence of a direct co-
arts, music or literature, and human relation between an object and the word
civilization as we know it, would most representing it), Productivity or Creativity
certainly not have been possible without and the constant coinage of new words
language. Language also plays a critical through innovation and change, Cultural
role in the transmission of knowledge, and transmission to future generations,
therefore augments civilizational Discreteness of words and their meanings,
complexity. Language is also inseparably Learnability (a speaker of one language can
associated with culture and human emotion learn almost any other language subject to
as the ability to communicate is seen as a certain constraints and limitations),
very vital tool and is deep-rooted in the Interchangeability between speakers and
human psyche. As Henry Bretton (1976, p. listeners, Organization of sounds to form
447) points out: “Language may be the distinct meanings, Specialization of
most explosive issue universally and over function, Phonetic and orthographic
time. This is mainly because language representation, and transferability from one
alone, unlike all other concerns associated medium to another. Linguistic ability is
1 3
Narrative: A critical linguistic introduction: Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic
Michael J. Toolan Routledge, 1988 Relations in Asia Edited by Michael E. Brown and
2
Semantics: A course book J. R Hurford and Sumit Ganguly
Brendon Heasley, Cambridge University Press,
1983

also associated with Competence or ability species have only possessed relatively
to communicate in a structured and logical more primitive forms of communication.
fashion, and Performance or the act of Anthropologists once thought that other
communicating efficiently. species such as Neanderthal man did not
possess the attributes of speech, but recent
An overview of research in linguistics
research and evidence seems to contest this
The philosophy of language or the ability view, and speech capabilities must have
of language to express the breadth of evolved only gradually in primates and
human experience, has been debated since humans. Research on language,
ancient times, particularly since the times evolutionary biology and human instinct (a
of the Greeks in the first millennium before field of study wholly outside the purview
the Christian era. Other branches of of this paper) is also rapidly evolving and
linguistics such as semantics or the linguists such as Steven Pinker have made
relationship between language and many contributions to this field in recent
meaning were also formalized since the times. Fields of study such as language
times of the Greeks. Languages are also dynamics are nascent, and we believe that
typically classified into language groups, this is an area of study with a vast untapped
(an idea first proposed by August potential.4 5 6 7
. Linguistics on the other
Schleicher, an early believer in Darwinian hand, may be defined as a formal, a
ideas of evolution) even though some such scientific and a structured study of all
classifications may now be archaic or facets of language including its origin,
questionable in the face of newer research. spread, transmutation and all other aspects
The number of languages spoken may have such as grammar, phonology, orthography
gradually declined since historic times, and ,semantics, and semiotics and may
the rate of decline has accelerated in alternatively be defined as the science of
modern times due to the onslaught of language. The term linguistics can be
globalization. Language was once believed traced to the Nineteenth century, even
to have been unique to the species Homo though a formal study of language began
Sapiens, and it was thought that other
4
The Language Instinct: The New Science of the Concepts – Methods – Visualization Edited by
language and mind: Steven Pinker, Penguin Books Heiner Fangerau, Hans Geisler, Thorsten Halling
1995 and William Martin
5 6
Classification and Evolution in Biology, Linguistics Language thoughts and reality: Selected writings
and the History of Science of Benjamin Lee Whorf, The MIT press 1956
7
The origin and evolution of language Brian
Stross, WMC Brown Company publishers, 1976

long before this. Analyses of the spread of Iraq, theories, hypotheses and speculation
languages may also be classified into a on this topic have never been in short
diachronic and synchronic analysis of supply throughout recorded human history,
language spread, the former being a and this topic is probably as hotly debated
temporal analysis and the latter being a and widely discussed among scholars and
non-temporal analysis of language spread. intellectuals as discussions about the
9
Linguistics or Linguistic Anthropology is weather are in quotidian conversation. 8
10
also a major sub-discipline of . According to a story told to Herodotus,
Anthropology, and comprises Historical the Egyptian Pharaoh Psammetichus I had
linguistics, descriptive linguistics and carried out an experiment, known as the
sociolinguistics. Linguistics may also be Psammetichus experiment in the 7th
classified into theoretical and applied Century BC, and had concluded that
linguistics. Applied linguistics applies the speech was innate to all humans. This is
principles of linguistics to practical and one of the earliest tests of linguistics
real-world situations including language known to man. Linguistics developed
policy and planning. independently in China and India before
the dawn of the Christian era unaffected by
Curiosity about language has aroused the
the concerns of the West and constraints
human mind and attracted the attention of
imposed by work carried out elsewhere.
great scholars and thinkers since aeons
Chinese linguistics began around the fourth
leading to rampant speculation and a
century BC. The Xiaoxue, the Erya (An
plethora of competing theories. While data
ancient dictionary) and the Xiao Erya were
on the early origins of language has proven
the early notable works from China. The
to be hard to find, given the fact that spoken
following are the two outstanding early
language typically leaves no concrete and
works from India:
incontestable record for posterity, and
evidence of full-fledged written language
 The scholar Panini wrote a
represented by true logo-syllabic begins
grammar of Sanskrit (somewhere
only from around 3200 BC in present-day
between 500 BC and 300
Palmer's Studies in the History of Western

8
R.H. Robins's book A Short History of Linguistics (1986, Cambridge Press: New York).
Linguistics (4th Edition, 1997, Longman: New
9
York), Pieter A.M. Seuren's Western Linguistics: An Language: The basics R.L Trask Routledge 1995
10
Historical Introduction (1998, Blackwell Publishers: The Miracle of Language Richard Lederer Pcket
Malden, Mass.), and Theodora Bynon and F.R. Books, 1991

 BC) called Astadhyayi (literally Latin grammar Ars Grammatica in
'eight books'). Many scholars the early Christian era, and this is
accredit him with having played a considered to be a notable work of
crucial role in early linguistics. its time. Cross-cultural studies also
 Tolkappiyam: was an early took root in this period due to the
grammar of the Tamil language and travels and narratives of Hiuen
was written around the second Tsang and Fa Hien both of whom
century BC Greek scholars such as had travelled from China to India
Herodotus (whom some believe to and produced copious narratives of
be the world’s first anthropologist) their travels. Alexander the Great’s
, Plato, Protagoras of Adbera, conquest of India and
Prodicus, Aristotle, Heraclitus, Megasthenes’ accounts had also
Sextus Empiricus, Hippias and kindled interest in distant lands.
Apollonius made major Most of the linguistic work from
contributions to various facets of the Middle Ages was focused on
the study of language, and set a grammar, and was merely an
motion a process that continued extension of Latin and Greek
well into later times and impacted analyses. Some notable scholars of
the Romans as well. The Greeks the Middle ages were Isidore of
also initiated philosophical studies Seville of the 6th Century AD, Peter
on the origin of languages, and Helias, Thomas of Ertfurt, William
discussions on such topics can be of Ockham, Priscian and the Arabic
found in the works of Plato. scholar Sibarwaih. Linguistic
Alexandrian grammarians also studies assumed added importance
made important contributions to towards the end of the Middle
various fields of linguistics such as Ages, and a significant amount of
the formal definition and study of scholarly output was observed in
various parts of speech. The this era. Arabic and Hebrew literary
Romans did not make major traditions had also reached a zenith
changes to Roman ideas but during this period. An acute interest
modified them in the context of the in exotic cultures was also
Latin language. Aelius Donatus, prompted by the travels and
Honoratus and others compiled the accounts of Marco Polo and Ibn
Khaldun. During the Renaissance,

grammatical treatises were written important by-product of this period, and
for several European languages. historical linguistics can also be traced to
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Manuel this epoch due to the pioneering and
Chrysoloras, Dante Alighieri and ground-breaking work of William Jones
Pierre Ramee were notable scholars and other scholars. The Nineteenth Century
of this era. The Académie française is sometimes referred to as the golden age
and the British Royal Society also of philology. The Twentieth Century saw a
did a lot of pioneering work on shift towards structuralism, formalism and
linguistics in this era. J. G Herder, behaviourism, and major scholars were
James Harris, James Burnett and Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, Noam
Sir William Jones were the leading Chomsky and B.F Skinner. The Sapir-
linguists of Eighteenth Century Whorf Hypothesis or the theory of
Europe. The writings of the French linguistic determinism which argues that
philosopher Montesquieu in the language moulds man’s perception of
Eighteenth Century also triggered reality, and the perception of reality and the
an interest in other cultures and ability to process thoughts would vary
languages, and indirectly depending on the language of the speaker
contributed to linguistics. The is an important product of the Twentieth
Nineteenth Century on the other Century. Noam Chomsky’s generative
hand, produced scholars such as grammar, William Labov’s and Peter
Wilhelm von Humboldt, Friedrich Trudgill’s sociolinguistics, Michael
von Schlegel, Jakob Grimm, Franz Halliday’s System Functional linguistics
Bopp, Ferdinand de Saussure and and Kantor’s Psycholinguistics. Research
August Schleicher, many of whom linking linguistics with diverse fields such
worked on pioneering fields such as as Anthropology, Genetics, Evolutionary
the origin of language, Biology and Brain Psychology is currently
Transformation grammar and under way, and this is already leading to a
Comparative linguistics. fundamental transformation in many fields
of linguistics. Evolutionary linguistics is
The Neo-grammarians made pioneering
another promising area of study. Even
efforts towards the reconstruction of the
though progress has been slow in the past
Proto Indo-European language and an
due to the fact that spoken language can
analysis of its grammar. A formal,
leave no tell-tale evidence whatsoever, the
structured study of grammar was also an
field of evolutionary linguistics has

evolved rapidly since the 1990’s with rapid that languages evolved continuously from
progress in fields such as the late 1980s, the the grunts and the noises made by primates
field has been revived in the wake of and other less complex animal
progress made in the related fields communication systems, while the latter
of psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, evol propose a more discontinuous approach
utionary anthropology, evolutionary towards language evolution. Most scholars
psychology, universal grammar, such as Mario Alinei and Steven Pinker
and cognitive science. One recent approach support Darwinian models, while a few
is an adaptanionist or a Darwinian scholars such as Noam Chomsky support
approach towards language origins (which Non-Darwinian models, and an example of
also encompasses sexual selection and kin the latter is the Emergent Phenomenon
selection), which is endorsed by scholars theory. Likewise, Stephen Jay Gould too
such as Steven Pinker. Computational has on occasion has stated that he does not
modelling is another promising field which support Darwinian models fully, and states
may eventually solve many riddles and instead that language is a by-product of
puzzles which were previously considered many complex forces..15
to be too overwhelming and baffling to
Early theories on language
grapple with. Research is also being carried
We now present some early theories on the
out on Phylogenetic, Ontogenetic and
origin of languages. These theories are
Glossogenetic aspects of linguistic
largely considered to be obsolete now, and
evolution. The identification of the FOXP2
given the acrimony debates around them
gene or the language gene has proven to be
tended to generate, discussions on these
another important milestone in
topics were even banned by the Societe
linguistics.11 12 13 14
Linguistique de Paris in a formal
Language theories may also be sub-divided
communication dated the 8th of March
into two subgroups, i.e. Continuity theories
1866. However, a few aspects of some of
and Discontinuity theories. The former,
these theories would still have currency
also related to Darwinian models, propose
even in the Twenty-first century, and some
11 14
The study of language by George Yule Buckley, C., Steele, J. (2002). “Evolutionary
Cambridge University Press 2010 Ecology of Spoken Language: Co-Evolutionary
12
Grimes, B.F. (Ed.), The Ethnologue, SIL Theories are Testable”. World Archaeology 34 (1):
International, Dallas, 2001 26-46
13 15
Guy Deutscher. The Unfolding of Language: An Chomsky, Noam 1986. Knowledge of Language.
Evolutionary Tour of Mankind's Greatest New York: Praeger
Invention, Henry Holt and Co, 2005

others would prove to be instructive on disproven compellingly), most words in
slip-ups early linguists tended to make, and various languages spoken around the world
it is for this very reason that we reproduce today do not bear any resemblance to
summaries of them below. While there sounds made by objects associated with
may be no consensus on the origin of them, and in fact are far removed from
language, few would deny that it was a them, apart from minor exceptions. In
major cultural innovation with profound English, in addition to cuckoo, we have
and far reaching consequences for the words such as splash, bang, boom, rattle,
human species and a major milestone in buzz, hiss and screech. While many of
cultural evolution. Thus, while language these words may be of relatively recent
was facilitated by the evolution of speech origin, we would like to hypothesize, based
organs, language itself was a by-product of on a common sense approach, this
social, cultural and technological changes. evidence and evidence from other
16
languages, that onomatopoeia may have
once been common in languages around
1. The Bow-wow theory or the
the world, and the early attempts of humans
Sound Mimicry theory
to speak may indeed have been based on
The Bow-wow theory or the sound human imitations of such sounds, but was
mimicry theory refers to the idea that replaced in due course by more complex
speech arose from people imitating the and abstract vocabulary in the manner
sounds that various living and non-living described elsewhere in this paper.
things make in the natural world: Examples The bow-wow theory also refers to
being sounds made by dogs, cats, snakes, theories by various scholars,
cows, rivers, streams, rain, thunder, including Jean-Jacques
lightning etc. This theory was extremely Rousseau and Johann Gottfried Herder, on
popular some two hundred years ago. the origins of human language.17 18
While there is a possibility that early

human language from derived from 2. The Pooh-Pooh theory
onomatopoeia (It is highly unlikely that The Pooh-pooh theory (also known as the
this hypothesis can ever be proven or expressive theory, the interjectionist theory
16 18
Language: The Cultural tool Daniel Everett The Evolution of Language W Tecumseh Fitch,
Profile Books 2012 Cambridge University Press, 2010
17
Francis S Collins. The language of God. Free
Press, New York, 2006

or the expressions of emotions theory) connected with real-world objects, and that
refers to the idea that speech comes from objects were named after their real-world
involuntary vocal responses to pain, fear, properties. Per this hypothesis, splash
surprise, excitement, pleasure or other would have become the word for rain and
emotions. Such sounds are made by some oink would have become the name for pig.
animals too, and yet speech is unique only However, this hypothesis does not explain
to humans. Examples of such words in the how abstract words were named. This
English language include Ouch!, Aaah! hypothesis also fails to satisfactorily
and Wow!. The percentage of words account for most words in modern
attributable to such sources in modern languages, and must resultantly be
languages is believed to be extremely approached with a fair amount of
small, and there is some variation between skepticism. This theory was originally
such words and the related sounds proposed by Max Muller, though he
associated with such words. We do not himself later abandoned it. 19
know how ancient these words are, and
there is enough reason to believe that some 4. The Yo-he-yo theory, the Yo-
of these words are recent. Our assessment heave-ho theory or the Social
is that while early languages may have Interaction source
indeed contained words based on such The Yo-he-yo theory, the Yo-heave-ho
exclamations, these may have been theory or the Social Interaction source
eventually overridden by more reflects the idea that speech started with the
sophisticated and abstract vocabulary in rhythmic chants and grunts people used to
the manner described elsewhere in this coordinate their physical actions when they
paper. Max Muller, who is known for his worked together. According to this theory,
popular and scholarly jousts with Darwin, language evolved from the grunts, groans,
appears to have supported this theory for made by humans while doing heavy
some time, before abandoning it. physical labour. This theory does not
explain where the words themselves came
3. The Ding-dong theory from. It cannot also account for all words
The ding-dong theory refers to the idea that in any language. This theory may also be
speech reflects a resonance or harmony somewhat over-imaginative as only a small
19
Friedrich Max Müller. Lectures on the Science
of Language. Lugmans, Green and Co., Fifth
edition, 186

percentage of words may be attributable to words in any language. Another similar
such sources. This theory is also somewhat theory is the Lah-di-dah theory. Theories
difficult to verify in comparison with other such as these would more appear to reflect
theories. the flights of fancy of their respective
creators than be mired in ground realities.
5. The Ta-ta theory and the Chew-
chew theory 7. The Ma-Ma theory
The Ta-ta theory proposed by Richard
Paget refers to the idea that early human The Ma-ma theory reflects the idea that
speech originated from the use of tongue easiest syllables were attached to
and mouth gestures to mimic manual significant objects in order to create words.
gestures and gestures of the hand. For While this may be a possibility, it is by no
example, saying ta-ta is like waving means the only one, and word coinage may
goodbye with your tongue. Even Charles perhaps be contributed to many different
Darwin’s ideas appeared to have supported sources.
this hypothesis at one point. However, the

8. Singing theory
origin of most words cannot be
satisfactorily explained through the Tata-
According to the singing theory, words
theory. A similar theory is the Oral gesture
were invented as a result of humans’ early
theory or the Chew-chew theory which
efforts to sing, dance and mimic the sounds
proposes that language originated from
emanating therefrom. It is highly unlikely
gestures that early humans made with their
that this is a plausible idea and it is unlikely
mouths.
that a significant portion of the vocabulary
in any source was created through this
6. The La-la theory or the Woo-woo
source.
hypothesis
9. Babbling theory
The la-la theory reflects the idea that
speech emerged from the sounds of love,
According to the babbling theory, words
romance poetry, and music. This theory
were created based on the sounds produced
was proposed by the Danish linguist Otto
by infants for no particular purpose. Other
Jesperson and others. This theory is
scholars argue that this is somewhat
somewhat far-fetched, and it is unlikely to
improbable and unlikely, given that few
account for a significant percentage of

adults would take infants chatter seriously warn other humans of dangers arising
or ascribe meanings to them, and few from reptiles, wild animals, fire or such
objective scholars would be willing to other perils or hazards. It is highly
attribute a large number of words to this unlikely that a significant proportion of
source. the words in any language were
attributable to this source. However, this
10. Hey-you theory source would undeniably account for
some basic vocabulary at the very least.
According to the hey-you theory
formulated by Geza Revesz in 1956, 13. Watch the birdie hypothesis
language arose from an assertion of one
own identity and belonging and a calling to This theory was proposed by E.H
others. It is highly unlikely that a Sturtevant. According to this theory,
significant proportion of words arose from humans invented language for their own
this source. selfish ends and to deceive other humans.
This hypothesis appears to be way off the
11. Eureka theory or Invention theory mark and would barely even merit a
According to the Eureka theory, words footnote in a list of plausible hypothesis.
were invented as a result of the creative
underpinnings of man, and by adopting no 14. Hocus pocus theory
particular formal or structured methods. In
other words, the coinage or words was This theory was proposed by C. George
wholly random and arbitrary. We endorse Boiree and others and claims that
this theory wholeheartedly in our paper, as languages originated from magical and
we believe this would account for a religious acts and other similar rituals that
significant proportion of word coinage, were performed by early humans. It is
even though we believe it must be studied highly unlikely that any modern scholars
in conjunction with other approaches to would take this seriously.
arrive at a holistic picture.
15. Co-operation theory
12. Uh-oh theory
The Co-operation theory was originally
According to this theory, words were proposed by Grace de Laguna. This theory
coined as a result of a human’s desire to proposes that speech originated from early

humans’ effort to co-ordinate their daily Adam personally named all living
social activities in the context of a clan, creatures including beast and fowl
tribe or community. (Genesis 2, 19–20). This theory would
imply that language is as old as humans,
16. Contact theory or the Wah-wah and all things considered, this is highly
hypothesis unlikely. The Biblical theory based on the
famous Tower of Babel incident also states
This theory was proposed by Geza Revesz. that the whole world once spoke one
According to this theory, language was language, and this language split up to give
developed based on the human need to birth to multiple languages as humans
express and share emotions with other spread around the world. This approach is
members in the group or to satisfy some also sometimes referred to as the Noah’s
other desire. Ark theory. Other religions too appear to
have endorsed the Divine origin theory in
17. Verb Theory
some form. According to some Hindu
theologists, language originated from
This theory was originally proposed by
Saraswathi, the Goddess of learning who
A.S. Diamond. According to this theory,
was also the wife of Brahma, the creator of
language originated from requests made by
the universe according to the Hindu holy
one or more individuals in a group to other
trinity.
individuals for assistance, and the issuance
of orders for executions. This approach 19. The gossip and grooming hypothesis
barely scratches the tip of the iceberg and (or the Yakkety-yak theory)
does not account for the origin of nouns,
Gossip and grooming, according to Robin
adverbs and adjectives.
Dunbar in his book “Grooming, Gossip
and the Evolution of Language”, did for
18. Divine origin theory
early societal humans what manual
Another theory postulates that language grooming did for apes and chimpanzees: it
was innately divine and was God’s gift to allowed individuals to service their
humans. While few linguists would take relationships and maintain alliances on the
this hypothesis seriously, many early basis of the principle of mutual co-
societies actually believed in this theory, operation. A similar theory is the looky-
and theory had currency well into pre- look theory which also proposes that
modern times. According to Genesis 2:20,

language arose primarily from social successive approximations”. According to
interaction. an example provided, a child is making
unintelligible sounds, such as hi-hi, a-a-a-a
20. Ritual/speech coevolution
and proceeds to say "mi”. The mother, on
The ritual/speech coevolution theory was
hearing this, gets excited, and then says
originally proposed by Roy Rappaport and
"Oh, do you want milk?. She then gives
was later extended by Chris Knight, Jerome
some milk. After a while, the novelty of
Lewis, Nick Enfield, Camilla Power and
"mi" wears off and mother insists that the
Ian Watts. These scholars argue that
baby say "milk" before she provides
language is not a separate adaptation but an
another bottle of milk.
internal aspect of human symbolic
culture as a whole. 23. Noam Chomsky’s theory of
Universal Grammar
21. Putting the baby down theory
Noam Chomsky proposed the theory
The ‘Putting the baby down theory’ was
of Universal Grammar: an idea of pre-fixed
originally proposed by Dean Falk.
grammatical categories, such as a noun
According to this theory, interactions
category and a verb category found in
between mothers and their babies in early
various related and unrelated languages
human societies eventually led to a coinage
that facilitate the entire language
of words. The name ‘Putting the baby
development process in children and
down’ arose from the idea that mothers
language processing in adults. This theory
could not carry infants on their backs and
states that grammar is largely based on
had to somehow reassure them that they
logic. According to the Universal Grammar
still loved them. It is highly unlikely that
theory, children instinctively know how to
this theory can account for a significant
combine a noun (e.g. a child) and a verb (to
proportion of the words in widespread use
play) into meaningful, correct phrases (A
today and to most people, such proposals
child plays) and further use them to
would appear to be somewhat over-
formulate ore complex sentences and ideas.
imaginative.
This is a mostly descriptive approach that
22. Behaviourism offers neither any clues on the origin of
B. F Skinner proposed that language is language not makes any predictions about
behaviour, and like all other patterns of the future direction of linguistic change.
behaviour, it is learnt. This learning is Another somewhat similar concept is the

enforced through “reinforcement of Theory of Construction grammar which is

a theory of syntax in which constructions this theory argue that imitation is a
and form and function pairings are the uniquely human trait, not possessed by any
central unit of grammatical representation. other species.
20 21
David Hume had proposed that
26. Morris Swadesh’s theory on the
languages are established by human
origin of language
conventions over a period in time. Similar
proposals have also been made by other Morris Swadesh proposes that the
linguists such as David Lewis of Princeton evolution of language be classified into the
University. However belief in language eoglottic period, the paleoglottic period,
universals is by no means universal: it has the neoglottic period and the historical
been called into question by other period, and that the evolution of language
researchers such as Nicholas Evans and occurred in radically different ways in each
Stephen Levinson. 22 of the four periods. He also advocated the

monogenesis of language and this would
24. Conversation Theory
contrast our proposals.
The Conversation theory was originally
27. Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution
proposed by Gordon Pask. Conversation
of language
theory proposes that social systems are
symbolic, language-oriented systems Darwin's model of the origin of languages,
whose responses depend on one person's proposes that different aspects of language
interpretation of another person's were acquired sequentially, and one after
behaviour and attitudes, and where the other. Darwin's first stage in the
meanings are agreed through conversations acquisition of language was a greater
between two or more individuals. development of cognition. The second step
is known as musical protolanguage or
25. The Meme theory
prosodic protolanguage. Darwin argues
According to this theory first proposed by
that the evolution of a key aspect of spoken
Susan Blackmore, language arose out of
language, vocal imitation, was driven by
the human ability to imitate animals,
objects and other humans. Proponents of
20 21
Goldberg, Adele (1995). Constructions: A Fillmore, Charles J. and Paul Kay. 1995. A
construction grammar approach to argument Construction Grammar Coursebook. University of
structure. Chicago/London: University of Chicago California, Berkeley
22
Press. Thy Myth of Language Universals: Nicholas
Evans and Stephen Levinson 2009

sexual selection and also to woo members Jackendoff and Steven Pinker proposes the
of the opposite sex. 23 idea of ‘Universal Grammar’, and holds
that natural selection plays a key role in
28. The Mother Tongue hypothesis or
enhancing the communicative efficiency
the Monogenesis theory
for language. Other scholars such as
According to the Mother Tongue Bickerton, Seyfarth and Cheney have
Hypothesis or the Monogenesis theory, argued for via media approaches or a
language originated from a single group of combination of these approaches.
humans who probably originated in Africa Bickerton proposes a dual-stage model,
and spread throughout the world. This where a proto-language first developed
hypothesis is in diametric opposition to our from primitive grunts, and this in turn
view which argues for polygenesis. Our developed into more complex languages.
approach is therefore related to, and Noam Chomsky’s work once supported the
derived from the Candelabra theory idea of ‘Universal grammar’ but he has
since moved to more complex models’.
29. More recent work on the origin of
Jackendoff has also laid out a scenario for
languages
the various stages in the evolution of
More recent work carried out by scholars human language from primate like
such as Noam Chomsky and Steven Pinker communication. Some of the steps
have also debated the origin of grammar proposed by him are: Use of symbols in a
and syntax. There are many theories on situation-specific manner; Use of an open,
how syntax evolved. Some theorists such unlimited class of symbols; Concatenation
as Michael Tomasello argue that syntax did of symbols; Development of a
not evolve at all and that language is a phonological combinatorial system ; Use
culturally-derived by-product reflecting of symbol position to convey basic
the breadth of human experience. Thus, semantic relationships; attainment of
language developed as a result of a cultural Proto-language; Symbols that explicitly
process of grammaticalization. An encode abstract semantic relationships;
opposite view advocated by Ray Definition of Grammatical categories;
23 Evolutionary Theory Robert J. Richards The

The Linguistic Creation of Man: Charles
Darwin, August Schleicher, Ernst Haeckel, University of Chicago
and the Missing link in Nineteenth-Century


System of inflections to convey semantic to atavism. If such approaches are to be
relationships; System of grammatical thrown out of the window, scientifically
functions to convey semantic relations; accurate approaches that are marketed
attainment of Modern language. Other appropriately to the laypeople, taking the
scholars have also proposed models that perceptions, sensitivities and insights into
are variations of Jackendoff’s approach. account are of supreme importance. Do
This paper also emphasizes the pressing this, and we will be on the verge of a great
need to dispel traditional myths, dogmas new revolution in popular scientific
and superstitious beliefs in the Twenty-first awareness.
century and a scientific approach towards
Towards a ‘Wholly Independent Multi-
evolutionary linguistics followed by an
regional hypothesis’ on the origin of
eventual widespread dissemination of
Homo Sapiens
contemporary scientific approaches in
anthropology and linguistics should be
One of the anchors of this paper is what we
seen as a powerful tool towards this goal.
would like to refer to as the “Wholly
Likewise, ideology-driven approaches and
independent multi-regional hypothesis of
approaches driven by parochialism and a
the origin of Homo Sapiens”. This
desire to boost sectarian pride also need to
approach which is a modified version of the
be marginalized and eventually eliminated,
Multi-regional hypothesis rejects the recent
and given the interrelationship between
Out-of-Africa origins of Homo Sapiens
linguistics, other branches of
and argues that humans, like other
Anthropology and other disciplines such as
universal, semi-universal or pervasive
Sociology and Historiography, a scientific
species such as canines, felines, bovines,
approach to linguistics can prove to be of
equines and pachyderms, appeared
great value to society as a whole. It is
independently around the world having
highly unfortunate that highly antiquated
followed similar but distinct evolutionary
approaches akin to the divine source origin
paths, and without in any way undermining
of language continue to pervade large
Charles Darwin’s principles of Natural
segments of the popular public
Selection or necessitating ideas such as
consciousness. We also bear witness to the
teleology or pre-determinism given that
sporadic resurgence of maverick and
fact that evolution as it is known today does
dilettante approaches such as new age
not plan for the future, have any long-term
movements and quasi-religious
goals and is primarily driven by local
movements that are an obvious throwback

considerations. This is the core tenet of this other explanations fail, migrations may be
approach, and one which will impact any the only plausible explanation. (Refer the
analysis of the origin of languages Ten golden rules associated with human
considerably. Our approach would migrations in this paper). Also, never over-
constitute a form of polygenism. While simplify: solutions to real-world problems
there would undoubtedly exceptions to this are seldom simple, straight-forward,
in the form of human migrations, these will sensational or based on politically-correct
need to be attested or inferred either premises and strategies. Approaches such
directly or indirectly using some form of as these are expected to remain
reliable evidence. An example for this controversial for some time in the absence
would be the somewhat scanty evidence for of reliable evidence, but time alone will
human fossils and primates in North bear testimony to the eventual outcome of
America which appears to be the icing on complex debates such as these.
the cake for recent Out of Africa Thankfully, critics of the much-maligned
proponents. Instead of basing hypotheses but yet popular and widely marketed
purely on existing or available evidence, it (particularly to the non-specialist and the
would be preferable to adopt more man in the street) recent Out-of-Africa
comprehensive and multi-disciplinary theory are becoming ever more forceful
approaches, and look for alternative and vocal, and it is now indeed time for this
explanations wherever possible: examples movement to pick up some more
of these could be possible low populations momentum; clearly, the salad days of the
of primates and early humans in the region, OAT are over. While most early hominin
loss of fossil records etc. Another fossils such as Sahelanthropus tchadensis,
possibility is that migrations may have (This is believed to have lived during the
happened much earlier and in smaller LCA or the Last Common Ancestor
numbers. Region-specific approaches and epoch), Ardipithecus ramidus,
proposals and a combination of both Australopithecus afarensis,
approaches may also bring us closer to the Australopithecus afriicanus and Homo
truth, but autochthonous origins would be Habilus have indeed been found in the
a much safer bet for most regions than African continent, such over-
miscegenation. Dialectical approaches simplifications would appear to fly in the
would help too, and reconciling viewpoints face of common sense. Human fossils have
from the opposite ends of the spectrum also been found in China and Indonesia to
would not be inapposite either. Wherever boot, and migrations to every nook and

corner of the world from an African human migrations need to be studied much
homeland without a compelling reason more critically when migrations involving
may not be justified. Recent Out of-Africa larger geographical distances are claimed.
proponents flaunt supposed Mitochondrial (d) The possible motives for human
DNA evidence as their trump card. How migrations need to be studied much more
valid their interpretations are, remain open critically when migrations to regions with
to scrutiny, but very little headway will less salubrious weather conditions, or those
perhaps be made without inter-disciplinary unconducive to agricultural, economic or
collaboration, and serious ventures to this intellectual development are claimed. (e)
effect may not materialize in the immediate The ability of the region in question to
future. In any case, the Ten Golden rules produce the numbers to facilitate
associated with human migrations as migrations also needs to be taken into
proposed by us in an earlier paper must account, i.e. a reconciliation of the
always be borne in mind, and we reproduce populations of the source location to the
them as under proposed size of the migrations needs to be
carried out. By this we can avoid fantastic
(a) The possible motives for human
claims of large-scale migrations into India
migrations which can be broadly classified
which are unsupported by genetic
into pull factors or push factors need to be
evidence. (f) A reconciliation of the
studied on a case to case basis, they key
claimed size of migrations with the
assumption for our purpose being that
population of the destination likewise
humans need not migrate unless they need
needs to be carried out. If this had been
to do so. Even if this assumption does not
done in the case of India, we could have
always hold good in the real world, we will
easily concluded that the number of
nonetheless insist on it, as it automatically
migrants were small in relation to the
places the onus on those proposing such
Harappans or the residents of the Indus
migrations to carry out a basic
Valley Civilization, and that simplistic
introspection. This may render invalid any
models of language replacement in this
possible fantasies or over-simplifications
context would have been virtually
like the crude Out-of-Africa theory. (b)
impossible. For example, in the case of
The possible motives for human migrations
Ancient India, acculturation involving
need to be studied much more critically
small groups of people can very easily be
when larger numbers of migrants are
explained from what we call a ‘Lost tribe
claimed. (c) The possible motives for
hypothesis’ – a small group of individuals

accidentally crossed the Khyber Pass on auxiliaries still have an unfortunately large
horseback, and did not know how to get fan following to this day particularly
back, triggering a series of acculturations among the laity and less-informed public.
that was explained. It is expected that the Many leading scholars have already
number of migrants will be compared with expressed their gravest concerns about the
the pre-existing populations of various dogged persistence of such antiquated
destinations taking into account the beliefs among the general public, and it
estimated population of source would be instructive to read the
destinations. (g) The geographical features publications of Alain F. Corcos among
of the regions involved must always be others on this issue.24 25 26
It is the sacred
kept in mind. (h) It is expected that a duty of the concerned and the better
reasonable quantum of additional direct informed to lead the way and to serve and
and indirect evidence will be sought in torchbearers so that the rest of the
support of any model to prevent an population can follow suit and eventually
ideological misuse. This many include fall in line. Haplogroups and
linguistic or archaeological evidence. (i) It ethnobiological identity perhaps fit the bill
is expected that this study is done in true much better that the hazy and nebulous
letter and spirit and is used to test any concept of race, and what the author has
model. (j) It is expected that this study is observed in his native India over the past
done in true letter and spirit and is used to several decades are continuously varying
formulate ‘Linguistic transformation physical features of human populations
models’ for each destination separately. from region to region. A keenly observant
Another concept we refute is the notion of anthropologist will even be able to discern
human races canonically, orthodoxly and differences in physical features among
erroneously classified as Caucasian, populations residing in different parts of
Mongoloid and Negroid or admixtures of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, both being
these. This concept is perhaps virulently states in modern India. The idea of race
anti-scientific and badly outdated in the itself may have originated in a narrow
twenty-first century, even though such European and North American context to
concepts along with their less-desirable account for wide difference in physical
24 26
The Myth of Human races, Alain F. Corcos, The Myth of Race: The troubling persistence of
Wheatmark, 1997 an unscientific idea: Robert Wald Sussman, 2014,
25
The Concept of Race, Ashley Montague, The Harward University Press
Free Press, New York 1997

features between European immigrants and Clumsy theories based or a loose
populations from Africa, and inferences on interpretation of a highly ambiguous
the equality or inequality of races may have concept still regularly continue to do the
been built over this narrow and limited rounds, an example of which can be found
understanding.27 Awareness of cultures in in the book “IQ and the Wealth of Nations”
28
other parts of the world in the Twenty-first Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhaven. This
century and universality of scholarship book, which was heavily criticized by other
should have proven to be the final nail in scholars and directly or indirectly endorsed
the coffin for such concepts, but they never by some racist’s attempts to measure IQ or
fully disappeared from the popular public the Intelligence Quotient based on
consciousness. Even the much-criticised nationality. The Flynn effect on the other
Hindu Caste system argued for a more hand, presumes that intelligence increases
complex hierarchy which was perhaps among the general population due to
29 30 31
reflective of the complex ethnic origins of nutritional and other factors. We
the populations of South Asia. The idea of would like to strike a fine balance between
intelligence is perhaps even more poorly racist interpretations on one hand, and
defined that the idea of race, and measures utopian and romantic notions on the other
to test intelligence are probably far from here. While the interests of long-term
perfect. The term ‘Cognitive ability’ is science and scholarship should
perhaps a much more scientific and undoubtedly take precedence over all other
measurable term than intelligence and is concerns, there are many aspects that
probably a much safer and surer bet in the should merit very serious consideration in
long-term. Hence, all arguments on “race” addition to the many uncertainties
and “intelligence” however wonderfully or associated with arriving at a satisfactory
artfully presented and articulated, are more definition of the term intelligence. A short
often than not, likely to be allied with list of issues that need to be effectively and
vested interests and ulterior motives or at systematically eliminated before as
least be gross misrepresentations incapable assessment of cognitive ability of global
of doing justice to all aspects of the debate. populations is carried out includes (a)
27 30
The inequality of Human races Arthur Comte The Mismeasure of Man, Stephen Jay Gould, W
the Gobineau H. Fertig, 1999 W Norton and company, 1996
28
IQ and the Wealth of Nations by Richard Lynn 31
The Bell curve, Richard J. Herrnstein, Charles Murray, 1994
and Tatu Vanhaven Westport, CT Praeger
29
What is Flynn effect? James R Flynn Cambridge
University Press, 2007

Nutritional deficiencies in populations in Theories of language spread and
specific parts of the world due to low language dynamics
income levels (b) Biases and deficiencies
What is language dynamics?
of IQ tests (c) Factors attributed to Verbal
intelligence or the absence thereof and
Language dynamics is a rapidly evolving
language specific-skills; (d) Difference
field (in the late Twentieth and early
arising from educational ability (d)
Twenty-first centuries) and comprises a
Difference arising from Cultural factors
systematic investigation of how languages
such as parental and peer-pressure (e)
change over a period in time, how changes
Aspirational factors and the presence of
take place due to contacts with speakers of
aspiration deficit in some cultures (f)
other languages and how languages and
Differences in parental initiation across
dialects compete with each other for
cultures and sub-cultures (f) Economic
viability, and either survive, thrive and
factors playing spoilsport to ambitions (g)
prosper or decline and die out over a period
Variations in career paths chosen among
in time. Language dynamics also partly
different nationalities due to economic and
covers the birth and death of languages.
other factors. We need to ensure that all
The formal study of language dynamics is
effects directly or indirectly arising from
divided into theoretical frameworks of
these or other similar factors need to be
various kinds attempting to address various
disregarded before a balanced assessment
issues pertaining all aspects of the subject,
is arrived at. This is an issue that only
a formal and investigative data analysis and
indirectly and circuitously affects the core
computational modelling. Language
and underlying theme presented in this
dynamics may be classified into diachronic
paper, but is nevertheless symbolic of our
analysis (also known as historical
core values and we therefore do not deem
linguistics) and synchronic analysis which
it inapt to take the liberty of mentioning it
is a formal study of language dynamics and
in passing. We also reiterate that all future
changes in languages at a point in time.
tests and measures must be designed in
Another interesting area of study is how
such a way that differences arising from
diachronic factors impact a synchronic
such factors are nullified and neutralized.
analysis of language dynamics. Thus, this
sub-field explores the co-relation between
diachronic linguistics and synchronic
linguistics. Changes to language may also

be classified as internally-generated or Classical theories of spread of language
induced or changes wrought through
We will now examine some classical
external influences including contacts with
theories of language spread and linguistic
speakers of other languages. another way
change which had relatively strong
of classifying changes are changes from
following in the Nineteenth and early
above encompassing changes brought
Twentieth centuries.
about through political influences and
intellectual traditions and changes from
Tree model
below which encapsulate more natural
changes. The terms “conservative” and The Tree Model was first popularized by
“innovative” may also be used to describe August Schleicher over one and a half
the rate of linguistic change. The terms centuries ago. In its most basic form, the
“Transformation” or “Progression” are ‘Tree model’ consists of supposed Proto-
sometimes also used to describe linguistic Language, say ‘Proto-languages ‘A’
change. Analysis of linguistic change may branching into languages ‘B’, ‘C’ and ‘D’.
also be classified as real-time analysis ‘B’, ‘C’ and ‘D’ in turn may further branch
which assumes that significant changes to form newer language. This is described
take place during the lifetime of a speakers through a phylogenetic tree or a cladistic
and apparent time analysis which assumes tree. From our perspective, this antiquated
that linguistic ability is primarily acquired model is too simplistic and theoretical to
during a young age. Real-time analysis have any practical value in the real world.
detects linguistic variations and changes It may be difficult to demonstrate real-
over a period in time. Apparent-time world examples of the Tree model, and this
sociolinguistics surveys different model does not perhaps address all kinds of
generations of populations at a given point real-time scenarios and may therefore be
in time. 32
The approach proposed in this conceptually and fundamentally limited in
paper is expected to be somewhat in its real world applicability apart from being
variance with the existing approaches in very badly outdated.
the marketplace. 33 The Wave Model
The Wave Model was first proposed by

Hugo Schuchardt and Johannes Schmidt
32 33
Apparent and real time in studies of linguistic Linguistics: The ultimate language test Adrian J.
change and variation by M. Teresa Turell Williams

around 1870 as an alternative to the ‘Tree language changes and evolves in tune with
model’. Under the Wave Model, an its users’ needs and the needs of society,
instance of language change arises usually and language is a meaning-making
from within a geographical region, and exercise. This theory appears to focus more
from there spreads to adjacent speaker on lexical changes than other types of
groups. The propagation of the change is changes. Words may therefore be coined to
therefore like a ‘wave’ which expands reflect technological changes, new legal
away from its centre as the new feature is requirements, new discoveries, slang etc.
adopted by other languages usually in the The Random Fluctuation theory proposed
region. Additionally, different features by Paul Postal and Charles Hockett
may spread independently of each other in proposed that linguistic changes are
different directions and different periods of unpredictable, and linguistic changes are
time. According to Bloomfield (1933: more or less random. The Substratum
317), “Different linguistic changes may theory of linguistic change proposes that
spread, like waves, over a speech-area, and changes in language occur as a result of
each change may be carried out over a part external changes such as trade relations,
of the area that does not coincide with the migrations, invasions, networking and
part covered by an earlier change.” The cultural contacts. The S-Curve Theory of
Wave Model, along with along its complex Linguistic change proposed by Chen
extensions, may not address all kinds of (1972) and Bailey (1973) proposed that the
scenarios arising out of Human migrations, rate of linguistic change resembles an S-
and is already ingrained as a part of one of Curve, remaining low initially, increasing
34 35
the scenarios proposed in our paper. rapidly and then levelling off. This theory
also proposes that changes in language take
More recent theories of linguistic change
place mainly on account of social factors.
We will now provide a high-level overview According to Peter Trudgill’s Gravity
of some alternative models of linguistic Model of linguistic diffusion, linguistic
change proposed by scholars in the more changes take place due to social contact
recent past. According to the Functional between speakers of different languages.
theory proposed by M.A.K Halliday, Changes are proportional to factors such as
35
Principles of Linguistic change WillIiam Labov
34
Indo-European linguistics: An introduction James Wiley Blackwell 2010
Clarkson Cambridge

distance or proximity and population size. part of emergence of social values and
According to the Parameter theory of cultural processes in society or culture.
Linguistic Change, there are core and Merits and demerits of these approaches
subset parameters set during the language apart, any approach will also need to
acquisition process, and these are not prone address underlying causes of linguistic
to conscious manipulation or alteration change over a period of time and across
during adulthood. There are other geographies including Social factors,
parameters reflecting factors which pertain Political factors, Technological factors,
to or lead to language changes. The second Cultural diffusion which may arise due to
set of parameters typically induce contact with speakers of other languages
linguistic changes. According to the etc. Our basic assumption here is that the
Theory of Lexical Gaps, a word will be rate of linguistic change is never constant
invented or borrowed to fill in gaps in and may fluctuate very widely due to a
usage. This theory states that linguistic result in an interplay of various factors in a
changes are mainly driven by lexical gaps. manner that future trends can be predicted,
Steven Pinker and Paul Bloom for example but to a limited degree and subject to
recommend adaptationist approaches.36 certain constraints. It would also be
Evolutionary Biology is a systematic necessary to understand such changes in
investigation of the evolution of sound conjunction with various factors so that
patterns in speech and their typological linguistic changes can be better-justified or
distributions across space and time. analyzed with underlying causes, and
Juliette Blevins’s theory of evolutionary periods of relative non-linguistic change
phonology attempts to account for can be segregated from periods of relative
synchronic phonological patterns as the linguistic change and similarly justified
result of phonetic changes in the with sound reasoning. There are many
transmission of sound systems from underlying causes of linguistic change and
37
generation to generation over time. Lev we reproduce a few of them below:
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of human
Efficiency, economy and simplicity
learning or the ‘Language as a tool’ theory
describes learning as a social process as a
36
n and Cognitive Sciences Massachusetts Institute
NATURAL LANGUAGE AND NATURAL SELECTION , of Technology
37
Steven Pinker and Paul Bloom Department of Brai A Theoretical Synopsis of Evolutionary
Phonology Juliette Belvins

Speakers typically feel the need to express and conjunctions. Languages must also be
their thoughts and ideas not just lucidly and clear and unambiguous; it must possess
eloquently but through the judicious use of inbuilt mechanisms to minimize confusion
words. If these principles are not satisfied, arising from incorrect usage. If these
linguistic changes may result over a period principle is not satisfied, linguistic change
in time, and these may manifest themselves may result.
in a variety of different ways. For example,
Expressiveness and comprehensiveness
the emergence of Vulgar Latin as a
of vocabulary
counterweight to Classical Latin, the
relative decline of French versus English as Language must be expressive enough to
a global lingua franca and the emergence of cover the needs of its users in a wide
Hinglish (a combination of poorly spoken variety of situations. If this principle is not
English and Pidgin Hindi) across India and satisfied, words will either be invented or
various pidgins and creoles around the borrowed from other languages to fill in
world in recent times in lieu of Standard gaps and satisfy this principle.
English are cases in point. Role-based suitability
Naturalness A language must be inherently and innately
Languages must also be as natural to the suitable for the role it is expected to play.
speaker as possible and must be suited to If this does not happen, such as the loss of
expressing the speaker’s thoughts and functions of a language.
ideas without unnecessary strain or effort. User or ethnic prestige and pride
A related principle is the ‘Principle of least
Language must also cater to user prestige
effort’. If this principle is not satisfied, it
and pride. If this does not happen, other
may trigger changes to language in the
consequences may result. For example,
long-term, or in some way, lead to its
speakers of certain basilect of Telugu are
decline.
known to abandon their language very
Emphasis and Clarity easily as they move to Non-Telugu
Language must satisfy the principle of speaking regions.
emphasis to a reasonable degree i.e. the Response to technological and other

tight emphasis must be placed on different changes
worlds and parts of speech including
different verbs, nouns, adverbs adjectives

Languages must also respond to Changes due to geographical separation
technological, legal, economic or cultural of users
changes. If this is not effected in a formal
Changes may also result from geographical
and structured fashion, and in a way that
separation of users. When speakers of a
will satisfy all other principles discussed
language move away from each other, and
here, other kind of changes will result such
lose contact over a protracted period in
as the ceding of functions to other
time, language usage may diverge.
languages, or word borrowings.
American English separated itself from
Innovation due to language contact British English due to this very principle.
Changes often take place due to contacts Changes due to increased competency of
with speakers of other languages. This may speakers
often be due to migrations of speakers from
Changes may also take place due to the
one region to the other or cultural
increasing competency of speakers as a
imperialism. In the post-globalized world
result of increasing standards of education
physical contact between speakers of
among the wider populace, the
different languages may not even be
universalization or near-universalization of
necessary; The Internet, Satellite
education and any resultant intellectual
television, mobile phones and other
revolution leading to an illumination and
modern technologies may empower people
enlightenment among the masses.
and facilitate intra-cultural contacts among
them. Changes due to the abandonment of a
language by its own native speakers
Changes due to imperfect learning
In some cases, a language may be
Changes to language may often take place
abandoned by its own native speakers. In
due to imperfect learning. If a significant
some cases, native speakers of a language
proportion of speakers of a language do not
continue to use a language only in some
learn a language properly, it may result in
contexts. This may result in a loss of some
linguistic decay in the long term. Imperfect
functions in a language. For example, the
learning may also occur when a large
number of English schools (Where English
number of non-native speakers try to learn
is the primary medium of instruction has
a language thereby impacting the way
increased manifold in the state of Andhra
native speakers use the language.
Pradesh since the year 2000. Thus many
native speakers of Telugu are rapidly

losing competency in written Telugu, and place additional emphasis on them, and
are yet more comfortable with spoken choose to leave out certain other words
Telugu than spoken English. More which are no longer in widespread use.
interestingly, the second language taught in
Types of Linguistic Changes
many of these schools in not Telugu but
Hindi. As a result, standards of written According to Marcel Cohen and others, the
Telugu are falling precipitously while types of linguistic change encompassing
standards of spoken and written English both internal and external change are as
and Hindi are not increasing appreciably. follows. These changes usually are widely
This trend is expected to lead to an overall accepted over a period in time by speakers
decline in linguistic ability among native of the language or by more influential
Telugu speakers in general in the long- speakers and become the linguistic norm.
term. Thus, linguistic change occurs. Another

way a change can occur is through lexical
Changes due to Innovation
diffusion. In such a case, changes to a
Changes may also take place due to phoneme gradually spread throughout or to
constant innovation and refinement and a a part of the language’s vocabulary
language like English has lent itself fairly bringing about a language-wide change. 38:
well to various types of innovation such as
Lexical changes
word coinage and word borrowings from
other languages. Speaker innovation may Examples of lexical changes include the
or may not percolate into the community; it continuous coinage of new words and
is in the second case that changes to expressions particularly in vibrant
language typically take place. languages such as English. English has also
borrowed liberally from other languages all
Changes due to transmission of language
around the world, including less
from generation to generation
prestigious ones and this has endowed it
Changes can also take place due to with enormous flexibility and adaptability
transmission of language from generation not seen in languages such as French. On
to generation. A generation may transmit the other hand languages such as Japanese
additional words to the next generation and most modern Indian languages have
which are more in tune with the times, or borrowed words informally from English.
38
Language: It’s structure and evolution, Marcel
Cohen, Souvenir Press

The use of English words in Indian phonological system itself changes. In
languages is widespread even where local general, phonetic drifts tend to take place
equivalents are available, this process in many languages over a period in time.
appears to have happened entirely
Spelling changes
informally, and not by imposition of
authority. On the other hand, attempts to Spelling changes have also been observed
artificially create words in Rajbhasha or in language. The spelling in American
official Hindi have thus far failed English is at variance with the spelling in
miserably. Lexical changes may also lead British English; the former is relatively
to a loss of words, as they drop out of simpler than the latter. Spellings in both
general or popular usage. In some cases, English and French have changed over the
the word is retained but the meaning itself past few centuries, and standardization of
changes either subtly or significantly. spelling and orthography is a relatively
Thus, lexical changes are of three main recent concept and was largely kickstarted
categories, addition of new words, word due to widespread literacy.
borrowings and deletion of words from the Semantic changes

vocabulary through disuse.
Semantics refers to a formal, structured
Phonetic changes study of the meanings of words in
Changes to pronunciation have also been language. Semantic changes refer to
observed in a relatively short span in time, changes in the meanings of words over a
a case in point being the emergence of period in time. Some types of Semantic
American English. Subtle changes in changes include
pronunciation have also been observed in (a) Amelioration: In this case, a terms
American English from the 1920’s till date. connotations become more positive
Changes to pronunciation have also been (b) Pejoration: In this case, a term’s
observed in Proto Indo-European or Base connotations become more
Indo-European as it morphed due to negative
contacts with other languages. A scientific (c) Broadening: In this case, a term
study of phonology encompasses a formal acquires additional meanings
study of the rules by which acoustic signals (d) Narrowing: In this case, a term
are generated. In contrast to phonetic loses some of its meanings
changes, phonological changes are said to
take place when the languages

(e) Taboos: In this case a word Our approach towards Origin of
becomes a taboo word and drops languages and linguistic change
out of use
Our approach towards linguistic change
(f) Adoption of euphemisms in lieu of
categorizes linguistic changes into changes
words that become socially
induced by human migrations, and changes
unacceptable
that are not induced or accompanied by
Syntactic change human migrations in such a way that
scenarios triggered by human migrations
Syntax constitutes an independent level of
are further analysed in the context of more
description from either phonology or
general scenarios proposed as a part of this
semantics. Syntax regulates the
paper. The evolution and epigenesis of
arrangements of words into larger units
languages as per our ‘Epochal Polygenesis’
such as phrases and sentences, which are
approach will also be naturally be impacted
crucial to determine meaning. Syntactic
by changes brought about by migrations
changes refers to the evolution of the
wherever these are applicable, and we
syntactical structure of a language. Many
therefore present them below. While these
languages including languages that do not
scenarios had initially evolved in the
possess literary traditions have actually
narrow context of the Indo-European
been demonstrated to be syntactically and
debate and the Indo-Europeanization of the
grammatically complex, and the reason for
world, and solutions proposed by us in this
this is a mystery. Syntactical changes
regard, these are general and
include changes in word order such and the
comprehensive enough to be universalized
development of SVO languages into SOV
across time and space and can probably be
languages and vice versa.
applied, with insignificant and petty
Morphological changes modifications in any general context. Our
Morphological changes may include presentation of human migration-induced
addition of affixes, loss of affixes, changes changes before non migration-induced
of language from analytic to synthetic and changes is deliberate and intentional; the
synthetic to analytic etc. An interesting effects of migration-induced scenarios on
example is the reduction in the inflexional linguistic change and evolution will then be
complexity of English between the logical and self-descriptive. The Epochal
fourteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Polygenesis approach categorizes human

causes of which are still poorly understood. pre-history and history into the Pre-

historical period, Proto-historical period, classification in a generalized context, but
Historical period, the Modern pre- we will make an earnest attempt to address
globalized period and the Post-globalized them in the truest spirit of a collaborative
period. approach.
The Ten types of Linguistic (a) Complete replacement or Annihilation

Transformations associated with of languages: We had proposed in our
Human Migrations earlier paper that this would be a very
simplistic view, and one that may be
From our perspective, Linguistic
practically rare and inapplicable to most
transformations arising out of Human
situations. A scholar wanting to prove or
Migrations can be of the following ten
demonstrate the real-world applicability of
types, and we briefly explain them below.
such a scenario, is expected to provide
Some concepts have already been put forth
adequate data ruling out all other scenarios.
by J P Mallory, Witzel and other scholars,
Such scenarios have however, been
again in the specific context of Indo-
observed in the real-world on occasion
European studies, even though our
examples being the annihilation of native
compilation and classification of scenarios
languages in the USA and other parts of the
is much more comprehensive and detailed.
world. This can be justified on account of
These typically involve changes to two or
factors such as the degree of development
more languages, and such changes can be
of languages native to the region vis-à-vis
of many types including lexical changes,
those of immigrants, political factors, and
semantic changes, syntactical changes etc.
the fact that immigrants populations may
These will have widespread and universal
have been able to assert their identity. The
applicability in the pre-historical, proto-
latter contributed to the linguistic
historical, historical, modern and post-
suzerainty of English. In spite of this,
globalized periods. These are not intended
French, another immigrant language, is
to be close-ended, and other scholars may
only slowly dying out in Louisiana, and is
still identify more scenarios and add them
far from dead in Quebec, where it is
to this list. Our approach is not to discard
actually thriving, and is the chief language
them altogether but to make an earnest
of the province. This process appears to
attempt to generalize them in the overall
have taken place in Southern Sri Lanka as
backdrop of linguistic changes induced by
well, though in slow motion, as immigrants
human migrations. We anticipate some
from North India in 600 BC may have been
criticism and animosity as regards the

relatively small in number. It is likely that and North Africa, Modern standard Arabic
other languages of the region, like those is only used as a formal and a literary
spoken by the present-day Veddahs of the language, and the levelling of various
region, were subsumed over a protracted dialects of Arabic still appears to be
span of time. However, as these languages nowhere in sight. Thus, Arabic is not only
may have also heavily influenced the polycentric but also diaglossic. John
language of the immigrants, and this may Gumperz and Robert Wilson (1971)
be a fit case for what me may refer to as a provide data from Kupwar, a small village
roller-ball model, and not plain-vanilla or in South-Western India, whose residents
simplistic case of linguistic annihilation. mainly speak Marathi, Urdu and Kannada
The classification of this scenario as a (A few also speak Telugu). These
roller-ball model may also be in order languages have co-existed for centuries
because the Sinhala language in its present without encroaching on, or destroying each
form certainly did not exist when other. This may be in part due to the fact
immigrations were purported to have taken that none of the languages in this case was
place, and Sinhala is a product of Sri dominant and all languages were therefore
Lankan soil and is of relatively more recent able to flourish alongside each other. All
origin. Furthermore, other languages have these examples should serve to illustrate
not disappeared completely from Sri Lanka that complete replacement or annihilation
and languages other than Sinhala and is not necessarily the de facto method of
Tamil are still spoken in pockets including linguistic transformation. On the contrary,
in areas where both Sinhala and Tamil are it may be relatively rare and needs to be
the majority languages. This may also be justified or demonstrated though
referred to as the Survival of the fittest incontrovertible or relatively strong
model as observed in the case of the USA. evidence. It is also a well-known fact that
On the other hand, a dialect of English some languages of the Indo-European
which was once spoken in the London area family are SVO languages, and some
quickly became the standard variety of others are SOV languages. The process of
English. The death of other dialects of change in the word order of languages (this
English was however only an extremely itself may be relatively rare) may also be
slow process only aided by factors such as studied in detail so that linguistic
urbanization, education, internal transformations may be categorized
migrations and the popularity of English appropriately. If the transformation of SVO
outside the UK. In much of the Middle East languages into SOV languages or the other

way around cannot be justified, we would successive waves of immigrations of
have hit another linguistic jackpot: this mostly low-end workers in recent times.
would automatically throw light on the This has led to some changes to the Turkish
nature of linguistic transformation in language as spoken by immigrants, but the
different cases. arrival of the Turkish language in Europe
has barely impacted languages such as
(b) Linguistic Sub-ordination: Linguistic
German and French, and even where an
Sub-ordination was another concept we
impact has been observed, they have been
had discussed in our previous paper, and
39
insignificant and trivial. Another study
may be relatively more common, at least in
has documented the effects of Hindi and
the short to medium term. We had also
even Punjabi and English on Bagri, a
introduced the ‘Doctrine of
dialect of Rajasthani which in turn, is
Insubordination’ where we discussed that
variously categorized as an independent
languages could cede functions to other
language or a dialect of Hindi. In this case,
languages much more easily, thereby
changes have again been found to be uni-
losing them, rather than complete
directional.
annihilation. This concept has been
explained in detail in one of our previous (c) Roller-ball model (Single loop): In this
papers. Linguistic sub-ordination would case, an alien language spreads up to a
lead to lexical, syntactical, morphological certain point in a given region, loses its
and semantic changes over a period of original form, and takes over
time, as well as the coinage of words and characteristics and influences of a language
expressions and word borrowings. It may or set of languages native to the region. The
also lead to a loss of vocabulary in some languages native to the region are also
cases, and the loss of functions of a heavily influenced by the alien language,
language. This process would typically such that they are transformed
lead to changes in a languages role as well significantly. This process would lead to a
over a period in time. Another interesting transformational change in both languages.
example that may fit the bill here is the One possible variation to this theme is the
spread of the Turkish language is swathes emergence of new kinds of multiethnolect
of Western Europe on account of Englishes in the USA first as a result of
39 Western European Turkish. Ad Backus, J.

Linguistic Effects of Immigration: Language
Choice, Codeswitching, and Change in Norman Jorgensen and Carol Pfaff

immigrants from Africa, and then more into the Gangetic plains taking over the
recently from Asia and other parts of the influences the ancestors of Prakrits and
world. We believe the Sinhala language other indigenous languages before
originated this way. Hybridized languages disappearing and reinventing itself as a
or a mixture of one or more languages are lingua franca and a liturgical language.
also an interesting phenomenon. However, this type of linguistic change
may be generalized outside the perspective
(d) Roller-ball model (Double or Multiple
of IE studies to cover all kinds of special
loop) (This scenario may also be
and complex scenarios applicable in a
generalized to cover all-kinds of complex
specific geographical context or time frame
and one-off scenarios that have widespread
that cannot be satisfactorily fitted into the
and universal applicability): We had first
other types of linguistic change. Future
developed this in the narrow context of
researchers must make an earnest attempt
Indo-European studies and the impact of
to identify as many complex scenarios as
Proto Indo-European or Base Indo-
possible within their jurisdiction or area of
European on languages in outlying regions,
study, particularly those not covered under
particularly India, and this was an
other scenarios mentioned in this paper.
extension of the Single Loop Roller-ball
This must be a conscious and deliberate
model where both groups of languages
process to avoid over-simplifications and
keep influencing each other. Refer our
over-generalizations of different sorts. One
detailed model on the relationship between
example we can think of that can be
the PIE, Sanskrit and Prakrits which is also
classified under the category of relatively
presented in our earlier papers.40 41 42 Such
complex scenarios are changes in the
complex scenarios may be relatively rare in
Bengali language on account of the
other contexts and situations, and may have
settlement of Bengali speakers in Hindi
taken place as a result of special conditions.
states. The resultant changes to the Bengali
In this case, a descendant of base Indo-
language may then be further magnified on
European continued to propagate in ancient
account of the eventual relocation of these
India, into and out of the Vedic homeland,
40
Syncretism and Acculturation in Ancient India: A transfer of power from the Harappan to the Indo-
new Nine phase model explaining the process of Aryans Part Two Sujay Rao Mandavilli ICFAI
transfer of power from the Harappan to the Indo- Journal of History and Culture, 2010
42
Aryans Part One Sujay Rao Mandavilli ICFAI The Demise of the Dravidian, Vedic and
Journal of History and Culture, 2009 Paramunda Indus myths Sujay Rao Mandavilli
41
Syncretism and Acculturation in Ancient India: A
new Nine phase model explaining the process of

Bengali language speakers back to their borrowings, and it would be interesting to
home state. 43 As already stated, a thorough note that many Greek words entered
understanding of the specifics of the region languages like English through Latin.
and the time-frame under consideration Additionally, Greek loan words were
will unlock the full potential of this borrowed directly into English as well.
approach. This clearly demonstrates the complexity
of factors causing or determining the
(e) Extended Roller-ball model (Roller-ball
interrelationship between the world’s
model combined with Billiard-like
languages, and we would again add a
extensions): In this model, a language
cautionary note urging scholars to desist
spreads up to a certain point through one of
from simplistic assumptions. The key
the methods described above, and then
evidence for a billiard-like of a spread
spreads primarily through cultural
comes from the wide variations in the
diffusion at later points in time to various
dating of various languages belonging to
other outlying regions. This may explain
the IE family, and this approach may be
the Indo-Europeanization of most of
applied if the process of Indo-
Europe as Latin, already a member of the
Europeanization in a given region began
Indo-European language family, began to
late. To study this methodically, a thorough
influence several other languages of
knowledge of histories in various regions
Europe to give birth to languages such as
along with a knowledge of the Ancient and
French and Italian. This largely happened
modern languages of the region is
due to the power of the Roman Empire and
mandatory. This type of a scenario
several other political events which took
manifested itself in Ancient India too, with
place during and immediately after the fall
both Prakrits and Sanskrit influencing
of the Roman Empire. Latin heavily
various Dravidian languages
influenced Old English as late as the Tenth
independently. Typically, the second type
century, and French and even Scandinavian
of a spread begins after the language has
languages also similarly influenced Old
already planted itself in a given region or
English. However, this was unlikely to
has established itself; examples here are
have been a direct or a simplistic
Greek, Latin or Sanskrit. This explains how
replacement as presumed by most scholars.
Sanskrit influenced the languages of South
Most of the influences were through word
43
Bengali in contact with Hindi, Bornini Lahiri the Linguistic Society of India Volume 76,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, Journal of Numbers 3-4, 2015

East also. A critical analysis of all our (h) Transhumance movements without
findings would of course rule out any linguistic change: In this scenario, there in
notion that spread of languages necessarily minimal or no interaction between
happened in tandem with the movement of speakers at least in the short-term to the
peoples. No other assumption can perhaps medium-term and both languages continue
be as damaging to our cause than this. to exist in parallel without one language
impacting the other permanently or to any
(f) Assimilation: The language(s) of the
significant degree. Such scenarios have
immigrants die out completely over a
been observed in India too, and may have
period of time, leaving behind virtually no
been more common in case of pre-historic
trace. This is diametrically opposed to the
migrations. These were also a
idea of annihilation of languages, and may
characteristic of some scenarios of
likewise happen under rare or special
language spread in colonial times. An
circumstances. Examples of such scenarios
example of this scenario is the case of
are Non-English speaking immigrants into
French in Pondicherry in India.
the USA, and the decline of the Telugu
language in Tamil Nadu. Persian in India (i) Lateral influences (or other influences):
did not survive long after the decline of the Lateral influences were observed in the
Mughal Empire in spite of the fact that it context of Indo-European studies. I.e.
did impact the languages of the region. lateral influences between Iran and India
which played a key role in the evolution of
(g) Cultural diffusion without
Vedic Sanskrit. This concept therefore
transhumance movements or ‘Pure
needs to be generalized to make it
Acculturation’: We had declared this to be
applicable to various other contexts. For
relatively rare from the perspective of
example, Hindi, which is a modern Indo-
Indo-European studies as linguistic
Aryan language was greatly influenced by
changes unaccompanied by human
Persian during the medieval era and
migrations would have been rare in
various other influences. Thus, the
Ancient times. However, such paradigms
evolution of Hindi and Urdu can be traced
are common in the Twenty-first century
to many complex factors. We may adopt a
due to the ubiquity of technology. For
layer by layer approach here. We may also
example, English has spread worldwide as
generalize this scenario and categories
a lingua franca without accompanying
influences into influences from major
human migrations. Refer the section on
sources and minor or secondary sources. A
‘Linguistic Osmosis’ in this paper.

case in point may the impact of English and expected that a scholar would analyse them
Hindi on Kannada which are likely to be on a case to case basis.
major. On the other hand, the impact of
(a) The number of immigrants vis-à-vis
Telugu and Tamil or Kannada are expected
the numerical strength of the local
to be minor.
population
(j) Variants or combinations of the above
scenarios may also be pervasive in the real- (b) The technological and cultural
world and as such it is only expected that superiority or attributes of the immigrants
scholars will take cues from the above vis-à-vis the local population
scenarios. Thus we wish to sidestep over-
(c) Cultural attributes and policy adopted
regimented approaches at every stage of
by the local populations
the discussion.
We would refer to these as the ‘Ten types (d) Attitudes or linguistic loyalties of the
of linguistic transformations associated immigrants
with Human migrations.’ In our view, and
(e) The Linguistic distance between the
at least from our much more focused
languages of the immigrants vis-à-vis the
perspective which is centred on linguistic
local languages
change wrought by transhumance
movements, the above classification would (f) The degree of linguistic inequality
constitute a vastly superior approach to between the languages of the immigrants
existing classification models which are vis-à-vis the local languages. This will
also discussed in passing in this paper, and encompass sentence structure and aspects
should address linguistic changes arising of Grammar too; for example we had used
out of transhumance movements at an the fact the IA languages are SOV
enhanced level of granularity. This languages unlike most other IE languages
approach always talks about two or more which are SVO languages to campaign for
streams of languages and adds several a Roller-ball model.
more dimensions the issue, including
mandating a knowledge of local histories (g) Other factors such as ‘Linguistic
and issues. Osmosis’ (Refer to the ‘Theory of
Linguistic Osmosis’ proposed in our paper)
The following issues would also be central
– This will include both extraneous factors
to the above-mentioned debate, and it is

and internal considerations like ethnic effort between scholars of various hues and
rivalry etc. colours, across cultures and varying
backgrounds, in such a way that the
(h) The level of evolution of the language
resultant synergies lead to an exponential
of the immigrants
increase in knowledge. Linguistic changes
due to migrations and language contacts
(i) The level of evolution of the
can also be categorized as Lexical changes,
languages of the destination area
Phonetic changes, Semantic changes,
(j) The standing of the immigrants in the Syntactic changes, Changes to spelling and
social hierarchy of their newly adopted Morphological changes. The key here
homeland. would be to accomplish a thorough
understanding of the history of the region
(k) Any other factors or considerations
in question, a thorough knowledge of the
understood from a detailed analysis of the languages in question and the principles of
issue in question.
language change.
Any discussion will be wholly null and

Non migration-induced linguistic
void unless accompanied by a thorough
changes
knowledge of the local history or histories,
culture, languages both ancient and Epochal Polygenesis approach
modern, and a working knowledge of any
We present the Epochal Polygenesis
other extraneous factors impacting such
approach as explained below. We divide
issues. A familiarity with the linguistic and
the origin of language and explain the
archaeological evidence pertaining to the
possible high-level changes to language
area is also highly preferable. Thus, we do
into five major epochs for the purpose of
not propose a model where a scholar is
our study and our analysis. These are the
required to acquire proficiency in a large
Pre-historic period (encompassing the
number of additional or distantly related
Stone Age (The Palaeolithic age and the
languages in an unreasonably short span of
Mesolithic age) and the Neolithic age), The
time. For the author, or virtually anyone
Proto-historic age (encompassing the
else in question, this would essentially be
Neolithic age and the Early Chalcolithic
an unworkable proposition and a
age), The historic period (encompassing
humongous waste of human resources or
the Late Chalcolithic age, The Old world,
time. What is required is a collaborative
The Iron age, The Ancient world, The

Medieval era, The Renaissance, The Age 1. Instinct and facilitated
of discovery and The Georgian era), The experimentation driven by
Modern Pre-globalized era (from the ontogenetic and other factors
Victorian era to the end of the Twentieth 2. Innovation and creativity
century), The Age of globalization. (The 3. Necessity and dire necessity
end of the Twentieth century and the 4. Societal pressure, peer pressure and
Twentieth Centuries). (Refer Table No.1) societal needs
Pre-historic period Instinct and Facilitated experimentation

driven by Ontogenetic factors
The idea of language
The theory of facilitated experimentation
This approach is based on four
carried out by early humans which was
fundamental pillars or premises. We refer
made possible due to the sufficient
to these as the four key drivers of spoken
evolution of human speech organs,
language. These are very fundamental, and
language processing centres in the brain
taken together, are meant to encompass all
such as Broca’s area and the Wernicke’s
facets of early human endeavour and other
area and also mirror neurons. All these
factors leading to the emergence of spoken
factors must be studied together, as even
language. We believe that all other theories
dogs possess the ability to understand basic
and hypothesis will be subservient to these
words, though they cannot reproduce them.
four drivers. We also believe that the idea
These factors, along with the relative
of spoken language would have been
advanced social and cultural status of even
autochthonous to most early human
early humans vis-a-vis other animals
societies and basic proto-language would
would have led to accelerated
have evolved independently in most early
experimentation even in the very early
human societies, though at different
days. This would have led to the production
periods in time. It is also likely that
of primitive speech and was perhaps the
innovation was driven by a few clans and
first step in the evolution of spoken
tribes and then imitated by others in a
language. It is most likely that the
region.
development of speech organs was a
We believe the four key drivers of the gradual one. Some primates possessed
emergence of spoken language are: remarkable cognitive ability in relation to
other species in the animal kingdom, and
some reproducibility of sound patterns.

There is also increasing fossil evidence that possessed the ability to deal with these
Neanderthal man and other early hominins technologies. Another evidence for this
such as Homo Heidelbergensis possessed a comes from baby-talk and the penchant for
much greater capacity to process and infants to not only produce gibberish but
reproduce speech than previously also to transition to speech smoothly even
imagined. These factors, taken together with minimal structured or formal training,
with Darwinian models of evolution would given that even those who are not imparted
naturally point towards a much slower grammar lessons possess language. Infants
process of linguistic evolution than early also speak because they want to
linguists had acknowledged. All these communicate their fears, concerns,
factors call for a more leisurely pace of anxieties, pleasure or joy. Speech may also
linguistic evolution in the Pre-historic be considered instinctive because an
epoch, and these fit the co-ordinates of our infant’s prattle may often be at variance
approach rather well indeed. The idea of with the rules of a formal structured
language as an instinct was originally language. While all this is undoubtedly
proposed by Charles Darwin way back in true, we believe that this approach has its
1871 and has been ratified by Steven own limitations; one must make a
Pinker as well in his book “The language distinction between speech and language.
of instinct: The New Science of Language While primitive speech may be instinctive;
and Mind”, and according to him, this is full blown language may not; it must be
one of the reasons language has become so taught like an art or a science. Wherever it
complex. Darwin’s idea of language may is not formally or correctly taught, either
be summed up in what he calls “an through an external entity or through self-
instinctive tendency to acquire an art.” learning, the quality of even spoken
Steven Pinker’s ideas are endorsed by language or linguistic ability is bound to be
some other scholars such as Noam relatively limited, even in native contexts.
Chomsky who propose that language is an Therefore, one suggestion is to propose
innate human instinct, and was therefore three classifications. One, the capacity for
ubiquitous is all early human societies. speech would be purely instinctive; Speech
This was quite unlike other technologies would be partly instinctive and partly
such as early transportation technology and learnt. Full-blown language would be
metallurgy which were more consciously mostly learnt and driven not just by instinct
learnt and transmitted in ancient cultures; but by the four key drivers described in this
furthermore only a specialized few paper namely instinct, innovation and

creativity, necessity and dire necessity, grammatical concepts without consigning
societal needs, peer pressure and societal them to writing and without resorting to
pressure but to varying degrees. Even self- complex or formal memory aids. There an
help and a desire to succeed would be abundance of data from cultures around the
driven by peer-pressure or societal needs to world to support this view. The literacy rate
some degree. This may also be driven by in India was just 9% in the early Twentieth
instinct in part. This would be applicable century rising very slowly to 12% in 1947,
across all epochs and is applicable to to 75% in 2011 and close to 80% in 2016.
almost all contexts and situations. This is Parts of Africa have fared much worse than
yet another cornerstone of our approach. India with countries like Liberia, Mali,
Fully-developed language has also been Sudan and Burkina Faso demonstrating
observed in people with mental disabilities, literacy rates below 50% even in 2015.
schizophrenia, people suffering from Literacy rates may have never exceeded
autism and even Alzheimer’s disease. 1% in Ancient Mesopotamia and writing
However, speech disability is common was the sole prerogative of scribes.
among the deaf, and those with Dyslexia. Likewise, full-fledged literacy arising from
Even the deaf, who lack language, often the upkeep of administrative records was
make some attempts to communicate. known to perhaps even smaller number of
Future researchers may perhaps adopt people in the Indus Valley. In spite of these
scenario-driven research taking a complex factors oral language has been able to
set of similar parameters as inputs. (Refer propagate from generation to generation
Table No.2). Another related concept remarkably well, and across cultures, and
would be ‘Mentalese’, a term coined by the role of written language in influencing
Steven Pinker. A related concept is the transmission of language was perhaps
‘Language of thought hypothesis’ or limited in early times. Proto-language was
LOTH, a concept first put forth by the never coupled with speech and may have
American cognitive scientist Jerry Fodor. naturally constrained a free flow of ideas.
Another similar concept we could recall When true writing appeared, it was
here is i-language or internal or extremely limited in application, having
internalized language and e-language or been limited to royal records, decrees and
externalized language, a term which was administrative records. Similarly the Rig
first introduced by Noam Chomsky. These Veda of Ancient India, having been
relate to man’s supposed inborn propensity compiled between 1650 BC and 1380 BC
to grapple with complex linguistic and

in the Gangetic plains was not consigned to creativity. Some of them were also driven
writing until well after the Buddhist era in by necessity and dire necessity.
spite of limited literacy in the region. This
is nothing short of miraculous, and the role Necessity and dire necessity
of writing in regulating the evolution of
The principle of necessity would have
spoken language may have enlarged more
ensured that experimentation no longer
recently, and this may have been non-
remained within the realm of purist goals
uniform across regions.
and objectives but began to be applied to
practical uses and the solution of real-
Innovation and creativity
world problems. The Theory of dire
The principle of Innovation and creativity necessity would extend the Theory of
would ensure that early human speech was necessity a step further and would ensure
then further extended in multifarious that language was greatly orchestrated as a
directions to make it more sophisticated tool of social progress. It would ensure that
and capable of handling more wide ranging dire necessity played a major role in
use. Constant innovation and refinement linguistic evolution, and that as the popular
could be expected in any language and this adage goes, necessity was always the
would have been more common in the early mother of invention. Thus, language would
days before languages evolved into literary have led to social and cultural progress, and
languages ,and before dogma and tradition- this in turn would have necessitated more
induced rigidity took over. Evidence of complex language. This would have one of
innovation and creativity in early the key drivers behind linguistic evolution,
languages may be hard to obtain. However, and would represent some kind of a circular
a formal study of the evolution of modern or a Logarithmic Spiral approach.
languages may greatly help here as far as Linguistic development would also be
the evidence will allow it, and parallels can stimulated and galvanized by several
be drawn which will enable us to triggers examples being evolving needs of
hypothesize on the trajectory of society, technological factors, social
development of early languages as well. factors, cultural factors, contact with
Most Nineteenth century theories such as neighboring regions, quasi-political
the Bow-wow theory and the Eureka factors, political factors, the development
theory, (some of which were partially of proto-writing, the development of
endorse) were based on innovation and writing etc.

Societal needs, Peer influences and (c) Proto-language would have would
Societal influences
have owed its early origins to the
Peer influences and other societal
key drivers mentioned above all of
influences may have greatly facilitated the
which would have manifested
development of languages as the creative
themselves is most parts of the
synergies of society may have played a
world.
much more positive role in fostering the
(d) All other theories and hypothesis
development of languages. Cross-
discussed as a part of this paper or
borrowing of words both in the ‘Pull mode’
proposed by any scholar would be
and the ‘Push mode’ would have been
subservient to these four key
driven by societal needs. Similarly the
drivers
desire to pass on knowledge of language
(e) Among all other theories and
from generation to generation, and the
hypothesis, we pick the Bow-wow
desire to acquire language would also have
theory, the Pooh-pooh theory and
been driven largely by societal influences,
the Eureka theory as the most
and peer influences. (Refer Fig.1 or Table
plausible and accounting perhaps
No.3)
for the largest number of words.
The evolution of Proto-language in the
(f) We would like to categorize the
Pre-historic period
evolution of Proto-language into
(a) There would be no single proto-
distinct phases as stated below.
language, but several; and language
Different parts of speech and
would have evolved in scores of
figures of speech (wherever
different places, at different points
applicable) are associated with
in time.
either of these phases. This
(b) Our approach towards proto-
classification is purely indicative,
language must not be confused with
and may be subject to
the mechanistic split up of
reinterpretation or reclassification
supposed proto-languages to form
by other scholars. Within each
daughter languages as per the tree
phase, we advocate no particular
model (we have all along been
order for the emergence of parts or
highly critical of this concept); it is
figures of speech.
expected that readers will draw a
clear distinction between the two. In addition, we propose the following
additional theories of origin of language,

which we believe would have played a familial traditions and would have later
crucial role in the development of early spread through one or more other
proto-language. We also emphasize that approaches. In this case, patriarchal or
language would have owed its origins not matriarchal traditions may have been
just to one source, but multiple sources strong, or conversely, the political structure
including those we propose below, and of the clan or tribe may have been weak or
others which were already discussed in this non-existent.
paper.
Follow the leader theory or Big man
Theory of Vocal effectiveness and Theory
auditory emphasis
In this case, words would have been words
Vocal effectiveness and sound emphasis coined in a clan or group by a man
would also have been a primary possessing clout or inventiveness and the
consideration in the coinage of new words. rest of the population would have followed
In this case, more emphasis would have suit. Words may have been coined using
been placed on verbs (particularly some the ‘Eureka’ approach, or other approaches
classes of verbs). This would have been such as the Bow-wow approach. Words
followed by some categories of nouns, and invented through this approach would have
then adjectives and adverbs. Thus, an been also overridden by more complex
emphasis would have been places in most words at a later date as per our ‘Epochal
cases on the right syllables to produce a Polygenesis approach’. Our approach
maximal and a satisfactory auditory and therefore proposes repeated overrides of
acoustic effect in line with the word’s words and grammatical concepts at various
meaning, and taking into account the points in time in the pre-historical, proto-
listener’s perceived needs or reactions. historical and historical periods. Words
This would account for some early word coinage though the ‘Eureka’ approach may
coinage, but such words have been have consciously avoided the use of
overwritten at a later date with more onomatopoeia, as it would have required a
complex words as per the ‘Epochal crucial seal of authority or approval, and
Polygenesis approach’. may have had to demonstrate or exhibit
genius to the laity as well. Words invented
The Familial Initiation Theory
through this approach necessarily had to be
As per this theory, language would have different from the words in common use at
been first invented in the narrow context of the time, and would have had to eschew

onomatopoeic crudity and be language would be the added power it
representative of sophistication and bestowed upon leaders, and their ability to
erudition. enforce their writ with relative ease. They
would then have tried every trick in the
‘Show off before the big man’ Theory
book to standardize spoken language even
As per this hypothesis, language would in the pre-literate era often adopting
have arisen from less influential families in innovative means such as contact with
a clan or tribe to imitate more influential subsidiary or remote regions. This is an
families, show off in front of them, earn approach many leaders follow even today.
their respect or win favours from them by
Clan contact Theory
any other means. Thus, less influential
families would have acquired language to As per this hypothesis, the idea of language
prove their mettle. This would have was borrowed from other either friendly or
produced more complex scenarios in the antagonistic tribes and then modified to
real world, as less influential individuals suit the tribes own needs. The key premise
would have made constant effort to bridge of this hypothesis are first of all that the
gaps in proficiency. This would have been duration of contact with the other tribe
one of the key drivers in early spoken would have been extremely limited, and
language acquisition. that only the idea of speech could have
been borrowed. Secondly, the requirements
Follow thy neighbour’ Theory
of each clan would have been different, and
As per this hypothesis, language would speech would have been modified to suit
have gradually spread from one family to the clan’s own needs. This would have
another in a clan or tribe due to mutual ensured that early proto-languages would
contact. Language may have typically not have been uniform in a given region.
spread from one influential family to However, standardization of speech would
another influential family before spreading have taken place at a later point in time due
to less influential families in the clan or to the factors discussed in this paper, as
tribe. We may also refer to this as the ‘Keep early proto-languages would have been
up with the Jonases’ theory. constantly over-ridden.
More power to the big man’ theory Clan codification Theory

According to this hypothesis, a key driver Clan codification leading to
behind early attempts to standardize standardization of proto-language would

have taken place at some time in the society. This is just an isolated example,
context of the clan of the early society in and many others will readily spring to
question and would have replaced even mind; tool-making too would have made
more primitive speech, but within a narrow life infinitely more complex, as would have
geographical contact. This would be one of been the advent of the Chalcolithic age.44 45
the earliest stages of replacement as per the In this case, it would be necessary to
‘Epochal polygenesis approach’, but would arrange the factors in the current
have in turn been overridden at a later date. chronological sequence which would be:
Development of speech organs followed by
The Logarithmic Spiral Theory
Development of primitive speech then
As per this theory, evolution would have followed by an increase in the complexity
been first triggered by either a linguistic or of society and later by new discoveries and
a non-linguistic factor (The earliest such the rapid communication of such
factor would have been instinct-driven discoveries to other societies. This in turn
rather than non-instinct driven), which would necessitate the invention of more
would have then induced augmented complex language. This would naturally
societal complexity. This would have resemble an outward spiral. As necessity
further amplified the need for language. characteristically triggers and fosters
According to Frances D. Burton and creativity, language would have been
Richard Wrangham, the discovery of fire a adopted either through pull factors, push
few million years ago was an important factors or subconscious adoption, or a
trigger in human evolution because it combination of all these, and would have
paved the way for other complex spread rapidly, literally like wildfire.
discoveries. It also had a far more profound (Refer Table No.4)
effect than most would imagine not only
We would also like to classify the
because it chased away the darkness and
evolution of Proto-languages into four
dispelled the fear of wild animals and the
stages or phases as follows. These would
forces of nature, but because it lead to other
typically be sequential, though not
discoveries such as cooking, which may
necessarily always so:
have triggered the need for agriculture
much later, and further complexity in
44 45
Fire: The spark that ignited human evolution Catching fire: How cooking made us human
Frances D. Burton University of New Mexico Press Richard Wrangham Profile Books, 2009
2009

Proto-language Stage A: An early Proto- mode’. In the case of the former, necessity
language in “finished” or “near-finished” and dire necessity would be the driving
form arising purely due to indigenous factors behind adoption. In the case of the
efforts. latter, a ‘Push’ would not be possible
without reciprocity, and here, societal
Proto-language Stage B: A proto-language
needs, peer pressure or societal pressure
in “finished” or “near-finished” form
would be the key drivers behind adoption.
arising due to influences from
neighbouring regions. The development of proto-languages is
also conditioned by the following factors.
Proto-language Stage C: A proto-language
The presence of the factors would lead to
that exhibits some level of basic
linguistic boundaries or isoglosses. Similar
standardization over a wide geographical
factors would also lead to the emergence of
region. This would have happened due to a
dialect isoglosses.
repeated spread of influences over a
protracted span of time, in some cases (a) Geographical features such as
lasting several hundred or a few thousand lakes, mountains, rivers, deserts or
years. This would have also occurred due semi-arid land which prevented
to spread of influences from major nodes to contact between regions.
lesser nodes and then to other areas. In (b) Other factors not conducive for
some cases, it would be wise to assume that intra-regional contacts such as a
intra-nodal exchange of information preference given by residents of a
occurred to a fair degree. In other words, region for trade with other regions
no node was dominant it the region. due to geographical proximity with
other regions.
Proto- language Stage D: A proto-language
(c) “Weak signal”: Influence of a
that has achieved hegemony in a
region is too weak on another
geographical region and is slowly
region and influences are at best
marginalizing other proto-languages in the
restricted to word borrowings or
region. In some cases, other proto-
marginal or peripheral influences.
languages continue to flourish or thrive for
A key inference from this is that
some more time, and these eventually
early proto-languages may have
morph into linguistic isolates. Changes in
been almost never been spoken
all the four stages may be brought about
over a wide geographical region.
either through a ‘Pull mode’ or a ‘Push

(d) Presence of quasi-political factors neighbouring geographical regions. More
such as clans, confederates, remote regions would have been impacted
patriarchies, skirmishes, feuds and at a much slower rate. The following are
altercations. the key features of the approach.
(e) Cultural factors (Non-linguistic)
(a) This type of transmission would
accounting for kinship and affinity
have occurred from key nodes
or disdain, disregard or derision
because they were more likely to
among clans.
have been hotbeds of early cultural
(f) Social factors such as the presence
and linguistic innovation, and their
of disparate or distinct ethnic
possible association with relatively
groups within a region constraining
more advanced technology than
contacts.
outlying regions. Such nodes may
It would also be illuminating to trace back also have been located in strategic
the origin of modern languages back in locations, and may have been
time, always following region-specific anchors or some form of primitive
methods and approaches, as far as data will pre-historic trade. Of course, there
allow for, and drawing reasonable were no roads or digital highways
inferences and speculations therefrom. The in those days, but it is still very
study of the emergence of language groups logical to assume, that there would
may also be an enriching and rewarding have been key influencing regions,
experience, and may throw up further vital and this would have in many cases,
clues on the origin of language. We hope been determined by the physical
that this will eventually be done for every features of the region. Even if
language and dialect in the world, innovation had taken place in other
following the principles in this paper. regions, they may have been less
influential.
The ‘Neural mode of transmission’ of
(b) In certain cases, it would be
proto-language and linguistic features
impossible to identify a key node,
in the Pre-historic period
but two or three nodes may have
According to the ‘Neural mode of cross-influenced each other first
transmission’ which we propose features of before the new proto-language
proto-language would have spread from spread to outlying regions. We may
key nodes to lesser nodes, and then to refer to this as a ‘Staging area’.

(c) Transmission would have occurred isolation and an emphasis on
in multiple stages, and over a tradition.
protracted span of time to lesser (f) Changes would have been either
modes and outlying regions. through the ‘Push mode’ or the
(d) Transmission would have been ‘Pull mode’, although in some
wholly random and sporadic cases one would be hard-pressed to
observing or following no defined draw a clear distinction between the
or observable pattern. Thus, some two. The ‘Push mode’ would also
lesser nodes and outlying regions imply some utility and reciprocity
would have been impacted and at the receiving end. A weaker
been linguistically transformed at version of the ‘Pull mode’ may be
varying rates from the others, with referred to as ‘Subconscious
far-reaching changes observed to adoption’, where changes or
large geographic segments only innovations are subconsciously
over an extended span of time. adopted, often due to prolonged
(e) Transmission would have been at exposure.
irregular intervals and not at regular (g) Changes here would have primarily been
or predetermined intervals; an of three types. The first type of changes
analogy may be drawn from would be lexical and would include new
Stephen Jay Gould’s Theory of vocabulary and expressions. These would
Punctuated Equilibrium’ in be more likely to be through the ‘Eureka’
evolutionary biology. Thus, there and conscious invention approach, and
would have been rapid periods of would have relied less heavily on
linguistic evolution followed by onomatopoeia or methods such as the
periods of less accentuated or bow-wow method. These would have
discernible change. Rapid periods replaced earlier words in outlying regions
of linguistic evolution would have over a period. This would have occurred
been driven by social changes, primarily due to two reasons (a) Prestige
cultural changes, technological associated with the new words and their
changes, political innovation, perceived superiority (b) Practicality due
increased complexity of society etc. to the applicability of words over a wide
On the other hand, periods of non- geographical region. The second stage
change would have been as a result would be a basic or a partial level of
of cultural stagnation, political standardization in ‘grammar’ comprising

syntax, verb inflection and conjugation language was a slow process. (Refer
besides some other parts of speech such as Fig.2, 3 or 4)
pronouns. Some level of Phonetic
The formation of Proto-language groups
standardization would also have been
As per our approach, proto-language
observed as a result. We do not know if
groups (a somewhat ambiguous term)
any countervailing forces in the form of
would be formed when defining features
ethnic pride existed but they have been
and characteristics are shared from one or
minor for several reasons. Firstly, early
more nodes, and often across nodes over
societies of this nature may have practiced
time. This is also expected to be a gradual
need-based innovation and were probably
or a layered approach. Thus, proto-
not tradition-based given their absence of
languages are formed when
recorded tradition. Secondly, such
societies perhaps imposed their writ only (a) Defining characteristics of
over a narrow geographical region, and grammar such as verb structure,
were keen to borrow ideas and concepts verb conjugation patterns and
from larger groups. Thirdly, such changes inflectional characteristics are
perhaps took place slowly thus eventually shared across proto-languages
marginalizing all forms of resistance. A without levelling unique features of
parallel would be the popularity of Thai individual proto-languages.
food in Mexico and vice versa. Thai food (b) Defining phonetic characteristics of
may at first become popular with elites in languages are shared with each
Mexico City. It may then spread to upper other over time.
middle class joints in the same city, before (c) Mutual sharing of new words
making inroads into smaller cities. It particularly higher order words
spread into rural areas may be a long- among languages.
drawn process, and it is highly unlikely (d) Proto-language groups are formed
that it will ever replace the local cuisine. when geographical distances are
If such a thing has to happen, it might relatively large and the “Weak
literally take ages given the sophistication signal syndrome” manifests itself.
of Mexican cuisine and its association Thus, borrowings are mostly
with local culture. There are many limited to concepts only. Proto-
differences between food and language, language groups are also formed
but there are some parallels. That is why when borrowed features or
we believe that the evolution of spoken requirements are not able to


override local requirements or part of the Dravidian language
preferences. family.
(e) Language groups are also formed (g) Language groups are also formed
due to what we call the ‘Unequal due to political and quasi-political
development syndrome’. If at any factors such as invasions,
given point in time, proto- conquests, military hegemony etc.
languages in say, Region A and In such cases, changes to language
Region B are highly unequal in take place rapidly but are unable to
their development, Region B, if it is override local languages fully or
associated with the less developed completely.
proto-language, pulls words and (h) Language groups may also be
grammatical concepts from Region formed when two or more
A, while retaining its own unique languages develop in a
features. This leads to the formation geographically isolated region.
of language groups. (i) Language groups may also be
(f) Language groups are also formed formed when two or more proto-
due to ‘Geographical languages influence each other
encirclement’; A language that may early in their development.
have evolved independently devoid (j) In some cases, a language can split
of extrinsic influences, may have up from a parent language to form
been impacted by more developed a new language. This clearly
languages in its geographical happened in the case of Malayalam,
vicinity at a later point in time due a Dravidian language. Malayalam
to geographical encirclement or earlier constituted the
geographical isolation to such a Manipravalam dialects of Tamil, an
degree that it is mistaken for a older Dravidian language, but has
member of the larger language become a language in its own right
groups or is undistinguishable from since the 15th Century AD.
them in respect of most of its Although both of them belong to
characteristics. For example, the the same language family, they are
Toda language may have once no longer the same language. The
evolved independently, but is now standard word for ‘Dog’ in
considered by most linguists to be a Malayalam is ‘Nai’ which is the
same as in Tamil. In the Kozhikode

region however, another word or a ‘Subconscious adoption’, and may
‘Patti’ is used, and in the also have been associated with political
Kodungallur region, ‘Naipatti’ is power.
used. This is an example of how (n) More causes are likely; for this
languages can split up and morph globalization of science and intellectual
from one another. awareness is multiple regions would be
(k) Language groups may also be the key, and the involvement of
formed under special researchers and investigators from
circumstances. For example, refer diverse cultural backgrounds would be
our acculturation model explaining the key; it will prevent narrow
the process of transformation of perspectives, unbridle a plethora of
Harappan India to Post-Harappan new opportunities and prevent not only
India. One may want to use this monopoly and geographical
model to trace the origin of the concentration of endeavour, but also
Marathi language, and its oligopsony which are twin and
relationship with the Gujarathi and mutually interdependent evils.
Oriya languages.
The status of spoken language at the
(l) The formation of Language groups is end of the Pre-historic period
expected to be a gradual or a ‘stage by (a) We have every reason to believe
stage approach’. Linguistic evolution based on fossil and other evidence that
may also never take place at a constant spoken language had evolved
rate, a similar analogy being ‘The theory independently in many different parts
of Punctuated Equilibrium’ in of the world long before the end of the
evolutionary biology. Thus, there would Chalcolithic age. Proto-languages
be period of rapid and immense change would have initially evolved in narrow
followed by periods of non-change. geographical contexts, and the number
Changes are also expected to take place of such languages would have
successively at irregular intervals, driven increased multifold in the early pre-
either by innovation in upstream historic period.
locations or by an amplification of trade (b) We have every reason to believe
or cultural contacts during a period in that language had attained a fair
question. degree of grammaticalization at this
(m) Changes may take place either
through a ‘Pull mode’, a ‘Push mode’

point, and at least in some parts of archaeological evidence, we have
the world; every reason to adduce that the
(c) We have every reason that development of proto-writing has
language encapsulated some begun sometime before this. This
abstract ideas at this point and at may be a crude and a defective
least in some parts of the word. analogy, but we have no other way
(d) We have a reason to adduce this of knowing for sure. The second
based on our knowledge of proto- reason we make this point rather
writing towards the end of the Pre- emphatically is the rapid evolution
historic period. The Vinca symbols of proto-writing to full blown logo-
dated to around 6000 BC (These syllabic writing by 2800 BC and
may never be deciphered in the early alphabetic scripts (Proto-
traditional sense of the term) Sinaitic) by 2000 BC which would
exhibit several properties which indirectly but rather strongly imply
were way ahead of their time. that spoken language would have
Firstly they exhibit standardization reached some stability before this.
over a fairly large area. Secondly, Other discoveries include the
they were highly abstract. Thirdly, Dispilio tablet dated to about 5000
they appear to have demonstrated BC and the Tartaria tablets dated to
an early effort to combine two signs 5300 BC and these imply that the
to create new complex meanings, use of proto-writing was
though this property was still in its widespread in the Fifth and the
infancy. We also know that these Sixth Millennium BC.
symbols were purely non-linguistic (e) We do not know yet, neither will
and had no speech-encoding we ever know what kinds of
properties. However, these appear meaning these symbols conveyed,
to have served as semi-formal but even if we assume that abstract
mnemonic aids. However these ideas were first conveyed through
demonstrate both abstraction and proto-writing, abstraction would
standardization, and as a crude rule have existed at least at this time.
of thumb, we may infer that The importance of abstraction
innovation in spoken language should not be under-estimated, that
predated innovation in proto- would represent another great leap
writing. Given the rather limited forward in linguistic evolution, and

would in our view, be as important followed by the Coffin texts of
an innovation as writing. This may 2100 BC, and the later ‘Book of the
merit an altogether new sub-field of dead’. This is enough to deduce that
study, with new conjectures and complex and reasonably
hypothesis. We know that standardized forms of spoken
Sumerian was a highly developed language long pre-dated these texts.
46
language with a rich vocabulary
and was also agglutinative in nature (f) Our approach for the multi-regional
with a complex verb structure by origin of languages would also be
2500 BC, with literature such as the vindicated by the fact that
Epic of Gilgamesh dated to 2100 Sumerian was a language isolate.
BC and the Instructions of Akkadian, on the other hand,
Shuruppak dated to 2500 BC. despite its relative geographical
Before 2800 BC, we have only proximity and its overlapping time
proto-writing and not writing in the frame, appears to have been an
region, but the constraint here was early form of a Semitic language as
the development of writing. is also Eblaite. The earliest attested
Therefore, we have every reason to languages of Ancient Egypt, on the
believe that Sumerian was other hand, are thought to belong to
syntactically and grammatically the somewhat imprecise Afro-
complex long before this, as an also Asiatic family. Even though the
be inferred from the general fact Afro-Asiatic family itself may be
that linguistic evolution in the pre- contestable as per our model, few
historic world may have been would deny that it puts the
slower than in the proto-historic hypothesis of recent African origins
and the historic periods. Sumerian of humans in very serious doubt,
was also reasonably standardized, and as such, we now even feel
despite the presence of dialects. tempted to call Out-of-Africa
The earliest Egyptian literature are hypothesis adherents their bluff.
the Pyramid texts and can be dated The recent African origin
to 2400 BC, and these were hypothesis also fails to
46
The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts R.O
Faulkner, 2007

satisfactorily account for linguistic will certainly be warranted on a
isoglosses and linguistic isolates case to case basis to suit unique,
both of which will be abundantly special and one-off situations
clear from our approach; in many which must be the focus of
cases, ‘special conditions’ or concentrated study. However, we
‘special historical conditions’ believe these are unlikely to upset
would apply, examples of these the overall principles of this
being the Indo-Europeanization of approach.
the world from a Central Asian 2. This approach presumes that Homo
homeland, the acculturation Sapiens more or less evolved
process accounting for the independently around the world
transformation of Harappan India (with minor exceptions that need to
to Post-Harappan India. All these be proven either directly or
are fairly complex scenarios, being indirectly) in a way that does not
region and time specific, and to contradict the Darwinian principles
reiterate there can be no substitute of natural selection. This
for a thorough knowledge of the hypothesis is expected to have a
period and region in question. Our bearing on future research on the
approach would also be to early origins of language.
aggregate scenarios from all over 3. Consequently, we propose that
the world, always theorizing and language independently around the
conceptualizing better theoretical world and did not originate from a
frameworks, and identifying core single source, and that no single
and universal concepts and outliers. theory can explain the origin of
(Refer Fig.5) spoken language comprehensively.
Language arose due to what we
Other inferences from the would like to call ‘facilitated
‘Theory of Epochal Polygenesis’ experimentation’. We also propose
1. The outline proposed as a part of that spoken language arose at
this hypothesis is expected to work widely differing periods across the
in the widest variety of globe (This is a very reasonable
circumstances, and in any part of hypothesis, but may never be
the world. However, minor proven), and similarly the state of
modifications to this hypothesis evolution of spoken language

would have varied widely from the modern period and the post-
region to region at any given point globalized period. The decline in
in time. This naturally includes the the number of language is expected
present as well. to increase in the Twenty-first
4. Therefore, while all languages in century, but will eventually level
the world are reasonably complex, off due to the limitations of the
it would be fallacious to claim that ‘Theory of Linguistic Osmosis’.
that there are equally complex. 6. This paper proposes that different
While most languages in the world hypothesis such as the Bow-wow
are grammatical, syntactically and theory and a combination of them
inflectionally complex, other would have played a role in the
attributes of language such as formation of language, with some
richness of vocabulary, and the hypotheses being more likely that
active or common vocabulary of the other. However, the role played
native speakers of different by each of these hypotheses would
languages vary very widely. vary widely from epoch to epoch.
Likewise, some languages may 7. Word coinage during an epoch
have naturally attained or would have been replaced (in many
demonstrated complexity much cases not just once, but perhaps
earlier than some others. repeatedly) in an overwhelming
5. Resultantly the number of majority of cases at a later stage in
languages would have increased at the same epoch, or in later epochs,
first during the stone age, and and modern language was formed
would have then gradually declined as a result of polygenesis.
as a result of contacts between 8. This approach also advocates
various societies in the pre-historic constant refinement by analyzing
period and the proto-historic scenarios from all over the world;
period. The rate of decline of this approach is emphatic in stating
languages would have then have that the probability that any two
accelerated slowly owing to the scenarios would be alike is
factors discussed in this paper, and extremely low; Therefore, this
the rate of decline in the number of approach proposes constant
spoken would have further refinement of models through
increased in the historical period, analysis of scenarios and case

studies, and garnering data from subsequent adoption in the Indus Valley
such studies. and other regions. Another innovation
9. Language is a purely cultural would have been proto-writing both in
construct; it is not in any way Southern Europe and the Middle East,
influenced by ‘race’, and the idea of though its use may have been somewhat
race is itself very fuzzy and limited, and may not have influenced
imprecise, if not outright erroneous spoken language significantly. The spread
and misleading. of agriculture during the Neolithic period
in the Levant or the Eastern Mediterranean,
The Proto-historic period
and followed by China and India would
The Proto-historic period would have been
have further stimulated economic activity
marked by larger clans, social groups and
and would have undoubtedly been a
the rise of confederates and the earlies
harbinger of greater innovation and
proto-kingdoms with a quasi-political
complexity in spoken language collimating
structure. These would have culminating in
grammatical concepts and “Universal
even larger kingdoms such proto-dynastic
grammar”. Interestingly, many core
Egypt before morphing into full-blown
concepts of grammar would have been
civilizations. This process would have
similar regardless of their geographical
accelerated the standardization of language
origins, and this may bear testimony to
across larger and larger geographical
their logical underpinnings. It may have
territory. The languages spoken in key and
also triggered the need for proto-writing
other nodes would have continued to
(which saw greater abstraction and a
influence and override proto-languages
combination of signs to convey more
spoken in more isolated regions. This
complex meanings during this period), and
epoch would have been characterized by
eventually would have led to full-fledged
innovations in transportation technology
literacy. This epoch would have seen
such as the invention of the wheel from
greater grammatical, syntactical and
after 6000 BC, horse-riding in Central Asia
inflectional complexity as well as a rapid
probably near the Dnieper River in present-
increase in vocabulary and standardization.
day Ukraine after 4000 BC and the
Another factor that has been given the short
invention of the bullock cart either in
shrift was the possible emergence of oral
Mesopotamia or other locations such as the
traditions at a very early date, possibly as
Maykop culture in Southern Russia or
early as the Palaeolithic age in
elsewhere around 3500 BC and its
Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, India (Vedic,

Jain and Buddhist religions have had a would not have however, not been possible
strong tradition of oral transmission in spite during much of the historical period, owing
of the existence of a rather limited literacy to low levels of literacy. Most early
in the region, and this included not just literature in Egypt and Mesopotamia was
religious literature, but complex medical driven by royal diktat or degree and not
texts such as Sushruta Samhita), South through the creative urges of common man;
America and elsewhere. These are not just The Indus valley civilization stuck out like
a reasonable, but a very strong possibility a sore thumb, and deserves to be studied in
and may have been driven by the desire to an altogether different light. Even though
transmit folklore and traditions. It is also the Indus script may have been fully logo-
likely that oral traditions pre-dated the syllabic, it may have lagged considerably
historical period. Parallels in English behind its contemporaries in the production
literature exist in the form of Caedmon’s of a corpus of literature except
hymn and the later Beowulf. administrative records, given the absence
of kingly patronage. Another unique
The Historic Period
feature of this epoch would be the non-
The historic period would have borne
permeation of literary or liturgical
witness to the culmination of trends first
languages in the popular context due to its
observed in the proto-historic period. Full-
association with religious and ecclesiastic
fledged writing or true writing emerged in
tradition in particular, and with tradition in
this period, and as early as in the middle of
general. An example of this was Vedic
the Third millennium BC, though the use
Sanskrit, which may never have been in use
of acrophony, the Rebus principle and
as a widely language at any point in its
determinatives. A key and a distinct feature
history. In some other cases, the popular
of the historic period would have been the
usage of a language may have diverged
ever-increasing role played by political
from its literary form to result in diaglossia.
factors in modulating the role of language
Also, the vocabulary of spoken languages
and setting the direction for its future
would have been rather limited in
evolution. This would have been the
comparison with its written variants due to
forerunner of changes brought about
non-universalization of literacy. This
through Intellectual enlightenment,
observation holds good for most Indian
artificial regulation of languages, or further
languages as well. We propose to call this
changes brought about through universal
‘Dialexia’. (To put it simply, dialexia
literacy such as ‘plebianization’. These
would refer to a situation where the

vocabulary in widespread use is small even from Maharasthri Prakrit records in the
though the total vocabulary of the language Second
is relatively large). This may sound like a Century BC in the Shatavahana Kingdom
bagatelle, but it can throw up crucial clues which flourished in the Krishna Godavari
on the origin of languages when studied in basin, and one of the oldest literary
combination with several other factors. anthologies in India, Hala’s Satta Sai was
Some scenarios would be a low active compiled in Maharashtri Prakrit language
vocabulary and a low total vocabulary in the region. In this context, Maharashtri
resulting in no dialexia at all, a low active Prakrit appears to have been borrowed
vocabulary and a moderate total from North India for epigraphic and
vocabulary, a moderate active vocabulary administrative needs, while the common
and a high total vocabulary. It would be man’s language was either an ancestor of
instructive to carry of a root cause analysis Telugu, or an early form of Telugu. The
of each of these scenarios, and for each Bhattiprolu inscription of Guntur district in
language. Another feature of this epoch Andhra Pradesh is dated to 200 BC, but is
would have been the continuation of not in Telugu. Telugu was heavily
geographical and social dialects, also influenced by Prakrits and Sanskrit in
known as sociolects or ethnolects, due to parallel, but these languages appear to have
limited literacy and the possible sanctity of impacted Telugu from above, and the
formal language. Standardization of impact in rural areas appear to have been
language would have undoubtedly marginal. Furthermore, the impact of
progressed throughout this epoch, but Prakrits and Sanskrit on Dravidian
would have been limited by the factors languages could not have begun earlier
specified above. The case of Telugu, the than 600 BC, while early dialects and
Dravidian language with the maximum ancestors of present-day Dravidian
number of speakers is extremely languages would have pre-dated them by
interesting indeed. This language did not tens of thousands of years, perhaps much,
break out into a literary language until the much more. On the other hand, the earliest
Seventh Century after the Christian era, inscription in Kannada is the Halmidi
even though Iravatham Mahadevan inscription of 450 AD. It has also been
predicts that older literature existed. The recently suggested that an Asokan rock
earliest relic of the Telugu language is in edict found in Brahmagiri in Karnataka
the Kalamalla inscription of 575 AD. The dated to 230 BC contains some Kannada
language is however indirectly attested words. Among all the Dravidian languages,

Tamil was the first to break out into a prevalence of a caste system and other
literary language even before 200 BC. A social ills particularly in rural areas.
careful comparison of all this data, and its Literacy in Telugu-speaking regions has
critical examination along with historical increased rapidly only since the 1980’s,
factors would appear to endorse our and most parents today prefer English
approach on the origin of language and schools. The results of this are very
should eliminate ethnic rivalries of various interesting, indeed. Speakers in most rural
kinds besides opening up new avenues for regions, especially amongst the lower
study. The evolution of these languages strata of society exhibit a rather limited
was therefore, clearly a protracted and a vocabulary, not exceeded a few thousand
long-drawn process. The Later Telugu very basic words. This is in spite of the fact
kingdoms spanning the Andhra, Telangana that Telugu is a much more evolved and a
and Rayalaseema regions included the complex language, and has borrowed
Kakatiya dynasty of the 13th Century AD, heavily from the Prakrits and Sanskrit.
and the Vijayanagara Empire of the 14th Advanced vocabulary has clearly not yet
and the 15th century AD. In spite of its long percolated into daily, regular use, and there
history, all Telugu-speaking regions were are some indications that it never will.
never united except for a brief period Many native speakers prefer the use of
between 1956 AD and 2014 AD. The English words (In spite of the fact that most
Telugu-speaking regions are also spread cannot speak English competently or
over a large area with extreme ends comfortably) despite the existence of
separate from each other, and resultantly, Telugu equivalents. This has led to what
dialects have not been snuffed out yet. one may refer to as ‘Hybrid language’.
Dialect levelling has been accomplished Telugu grammar and sentence construction
only partly in urban regions, while this are the norm, even though they are liberally
process appears to be in an early stage in peppered with English words and phrases.
rural regions. The Telugu spoken in In modern Telugu, the English words
extremely isolated regions is barely ‘wait’, ‘problem’ and even ‘red’, ‘blue’ and
intelligible to urban speakers, and often ‘green’ are often used more frequently than
appears crude and unsophisticated, their Telugu equivalents, of late even in
although it is essentially the same rural contexts, and often by speakers
language. Social dialects also exist in possessing a rudimentary knowledge of
Telugu owing to the geographical isolation English. This may be because native
of some of its rural areas, and the Telugu speakers may be more comfortable

with Telugu syntax, and yet English words and Tamil speakers, these languages may
carry more prestige, are sometimes have been annihilated a long time ago. The
simpler, and possess more universal Kumaoni and the Garwhali languages both
applicability. Even a Telugu speaker with of which are Pahadi languages, are spoken
practically no English knowledge typically by over a million people each. These are
possesses a knowledge of a few thousand being overridden by Hindi, and are being
English words, and may even be clueless as slowly marginalized. It is even doubtful if
to the origin of these words. In Hyderabad they will survive the present century.
city, Telugu has borrowed liberally not
only from English but from Hindi and Urdu The Munda family of languages refers
as well. We categorize this as an example to a group of languages spoken in Central
of subconscious change, and one that is India. The Munda group of languages of
driven by popular demand. We do not the Austroasiatic family is spoken by so-
when, if ever, these changes will be called 'tribals' in central and eastern India.
formalized or regularized. We also do not They are classified into North and South
know if the process of dialect levelling will Munda. The Munda group of languages
ever be complete. The situation has consists of languages such as Sora, Ho,
become more complex and interesting Gorum, Gta, Gutob, Remo, Kharia, Juang,
since 2014, with the formation of the Bhumij, Asuro, Korwa and Kurku, but
Telangana state, which speaks its own Santhali is the most widely spoken, They
dialect of Telugu. Another interesting fact are the least well-known and most poorly
is the Chenchu language of Andhra documented languages of the Indian
Pradesh and Telengana states which are subcontinent, and the history of the
spoken by no more than 30,000 people, evolution of these languages in
mostly tribes. The speakers of this notoriously unreliable despite the fact that
Dravidian language live in isolated regions some work has been done by Norman
and some are not in regular contact with Zide, Heinz Jurgen Pinnow, Peter W
speakers of Telugu. Likewise, the Toda, Schmidt, Michael C. Shapiro, Harold F.
the Badaga, the Irula and the Kurumba Schiffman, Jeremy H. C. S. Davidson and
languages of Tamilnadu, though many others. It is thought that these
Dravidian, are distinct, and some of these languages are in some way related to
are related to old Kannada. Had it not been Khymer and Vietnamese. To understand
for the cultural and social divides between the evolution of this group of languages,
speakers of these languages and Telugu and its interrelationship with other

languages in the region, a thorough extinct, moribund or endangered, are very
knowledge of the local history or histories, large in number, possibly due to the
and the formulation of historical modes limited contact between speakers of many
using multi-disciplinary approaches is of of these languages. Many of these are
great importance. This is what we have isolates, and many are unclassified. A
attempted to do. South Asia has two major proposal has been made to classify all
language isolates i.e. Nihali and these languages into broad families such
Burusharski. Nihali is spoken in Madhya as Eskimo-Aleut, Na-dene and Amerind.
Pradesh and Maharashtra in Nimar and Proponents of this approach may be
Buldhana districts, is threatened and skating on thin ice because these
contains many words which do not exist in classifications may correspond to a
any other language. It contains many geographical distribution of features.
words that belong to the “Indo-Aryan What is likely is that language
family of languages”, and some Dravidian development was largely an indigenous
words. (Read our acculturation model to effort in many different regions, occurring
find out why this may have been so. It also at different points in time, and full-blown
reinforces our model on the origin of languages evolved in the manner
languaes). It also appears to be related to explained in this paper. What is also
the Korku language. Burusharski is obvious, in the case of North American
another linguistic isolate spoken in the Indian languages, is that this process
Gilgit-Baltistan region in the culminated in a rather abrupt end. A
northernmost tip of Pakistan. A large dialect may be defined as a form of
number of linguistic isolates exist in language which may be unique to a
Papua New Guinea due to the geography or to a social group, and are
geographical and cultural isolation of typically sub-ordinated to the main
many of its tribes. It appears logical and language in question. Dialects are
plausible that many such linguistic typically mutually intelligible, although
isolates existed in different parts of the this is not always the case. Dialects also
worlds barely a few centuries ago, but did sometimes form continuums, and dialects
not survive till the present day. A that are geographically close to each other
thorough study of such languages to the may often be closely related to each other.
extent data will allow may validate our Dialectology may be defined as a formal
model. The indigenous languages of study of dialects, and is a branch of
North America, many of which are sociolinguistics. Dialectology has

attracted the attention of many scholars in exponents claim is an independent
the recent past, such as Peter Trudgill and language.
William Labov. Surveys of dialects have
Dialect levelling may be categorized into
often been carried out in the past, such as
the following types:
a formal survey of the dialects in the
English language in the 1960’s. A (a) Replacement of dialects by the
grammatical codification of dialects has dialect spoken in one region i.e.
been attempted in the past, but the field is from one node to lesser nodes, and
still nascent. Dialect levelling refers to the then to outlying regions. This is
process by which variations between often referred to ‘Geographical
dialects disappear over a period in time diffusion’. This typically happened
usually, though not always merging into in England, where the dialect
the standard form of the language. Dialect spoken in the London area i.e.
levelling happens due to a universalization Cockney, overrode most other
of education, movement of people from dialects in England and some
one region to another, urbanization, effect Scottish dialects. In spite of this
of the popular media, ability to many dialects such as Cheshire,
differentiate between standard and non- Cumbrian, various Lancashire
standard forms of speech and dialects, Northumbrian Highland
gentrification of neighborhoods. English and Yorkshire have
Opposing factors include social continued to thrive, even though
stratification, geographical separation of there is some assimilation. (Refer
speakers, and the desire to boost ethnic Fig.6)
pride. Dialects are classified into (b) A much more limited form of
geographical dialects and social dialects. levelling where dialects are levelled
Social dialects are also known as within a limited geographical
sociolects. Social dialects may be region, known as ‘diffusion’.
classified into three types, namely (c) Cross-influences between two or
acrolects, mesolects and basilects. In the more dialects spoken in different
descending order of prestige. Speech nodes or regions which then spread
habits unique to a person are referred to as to other regions. This happens due
ideolects. An example of a social dialect to ‘mutual accommodation’ or the
may be Ebonics or African American inability of one region to exert an
vernacular English, which some influence over other regions.


(Trudgill 1986: 1-4). A parallel in is spoken over a very wide
Cultural Anthropology is ‘Cultural geographical region comprising
Synchronization’. most of the Arabian Peninsula and
(d) Part-replacement of dialects by the North Africa and comprises many
dialect spoken in one region (Some dialects classified into dialect
regional features continue to be groups such as Egyptian Arabic,
used). This has been observed in Cypriote Arabic, North African
the case of Britain, and it is unlikely Arabic, Iraqi Arabic, Gulf Arabic
in a majority of situations that and Hassaniya Arabic. In addition
dialectal differences will vanish Standard Arabic or Literary Arabic
entirely due to the factors discussed is widely used across all Arabic-
in the paper speaking regions in formal
(e) Spread of the sphere of influence or contexts.
one or more dialects in a concentric (g) Dialects evolve into two or more
fashion. This will happen slowly, different languages: An example of
and over a period in time. It is this is the dialect continuum seen of
unlikely that dialect levelling takes the Dutch-German border. Many of
place in such a linear or a these dialects are now
systematic fashion, and scholars disappearing, and are being
may be hard-pressed to absorbed into either Dutch or
demonstrate real-world examples. German, depending on their
(f) Parallel use of dialects: both the geographical proximity.
standard language and dialects (h) Diaglossia: the standard languages
continue to be used alongside each are used in formal contexts and one
other as in the case of France. In or more dialects continue to be used
France, languages such as Picard, informally. In some cases,
Limousin, Provencal, Gascon and widespread differences between
Aranese are similar to French but dialects may not exist, yet the
may be independent languages. informal variety differs widely
These are thriving in spite of the from the formal variety. Examples
dominance of standard French. In of diaglossic languages as Arabic
addition, many French-based and Tamil. Diaglossia may arise
creoles are also used in former due to many reasons, but a common
French territories. Arabic, similarly explanation is a rapid change in

colloquial forms of a language with to interact with the upper classes
slower innovation in formal (Interaction). In the second case,
language. Another reason may be the lower classes tend to emulate
the institution of one variety of a the upper classes. (Emulation and
spoken language as the formal Conscious adoption). In the third
language and its reinforcement case, social dialects are levelled due
through tradition. better education, or the spread of
(i) Widespread prevalence of two or technology (Empowerment). In the
more varieties of a language as in fourth case, social dialects weaken
the case of English. In such a case though economic ascendancy
American and British English may (Economic Ascendancy). In the
continue to exist alongside each fifth case, social dialects are
other with minimal cross-influence levelled due to geographical
and little chance of convergence. movements of its speakers
(h) The elimination of social dialects (Geographical Dispersion). All
due to the universality of education other factors may be lumped
and plebianization. (Social together as residual factors (E.g.
diffusion) In this scenario, the elites Mass media).
move up the socio-economic (j) The emergence of Pluricentric or
ladder, bring about a linguistic Polycentric languages such as
change in society, and provide Hindi and Urdu or West-Armenian
some kind of a feedback to the rest and East-Armenian is another
of the population. They may either scenario. In such a case, there are
provide a model for the rest of the two or more standard versions
world to emulate or keep the rest of which are unlikely to encroach on
the population out of the economic each other. Hindi and Urdu and
equation through elitism. This kind mutually intelligible to each other’s
of an action may often result in the speakers. However, they follow a
elimination of basilects or the different script. Some researchers
enrichment of vocabulary. Social claim that Arabic is pluricentric as
dialects would also tend to weaken well. In Yugoslavia, many
with the passage of time. This can languages are spoken. These are
happen through several modes. In Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian,
the first case, the lower classes tend Macedonian, Albanian, Hungarian,

Turkish, Bulgarian, Romanian etc. and in formal usage. Although
Out of these, linguists opine that education has been traditionally in
Serbo-Croatian in not one Spanish, the trend is now changing,
language, but two and the usage and education is now being made
and preferences for words vary in available in Guarani as well. The
each of these languages. Jivaros or Shuars of Equador have
(k) Reversal of dialect levelling due to succeeded in implementing their
ethnogenesis takes place when language in education, and Spanish
speakers of a dialect demonstrate is only taught in addition to the
heightened ethnic awareness. This local language. Likewise, Swahili,
may result in the dialect diverging unlike other languages native to the
from other standard varieties of the region, has made some progress in
language and the manifestation of checking the spread of English in
centrifugal tendencies. Another Tanzania, and Bambara, has made
related concept is the emergence of some progress in challenging the
new dialects which may take place power of French in Mali. This is in
due to geographical separation and contrast to countries like Zambia
social stratification. Bhojpuri has where English reigns supreme, but
seen a revival in recent times in has led to a cultural alienation
India, and is now associated with a between the privileged speakers of
vibrant entertainment industry, and English and the rest of the
its speakers have now begun to population. Ngugi wa Thiong’o
demand official recognition by the likewise blames English for
government of India. Spanish in creating a gap between the haves
Paraguay is estimated to be spoken and the have-nots in Kenya (Ngugi
by only seven percent of the 1981).
population as a native language. It
In all such cases, we reaffirm that a root
is known to a larger percentage of
case analysis be carried out, and these may
the population in the country,
throw insights that will help analyse
however. Guarani is the mother
scenarios from other related contexts and
tongue of ninety percent of the
help draw parallels for a more detailed
population, and a large percentage
study.
of the population is bilingual, with
Spanish only more popular in cities

Historical Period terminologies that were coined during this
The historical period is chiefly era, the spread of the printed word and the
remembered not just for its expansion of end of feudalism would have greatly
political power and rise of larger kingdoms impacted the development of important
ad civilizations, but also for the rise of European languages, but a systematic study
intellectual traditions in many parts of the of lexical borrowings and new word
world. These were often not driven by coinage studied against the backdrop of the
political writ, but by the aristocracy, the changes in this period may be required.
elite and independent scholars. Among the Even though we know that many world
early civilizations, none probably matched were introduced into the English language
the intellectual achievements of Greece, during this period (The number of words in
and Greek philosophers included Plato, the English language is said to have
Aristotle, Herodotus, Pythagoras and doubled between 1500 and 1650 AD), the
Herodotus. The Greeks made stellar earliest dictionaries such as those complied
contributions to philosophy, art, by Robert Cawdrey, Thomas Blount,
architecture, astronomy, mathematics, Thomas Elyot Knight and Edward Phillips
historiography, linguistics and literature, contain only a partial compilation of
and their contributions were not matched words. Of these, the work by Edward
even by the Romans. The renaissance Phillips may have been the most
which began in the 14th Century in Europe, comprehensive, containing 11,000 words
was triggered by the invention of the in 1656, 17,000 words by 1696, and 38,000
printing press and the rediscovery of Greek words by 1706 (This is on par with many
philosophy. It saw stalwarts such as modern languages). The standardization of
Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, the English language also appears to have
Mirandola, Lorenzo Valla and Machiavelli. begun in the 1500’s and phonetic changes
The fall of Constantinople in 1453 also known as the ‘Great vowel shift’ took place
boosted the renaissance movement as at this time. The English version of the
many intellectuals fled the region to the Bible contains around 7,200 words,
West. There was an explosion of scientific Shakespeare is said to have used around
knowledge around this time, and Tycho 22,000 words, and Milton 17,000. Today,
Brahe, Nicholas Copernicus, Johannes the English language has over a million
Kepler and Galileo lived in this era. The words (1.025 million, according to one
increasing number of scientific count). On the other hand, even the most
optimistic surveys conducted a few

decades earlier, place the count at 700,000 A study of complex factors leading to the
to 800,000. The Oxford dictionary emergence of modern languages must be
however, lists some 250,000 distinct words carried out wherever required, in
excluding technical words and newly collocation with historical factors, and in
coined words. The English language general one must be prepared to deal with
probably has more words than any other a fair degree of complexity where such
language on the planet, as a result of its complexity appears warranted. An
readiness to borrow, and as a result of the example was the spread of a component of
fact that many major scientific Base Indo-European into the Vedic
contributions were made by English- homeland in the northernmost tip of India
speaking countries. English also became a and its subsequent spread into the Gangetic
global lingua franca to boot, and is plains. This language absorbed influences
understood in most parts of the world. Most of remote ancestors of the Prakrit
other major modern languages like French languages as well as influences of the
and German boast a large number of words ancestors of the present-day Munda family
too, though nowhere near English. Some of languages, before dousing itself out, and
measures to measure linguistic complexity reinventing itself as a liturgical language
have been proposed, but there is no and a lingua franca of the elite. The remote
consensus on the efficacy of these ancestors of Prakrits, spoken in the Indus
measures. Thus, modern languages. The Valley Civilization, morphed into the early
growth and development of the English Prakrits of the Gangetic plains, and were
language were never artificially regulated subjected to a large number of changes
by any entity, and this should validate our from sources both internal and external to
approach to linguistic evolution. One the the region before developing into modern
other hand, L‘academie francaise has languages of the Gangetic plains.
attempted to regulate the development of Similarly, there is every reason to suppose
the French language and counter the that the Genetic input from North India to
infiltration of English words into the Sri Lanka would have been extremely
French language. The fact that such bodies small, and instead of proposing massive
were supported by many governments migrations (This would any way be
shows that language is still seen as a source unfeasible), we will need to strike a fine
of political power and cultural hegemony. and a delicate balance between data drawn
from myriad and opposing forces. This
data will then need to be used to reconstruct

the proto-history and history of the Sinhala collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of
language, the seed of which was clearly the pre-internet age similarly saw many
implanted from outside. Therefore, this is a changes to language. The age of discovery
migration-induced scenario. The origin of from the 1490’s saw overseas exploration
Tamil is likewise complex in its own on an unprecedented scale, and led to the
unique way, and though a Dravidian discovery of the America’s. The USA
language, borrowed liberally from Prakrits would later become a major economic
and Sanskrit. The evidence for this comes power, and this would later lead to a
from the description of such words as alien paradigm shift in economic power and play
in the ancient Tamil treatise on grammar, a role in ushering in liberalization. The
Tholkappiyam. Likewise, history of Industrial Revolution refers to the
writing is likely to be at variance with the introduction of several new technologies
history of spoken language in an and manufacturing processes from around
overwhelming majority of scenarios and 1750 AD to 1840 AD. This included a
circumstances, and we have demonstrated replacement of manual methods of
this convincingly in our previous papers. production by machines, new chemical
Another point to be borne in mind is that manufacturing and metal production
the historical period would be associated processes, new techniques to harness water
with the heavy borrowing of vocabulary power, the introduction of steam power, the
including those that are not in daily or introduction of machine tools and large-
regular use. An example of this is the scale industrialization including the rise
borrowing of words from Latin, French and and diversification of the textile industry.
German into English and from Prakrits and The industrial revolution first began in
Sanskrit into Telugu, Kannada and Tamil. England and spread elsewhere. The
These are some of the critical takeaways Industrial Revolution marked a major
from our approach, and aspects that must turning point in history; and every aspect of
be kept in mind under all circumstances daily life of the people was radically
and will constitute the key swivel around transformed. This also led to a general
which all analysis must be orchestrated and increase in the standard of living for large
coordinated. sections of society, and for all but the most
deprived people. Income levels began to
Modern Pre-globalized period
exhibit unprecedented growth and
The modern Pre-globalized period, which population also increased due to a fall in
lasted till around 1990, coinciding with the the death rate and increased standard of

living. The Second Industrial revolution spread of universal literacy in many parts
which began in the 1870’s lasted well into of the world, and most developed countries
the 20th Century, though it is usually dated made school attendance mandatory. This
till 1914. The Second Industrial revolution would have naturally led to a rapid increase
lead to the expansion of several new in active vocabulary in language. We may
technologies such as the railroad and the also choose to categorize the causes for
telegraph, and ushered in the electric and transformation in languages, into ones that
the automotive age. The rise of form a part of the general principles of the
colonialism, despite its association with ‘Epochal Polygenesis approach’, and ones
economic exploitation, lead to the spread that must be analysed taking historical,
of the English and French language in geographical, cultural, social, economic
many parts of the world, and lead to a and political factors into account. A study
spread of Western technologies in many of language must be logically and
parts of the world. This sowed the seeds for inseparably tied to all these factors. We
the emergence of global languages, and our would like to reiterate that there is simply
‘Theory of linguistic Osmosis’ would not no other way. Neglecting this vital fact
have been possible without this. The would not only be doing a grave injustice
English language also borrowed liberally to the field, but would also lead to a flawed
from many languages around the world, and erroneous analysis on all counts. This
including less important ones, and this is one very core reflection from our inquiry
includes interesting borrowings from into the subject. Likewise, simplistic and
across India such as ‘Jungle’ from Hindi, politically-correct notions of the equal
‘Mango’ from Tamil, ‘Catamaran’ from complexity of languages as proposed by
Malayalam and ‘Bandicoot’ from Telugu. Charles Hockett, Rulon Wells and others
The vocabulary of major languages like need to be analysed critically from a
English increased exponentially during Twenty-first century standpoint. The rate
these period, and many new words were of evolution of various languages diverged
purely technical in nature. Many words rather widely during this epoch.
were also as a result of intellectual
The Post-Globalized era
traditions and the exponential increase in
scientific knowledge. Many words were While some researchers such as Andre
also coined by thinkers, writers and Gunder Frank consider globalization to
intellectuals or were subject-specific have been a slow process that was first put
jargon. This epoch also witnessed the in motion by the emergence of Old

Civilizations (This is known as a Deep diplomacy. This is not to say English has a
historical analysis of globalization or complete monopoly or stranglehold
simply Archaic globalization), most other worldwide. English has made little
scholars trace globalization in its present headway in penetrating certain Non-
form to the past couple of decades or so and English bastions, and the use of English in
widespread use of the term ‘globalization’ China, other parts of Asia, parts of Europe
dates to as recently as the 1970’s. Modern and South America is rather limited. The
globalization emerged as a result of several spread of English has been unprecedented
factors which emerged at more or less the and unparalleled in recent times, but it
same time. One of them is the wholly would be foolish to assume that this would
unanticipated and sequential collapse of be the case forever, and the concepts in this
the communist regimes in Eastern Europe paper should be instrumental in proposing
followed by the collapse of the USSR. The and evaluating scenarios. While the French
second was the easing of autarchic language was seen in deep and terminal
measures in countries like China and India, decline around the world, pundits are
which led to their rapid integration into the predicting a small reversal as of the 2010’s.
world economy. The third was the dawn of Spanish, Chinese and Arabic too, are
the internet age, due to the ubiquity of the making strong cases for themselves as
internet, arguably the most important global languages. English, which once
invention of the second half of the borrowed amply from a plethora of
Twentieth Century. This led to the different and unrelated languages, has now
technological, cultural, economic and become the biggest donor of words to other
social integration of world economies on a languages such as German, French and
scale that was considered unimaginable Spanish. Many of these words, including
just a few decades earlier. Globalization technical words and non-technical words
also led to the spread of English have permeated into other languages, and
worldwide, and the cultural, political, yet there is a yawning lexical gap between
economic and technological clout that the English and other languages. What is even
English language enjoys worldwide is more interesting is how languages have
unparalleled by any other language. spread in the complete absence of contacts
English also has become the most widely between speakers of different languages.
used language on the internet, in science The British had sowed the seeds for the
and technology, in commerce and business English language in India a few centuries
as well, and increasingly even in ago, and the language had only spread

rapidly since the Nineteenth century, many factors opposing the globalization of
entrenching itself gradually in languages and the decimation of minor
administration, trade, commerce, higher languages by major languages. These
education and technology. It stranglehold would be not just factors working against
in many realms is near-complete, even globalization, but also factors driven by the
though fluent speakers of English only properties or attributes of language, and
form a small proportion of the population. cultural factors. We had referred to these as
It is possible for an English speaker in India role-based suitability, context-based
to speak English fluently without ever suitability (including social, cultural and
having come into contact with a native geographical contexts), role-based
English speaker. Contrarily, for most other indispensability, and context-based
citizens of India, English is quite literally, indispensability (including social, cultural
Greek and Latin, and English has also and geographical contexts). Other factors
become a discriminator between the elites include educational and social factors and
and the non-elites. English plays a cultural and linguistic pride. Nonetheless,
complementary role in India vis-a-vis other factors stimulating globalization are
Indian languages, and can never supplant expected to outweigh factors working
them. Similar situations prevail in most against globalization, and this may lead to
parts of Africa, where English or French the death of languages, their
are lingua francas of the elite, and are marginalization, the rise of pidgins, creoles
widely used for administrative purposes. In and hybrid languages and the role-based
the Post-globalized world, we believe that use of languages.
non-contact based scenarios would have a
Role-based suitability
much greater role to play than contact-
driven scenarios. This kind of a scenario is Role based suitability would depend on
relatively new and unique to the modern lexical factors, technological factors,
world, and would have been unthinkable cultural factors, social factors, political
when modern communication systems and factors and economic and other factors. As
the mass media did not exist. However, the a result, English is widely used in India in
role of contact-driven scenarios should not science, technology, higher education and
be undermined (as these can never be administration, while is use in cultural and
eliminated), and this would ensure the religious domains is virtually non-existent.
continuing role for minor and other Similarly, in the entertainment industry
indigenous languages. There would be Hindi and other Indian languages dominate

while the role of English is rather limited. Basic English) or in some cases,
Role-based suitability would also be non-linguistic codes.
similar to Function-based suitability, (i) Peripheral or Secondary usage
though the idea of a function may be
In addition, a language may play other
somewhat more limited and constricted in
subsidiary roles which may often be driven
comparison to role.
by intangible factors. Examples of these
The following are examples of the are:
different roles that a language can play in
(a) Language as a symbol of linguistic
a geographical region:
pride
(a) Primary language (b) Language as a symbol of cultural
(b) Primary language with a deficit of power
one or more functions (c) Liturgical, sacerdotal or religious
(c) Business or commercial usage usage
only
(d) Administrative usage only
(e) Quotidian usage only with
minimal written or administrative Context-based suitability
usage
Context-based suitability would span
(f) Literary usage
Social, Cultural and Geographical factors.
(g) For external communication only
The command over English among less-
(h) Lingual franca (Lingua francas can
privileged social groups in rather limited,
be of many different types, and
and this in turn effects their employability
lingua francas can themselves play
and their social mobility. Cultural mores
different roles in different
affect the use of the English language as
contexts). Samarin (1968, p. 661)
well. In parts of India, the English language
lists five potential types of lingua
is associated with social ascendancy while
francas: a trade language (e.g.,
in others it is a semi-taboo or associated
Swahili in East Africa); a contact
with colonialism and imperialism.
language (e.g., Greek in the
Ancient World); an international Role and Context based indispensability
language (e.g., English throughout
The idea of indispensability takes the idea
much of our contemporary world);
of suitability a step further. For example,
and an auxiliary language (e.g.,

English would become indispensable in resultant inconvenience Non-English
global trade and commerce if lexical gaps speakers may be put to. In Nepal, English
with other languages increase, and if its is widely used, and mandatory in schools
spread increases unchecked. If this despite the rather limited proficiency of
happens, the language would be further most Nepali children in the English
entrenched making it indispensable. This language. In Bhutan, a much more
would further increase the demand for it, geographically isolated country, and a
and in certain cases, endowing it with multi-lingual country as well, the
greater legitimacy to encroach other stranglehold of English is much more
languages. A language may also become complete than in Nepal, and the so-called
indispensable in the context of a geography national language, Dzongkha plays only a
or a social group for similar reasons. In the subsidiary and a subservient role. It would
specific context of the Post-globalized be edifying to articulate the spread of
world, the dynamics of language spread languages, region by region and in various
would be attributable to both Contact- roles and contexts, and isolating the factors
driven and Non contact-driven scenarios. involved. In the context of Post-globalized
However, the role played by Non contact- scenarios, we propose that language
driven scenarios would naturally not dynamics would be primarily driven by
increase beyond a certain point, and ‘Linguistic Osmosis’ and we present the
beyond this both contact-driven scenarios ‘Theory of Linguistic Osmosis’ as a part of
and non contact-driven scenarios would this paper.
continue to play a role in determining the
Types of contacts between speakers of
dynamics of language spread. Examples of
different language influencing language
Non-contact driven dynamics is the rapid
dynamics in various epochs are below.
spread of English into Oman, Nepal and
(Refer Table No.5)
Bhutan, none of which were ever a part of
the British Empire. In Oman, English as a The Theory of Linguistic Osmosis
very limited role to play in the street; it is Before we delve into the intricacies of the
however, the preferred language of choice ‘Theory of Linguistic Osmosis’, we deem
in science and technology, and it appropriate to lay bare all the core
increasingly, in education. It is also concepts. A key aspect and building block
beginning to play a vital role in commerce, to be understood is that of linguistic unit or
and there are fears of the marginalization of entity. Linguistic units or entities can be at
Arabic in vital spheres of public life and the various levels; the lowest level here is the

linguistic community, which may have one linguistic or cultural traits, or alternatively,
or more subsets. This term is already is may comprise of a geographical zone
already in use, and has been defined by where dynamics of language are similar to
Charles Hockett (1958:8) as “Each one another, closely influence each other,
language defines a speech community: the or are driven by the same factors. A
whole set of people who communicate with linguistic block may or may not comprise
each other, either directly or indirectly, via of a region with speakers of the same
the common language.” An alternative language or the same group of language.
definition that has been provided by However, in most cases, they would speak
William Labov is as follows “The speech related languages. A linguistic block may
community is not defined by any marked or may not equate with a ‘Political or
agreement in the use of language elements, Economic entity’, (both terms have
so much as by participation in a set of completely different meanings) which is
shared norms; these norms may be another definition for our purpose, and may
observed in overt types of evaluative or may not overlap with them. In case they
behaviour, and by the uniformity of are synonymous with one another, the
abstract patterns of variation which are dynamics or language spread within the
invariant in respect to a particular level of linguistic area are also determined by
usage.” (1972: pp 120-21) However, in political or economic factors brought into
real-world scenarios, linguistic effect by such a political or economic
communities around the world typically entity. In case, the linguistic area does not
have several linguistic minorities within correspond to a political or an economic
their territory in addition to a majority or a entity, such political and economic entities
dominant group. Linguistic communities will still need to be identified and defined,
may also be characterized by the presence and their relationship with the linguistic
of a large number of dialects, both area and the resultant bearing they have on
geographical and social. In extreme cases, the dynamics of language spread of each
speakers of various dialects may be rival or other analysed. Therefore it is of utmost
even mutually antagonistic to each other. importance to get the concept of a linguistic
The next higher level may defined as a block correctly to avoid errors of any kind,
linguistic block, which may also be and therefore some examples are provided
described as a linguistic zone or a linguistic in this paper for benefit of readers. We
area, and this comprises various linguistic must also reiterate at the very outset that
communities which share common the dynamics of language spread outside

the linguistic community or a linguistic carried out at various linguistic blocks, the
block can have a very strong bearing on the results of all of which need to be taken into
dynamics of language spread within the account. The end result will be an analysis
linguistic community or the linguistic of the dynamics of language spread at a
block. Similarly, the dynamics of language global level. The results may then be
spread within the linguistic community or worked back to linguistic blocks and
the linguistic block can have a bearing on linguistic communities to the extent it is
the dynamics of language spread outside applicable. This process may be repeated
the linguistic community or the linguistic ad infinitum diachronically, but usually
block. However, all the principles of ‘The only when some kind of changes are
Theory of Linguistic Osmosis’ will apply. observed at one or more levels which
Thus, the internal dynamics will always warrant a re-analysis.
take precedence in determining the spread
While doing this, the following factors
of languages within the linguistic need to be taken into account.
community or block, the linguistic (a) Linguistic attributes and linguistic
community or the block will always be a complexity: These need to be taken
tighter linguistic unit. There may be into account as they would
exceptions such as the influence of indirectly impact the dynamics of
ubiquitous pan-regional or global trends, language spread and may be partly
but these must always be studied (though certainly not fully) for
separately. However, for the purpose of our Rwanda’s recent switch from
analysis, we will always adopt an inside- French to English, as English was
out approach first, and then follow it up stated to be simpler. A large
with an outside in approach for maximum number of measures have been
efficacy. In other words, the dynamics of proposed to assess linguistic
language spread within a linguistic complexity, though measures are
community or the lowest sub-unit will be currently far from perfect, and there
analysed first, using one or more of the is no consensus among linguistics
principles described in this paper. These among linguists in identifying the
will then be aggregated sequentially, and most optimal measures. Measures
analysed thoroughly at all levels. The last may be classified into Syntagmatic
level of analysis will be an analysis at the complexity (measure of syllables,
global level, and an analysis at this level phonemes and morphemes),
will comprise the results of all analysis,

Paradigmatic complexity (Parts of Korean and Hindi, on the other
speech and grammatical hand, are SOV languages. Filipino
complexity), Organizational and Tuareg are VSO languages,
complexity (Number of ways while Malagasy is a VOS language
phrases and clauses can be as are also Mayan languages and
arranged), Hierarchic Complexity Fijian. A speaker of the SVO
(Recursion and lexical-semantic language may find it hard to learn
hierarchies). an SOV language and vice versa.
(b) Linguistic distance: Measure of (c) Demographics: Demographics and
linguistic distance are crucial to our ‘Demographic power’ must be
analysis because difficulty of expressed not in terms of just
learning language is largely relative overall population, but also other
and not absolute. A common factors such as the Total fertility
measure is Levenshtein distance rate, longevity and population
which measures the distance structure, purchasing power, and
learning. Various measures have level of education must also be
also been proposed to assess the considered in an overall analysis.
speed and efficacy of second This would be important because
language acquisition, such as the counties like Japan are associated
Input hypothesis and monitor with economic clout, but a
model of Stephen Krashen, shrinking birth rate. According to a
Michael Long’s interaction report by the United Nations in
hypothesis, Merrill Swain’s output 2015, the world population will
hypothesis, Richard Smith’s reach 9725 million by 2050 and
noticing hypothesis, Elizabeth 11213 million by 2100. Out of this,
Bate’s competition model, the the population of almost all
model proposed by Chiswick and continents is expected to shrink
Miller, and some of these are purely after 2015, the sole exception being
empirical methods. Another Africa. Nigeria alone is expected to
approach may be the classification have 600 million inhabitants later
of languages based on word order. this century, putting it just behind
English, French and Bantu as SVO India and China. However, per
languages or Subject Verb Object capita income is expected to remain
languages. Japanese, Turkish, low. However, some Francophonie

associations fail to take this into than every country in the Middle
account while calculating the East, and close to that of Sub-
projected importance of the French Saharan Africa. However, fertility
language in the Twenty-first appears to be falling rapidly
century. They also erroneously everywhere, and India on the whole
assume that all inhabitants of may reach a replacement TFR of
Francophonie West Africa will be 2.1 children per woman between
fluent French speakers. Another 2027 and 2031, and it is unlikely
interesting question is to what that any state will have a TFR of
extent Population dynamics can over 2.1 children per woman by
have a bearing on the overall 2031.
language dynamics of a country (d) Political power: The Political
like India. This is of great relevance power possessed by Linguistic
in India were skewed Total Fertility communities, Linguistic units and
Rates have been observed, and Linguistic blocks will add more
hence the percentages of people complexity to the issue, but must be
speaking different languages is assessed nonetheless. Countries
expected to change widely in the like the USA do not need to spread
coming decades. TFR’s by state English as a demand has already
have varied from a low of 1.6 been created for it, and language
Children per woman in West adoption happens through a Pull
Bengal to 3.5 Children per woman mode. On the other hand, the Indian
in Bihar in 2014. If Union government promotes Hindi
Territories are included, abroad, but not Bengali, Marathi or
Chandigarh has a total fertility rate Assamese. The French government
of just 1.3 children per woman. If spends a large sum of money in
TFR is taken at a district level, the promoting its language and culture
variations in TFR will become abroad, but not so much so, the
much wider as Kolkata has a TFR Italian government. This may be
of just 1.2 Children per woman necessary because India and France
while Shravasthi in Eastern Uttar lack the political or economic
Pradesh has a TFR of 5.9 children might, and this must be studied not
per woman or twice as that of standalone, but in combination with
Pakistan or Bangladesh, higher

all other factors discussed in this speak a smattering of Hindi in
paper. unexpected places such as Sri
(e) Economic power: The Economic Lanka and the Middle East.
power of a Linguistic community Japanese Cultural power is known
or a Linguistic block will pay a role as ‘Kuru Japan’, and icons of
too in influencing the dynamics of Japanese cultural power are J-pop,
languages spread at a global level. Manga comics, Anime, Sake and
For example, Japan never Sushi. China is making attempts to
possessed a major military prowess promote Chinese civilizational
to speak of after its surrender in the values abroad, and aspects of
Second World war and neither did Indian culture such as Yoga,
it embark on a major campaign to Ayurveda, Bollywood and Indian
promote its cultural influence, but cuisine are well-known abroad. A
came to be equated with economic more extreme version of cultural
might very rapidly in a few decades power is cultural imperialism. For
after this. Mandarin Chinese is now example, a large number of
one of the most sought after courses television programs in
in the USA particularly since the Scandinavian countries are of
1990’s, and there is similarly, some American origin, and English
demand for Hindi language courses words are widely used in most
now in the USA and the Middle European countries.
East. (g) Use of the language: In what role?
(f) Cultural power: The Cultural power The predominant or preeminent
of soft power of a Linguistic role played by the language must
community or a Linguistic Block always be taken into consideration
can play a part in swaying trends. in such an exercise. For example,
American music, pop and rap and Chinese, Arabic, French or
led to the promotion of American Japanese may never challenge the
culture and raised the demand of hegemony of the English language
English language learning in some in the realms of science and
areas. The rise of Bollywood has technology, and this alone may
similarly increased the demand for bestow upon it unrivalled and
a knowledge of Hindi, and it is not unparalleled supremacy in the short
uncommon to find people who can to medium term. On the other hand,

the role played by the English providers are also being asked to
language in other spheres is rather make sure that their services are
limited and a role-based analysis of compatible with at least two Indian
language may be in order. languages; this is to be ramped up
(h) Religious factors: Religious factors gradually to cover all Indian
will play a role in inducing languages; wikipaedia is
linguistic change to a fair or increasingly providing material in
moderate degree. For example, the Indian languages; what role this
living language Arabic has seen fair will play in checking the
demand across the world, in places supremacy of the English language
as far apart as Indonesia and India remains to be seen.
owing to its association with the (j) Ideological factors: An example of
Islamic religion and clergy. ideology impacting language
Sanskrit, taught throughout India dynamics is the resistance to the
and beyond, but it cannot impact promotion of Hindi and the
language dynamics majorly given proposed replacement of English
its status as a dead and a non-living by Hindi as the Central
language. Government’s sole official
(i) Technological factors: language by Dravidian parties in
Technological factors have played Tamilnadu and other language
a major role in the critical success speakers in other parts of India.
of English beyond the English This has consequently hampered
speaking countries and have the success of Hindi within India,
ensured its edge in key fields of and its success elsewhere. The
science. English has also emerged opposition of DMK, a Tamil party
as the dominant language of the to Hindi imposition was so colossal
internet, though this dominance in that it prompted the Central
now slowly eroding as other Government to reexamine its
languages play the catch up game. language policy and to continue
The Digital India mission for with English indefinitely as an
example seeks to empower Indian administrative language or ‘an
languages as the languages of the associate official language’, along
Internet and science and with Hindi. Another interesting
technology; mobile service case is the proposal of the Gambian

government to drop English and may not have been widely
altogether despite its increasing known to most planners at the time
popularity worldwide. How well of India’s independence. A treaty
this proposal will work if it is signed in 1919, for example,
implemented is open to question. attempted to ensure recognition of
(k) Legal considerations: The Indian many minorities in Europe. Article
constitution states that Hindi is the 27 of the International Covenant on
Official language of the central Civil and Political Rights (1966)
government and that English shall states “In those states in which
be the ‘Associate official language’ ethnic, religious, or linguistic
as long as Non-Hindi speaking minorities exist, persons belonging
states opt for the continuance of to such minorities shall not be
English. Furthermore, Non-Hindi denied the right, in community with
speaking states are allowed to adopt other members of their group, to
their own official languages in enjoy their own culture, to profess
official peoples, and most states and practice their own religion, or
have chosen the local language and use their own language.” A major
English. The adoption of Hindi as survey was carried out by the UN in
an official language in many parts 1979 to identify the judicial and
of India is a touchy issue, and even conceptual aspects of linguistic
though “Hinglish” a hybridized discrimination. The UN charter
mixture of Hindi and English is also forbids discrimination on the
rapidly becoming an entry level basis of language, and calls upon
lingua franca, English is preferred nations to formulate equitable
in formal usage outside the Hindi policies. The Conference on
speaking states because it is the Security and Co-operation in
least controversial. A similar Europe (CSCE, the Helsinki
situation prevails in Senegal where accords) contains a detailed
French is mostly used in formal proposal to protect linguistic rights.
situations even though Wolof is The Council of Europe’s proposed
increasingly being used as a spoken European Charter for Regional or
lingua franca in many parts of Minority Languages recommends a
Senegal. The idea of linguistic massive support for minority
rights is a relatively new concept languages. Several European

Parliament resolutions, including the government of Rwanda may
the Kuijpers resolution of 1987 have no option but to continue with
recommend the teaching of French for both internal and
minority languages. The UNESCO external usage. Our approach can
is also working on the rollout of a be productively and prolifically
“Universal Declaration of used in the Francophonie and the
Language Rights.” Many other Pan-African to determine the
studies such as one by the Nuffield eventual conclusion of the French
Foundation in 2000, emphasize the versus English debate in the region
dangers of linguistic hegemony and and what it portends and
recommend the teaching of foreshadows for the world in
multiple languages. 47 general.
(m) The Test of True Multi-Lingualism:
(l) Unipolarity, Polarity, Bi-polarity According to most estimates, India
and Multi-polarity: Unipolarity, is by far the most multi-lingual
Polarity, Bi-polarity and multi- country in the world with twenty-
polarity would play a major role in two official languages and more
determining the comportment and than five hundred living dialects.
orientation of language spread. For While Papua New Guinea,
example, French was associated Indonesia and Nigeria may have a
with the Rwandan genocide and the larger number of languages than
massacre of the Tutsi populations India in theory, the number of
in 1994, and consequently, the official languages in those
government of Rwanda left no countries are less in number. Also,
stone unturned to orchestrate its India is unique in that many of the
downfall and replace it with languages in India are highly
Kinyarwanda and English. Had it developed, literary languages, and
not been for the international it should be fairly obvious that no
importance of the English other country in the world has such
language, and its lead of the French a large number of written, literary
language as a global lingua franca, languages with traditions, in some
47
The Nuffield Languages Inquiry (2000) Languages: the
next generation London: The Nuffield Foundation

cases, going back two thousand deemed to be dialects of the other
years or more. There are several language or languages spoken in
language diversity indices currently the country?
in use. One is Greenberg’s LDI.
(b) Is the linguistic distance
One is the related Index of
between the most-unrelated but
Linguistic Diversity from
widely spoken languages in the
Terralingua.org which emphasizes
country large?
changes in linguistic diversity,
while another LDI measure has (c) Does the country comprise of
been proposed by the United speakers belonging to more than
Nations Educational, Scientific and one language group? Are the
Cultural Organization. While all speakers of languages belonging to
measures unanimously place at least two language groups
India’s LDI far above China’s (the significant?
latter can hardly be considered (d) Do the speakers of more than

multi-lingual from our point of one language adopt a semblance of
view), most of these measures have political power, or are demanding
intrinsic limitations in that they fail political autonomy with the chief
to consider Linguistic Distances, objective of maintaining linguistic
the state of evolution of languages, status quo or linguistic hegemony?
political boundaries and other
(e) Does the country have a history
political and cultural factors. We
of discord in protesting the
propose the following Twelve
linguistic power structure or the
measures to determine if a country
dominance of one linguistic group,
is truly polyglot or not, and the
and have such fissures led into
result would be deemed to be
demands for significant changes in
positive if the answer to even one of
power structure or autonomy?
the questions is in the affirmative.
(f) Is the power structure of the
(a) Does the country have one or
country sufficiently decentralized
more than one fully independent
to allow speakers of linguistic
languages spoken by significant
groups to exercise some autonomy
segments of the population, which
or have a say in policy-making?
are not for the purpose of our study

(g) Do the speakers of the most (l) Is the Chief integrating factor in
widely spoken language in the the country something other than
country account for less than sixty language, or is the role of language
percent of the population? in this regard limited?
(h) Is the total number of languages If the answer to one or more of the
and dialects in the country, above questions is in the
including less developed languages affirmative, the country, by our
or dialects, and variants of major reckoning, is deemed to be
languages, large? polyglot. In the case of India, the
answers to all the questions would
(i) Do regions of the country share
be a resounding yes, and in such a
close economic, cultural or
case, few would deny that some
linguistic ties with other country,
form of enforced multi-lingualism
often in precedence to economic,
would be conducive to harmony.
cultural or linguistic ties with other
India may be thus considered truly
parts of the same country?
polyglot compared to China: In
(j) What is the Least Common China, for example, speakers of
Denominator of all the major Cantonese and Mandarin may at
linguistic groups in the country in times even claim that they speak the
terms of linguistic structure, shared same language. However, speakers
cultural elements etc.? Is the range of various dialects of Chinese may
of the LCD insignificant to not be able to converse with each
moderate? other easily or comfortably: from a
(k) What is the Least Common linguists’ point of view, they may
Denominator of all the linguistic actually speak different languages,
groups in the country including the and the distance between the
outlying or the less important or the various dialects of Chinese may be
insignificant ones in terms of relatively large. However, they will
linguistic structure, shared cultural be able to communicate with each
elements etc.? Is the range of the other much more effectively
LCD very insignificant to through their shared writing
moderate? system. While India has

undoubtedly had had periods of

political unity since ancient times, them to learn other languages.
and pan-Indian cultures have Another rival hypothesis promotes
exhibited a fairly high degree of a radically different view. The
underlying cultural or religious possible effects of each approach
unity, India’s common bonds are may vary depending on the context
more cultural than linguistic; this is and scenario, and must be assessed
despite that fact that various Indian by taking all factor proposed in our
languages and language groups paper into account. However, one
have influenced each other, and the approach would to assess the
fact that some ancestor of Brahmi strength of the languages and the
morphed into all modern day LDI. It may be emphasized that
alphabetic scripts, North and South enforced multi-linguicism is a very
Indian. For the Chinese, on the reliable and attractive alternative
other hand, a shared writing system national integration strategy, and is
and a shared linguistic inheritance one that is likely to work in a wide
along a strong tradition of political, variety of scenarios, and especially
social, and cultural unity constitute truly multi-lingual countries. Many
their identity. India is truly a multi- countries such as Canada and
lingual country from a linguist’s Switzerland have adopted such
point of view, while China may not strategies successfully. Some other
fall into this bracket. countries have also granted national
recognition to two or more
(m)Enforced Multilingualism:
languages, examples of these being
There are two competing
Belgium, Finland, Ireland,
hypothesis in this respect. One
Luxembourg and Malta. Some
hypotheses states that Enforced
other European countries have also
Multilingualism is necessary for
recognized some minority
natural integration and for
languages at the regional or a
protecting minor languages from
municipal level, examples being
disappearing. This approach also
Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus,
states that Enforced
Germany, Hungary, Italy,
Multilingualism protects speakers
Lithuania, the Netherlands,
of minor language, gives them a
Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and the
feeling of security, and encourages
United Kingdom. France, however,

has a long tradition of not outside their linguistic group. It is
recognizing minority languages. In not therefore, uncommon for a
a multilingual country like member of a tribe to speak several
Singapore, many people can speak languages. However, Tucano is
more than one language. Singapore used as some kind of a lingua franca
has four official languages: in the region, owing to its ability to
English, the Mandarin variety of fulfil a need that other languages of
Chinese, Tamil, and Malay, the last the tribe cannot.
of which is also the national (n) Long-term factors versus short-
language. However, the majority of term factors. It also naturally
its population are native speakers of becomes necessary to isolate short-
a dialect of Chinese. Singapore’s term factors from long-term factors
national language policy promotes and concentrate more on the latter.
English as the mainstream As per our terminology, we need to
international language, and the eschew ‘presentism’, and promote
preferred language of trade and ‘aeternitism’ and ‘omnimodism’
commerce, Mandarin as the i.e. factors that will work across
international ‘Chinese’ language, space and time. An example of a
Malay as the ‘National language’, short-term factor is Brexit, but can
and Tamil as the language of one of it override other factors working in
the four ethnic groups in the favour of English? However, local
country. Enforced multi-lingualism factors need to be studied as they
may also obviate the need for a are likely to have a ripple effect
lingua franca within the region across geographies.
under many circumstances, as
There are many inferences and many
people would learn more than one
different kinds of simple or complex
language. Another interesting
analysis this approach will readily lend
example to illustrate
itself to. Any analysis would demonstrate
multilingualism is the case of the
that Hindi may not spread easily outside
Tucano tribe who live along the
India given the resistance within India to
Vaupes River in Columbia and
the spread of Hindi overseas using political
smaller parts of Brazil in South
methods as a tactic to modify or alter the
America and practice linguistic
dynamics of language spread in India by
exogamy, normally marrying

political or artificial methods. Even if it country fairly recently and speakers’
does spread over a protracted time span, it attitudes towards it (Durmuller: 1984). He
may have difficulty replacing other observed that the Swiss preferred English
languages in India even after it has next only to their native languages and over
supplanted or subordinated other languages their other national languages. The
in select regions outside the country such dynamics of language in Switzerland are in
as Suriname or Fiji except if it happens in turn impacted by the dynamics of language
conjunction with several other factors over spread in Europe after the emergence of the
which we presently have no knowledge or European Union, leading to the rise of
control. Thus, the resistance to Hindi English across the continent and the
within India, may in some way impede its decline of French in the continent, largely
spread outside India. Another example of independent perhaps of trends in England
this is the spread of English outside itself. Likewise, the popularity of English
England over the past few centuries. in Switzerland and in Scandinavian
However, the spread of the English countries would help bolster its popularity
language outside England has not been able across Europe. The popularity of English in
to exterminate the dialects of English in Europe would also be impacted by and
England or other languages, or annihilate would in turn impact the spread of English
other languages like Welsh completely. around the globe, and perhaps trigger a
These have revived through the principle of decline in the importance French as well,
cultural ethno genesis. Thus, regions may both in Europe, and beyond and at least in
be approached distinctly for the purposes the longer-term. On the other hand, if the
of such studies, and may be further broken power of French in Francophonie Africa is
down as required so that a thorough region- to be challenged, a concerted and a well-
specific analysis taking into account the orchestrated effort involving multiple
peculiarities and the unique characteristics nations is required, as this is a Political or
of the region may be applied. Thus, the Economic entity for our purpose. The
dynamics of language spread internal to political inertia in the region may not lend
Switzerland and its multi-lingual nature itself very easily to change either, and the
has helped popularize English in the region may prove to be immune to global
country. Durmuller, for example, has trends at least in the short-term. The impact
investigated through questionnaires and of Brexit on the relative importance of the
interviews, the internal usage of English in English and the French language has
Switzerland, which entrenched itself in that already been hotly debated. A

comprehensive analysis based on the 1. A linguistic community or a sub-unit or
principles mooted in this paper may be a linguistic community is always the
warranted and may throw further light on tightest linguistic unit.
this issue. Another noteworthy example in
2. A linguistic community or a sub-unit or
this regard is the very rapid spread of
a linguistic community normally sets the
Sanskrit in Post-Harappan India from the
patterns for itself, and the spread of
Gangetic plains to the north-west of India
languages within the linguistic community
as a lingua franca even though political
would be dictated by the dynamics of
unity across the region was non-existent,
language spread within the linguistic
the only common cultural threads being
community. This is because forces
what one may refer to as over-riding
operating within this level are much
elements of ‘Aryan’ culture. This, in due
stronger than, and therefore take
course, effected the popularization of
precedence over other factors.
Sanskrit as a cultural symbol of the region,
and greatly enhanced its prestige. This in 3. The dynamics of language spread within
turn played a role as its eventual a linguistic community can also be
importance as a cultural and religious influenced by external factors.
symbol of much of Ancient India, led to a 4. A linguistic community can influence

compilation of a vast corpus of oral the dynamics of language spread in
traditions and written literature, and later neighbouring linguistic communities, or in
led to an interest in the language and its a wider region. However, dynamics of
study worldwide. The concepts in this language spread in other regions would be
paper are only illustrative and we define also determined by other internal and
only two levels (a) The linguistic external forces.
community along with various sub-
5. The dynamics of language spread within
community and (b) The linguistic block.
the linguistic community normally play a
We also define the term ‘Political or
greater role in determining outcomes
Economic entity.’ The other levels must be
within the community, than external
defined on a case to case basis as explained.
factors. There may be exceptions, and
Therefore, we may lay down the these need to be evaluated on a case to case
following broad rules: basis and justified.
6. The spread of languages within a

linguistic block would primarily be

dependent on the dynamics of language the linguistic block may lie partly within
spread within the block. However, the the political or economic entity and partly
dynamics of language spread of the outside it.
constituent linguistic communities would
9. Thus the workings of the political or
also play a role.
economic entity will come to bear on the
7. The spread of languages within a dynamics of language spread in the
linguistic block can also impact and be constituent linguistic blocks and vice versa.
impacted by the dynamics of language If the linguistic block partly lies outside the
spread at the next level which can be user- political or economic entity, it needs to be
defined, as the concepts in this paper are logically split into two.
only illustrative. For example, while
10. As the levels proposed here are purely
English may have once been a Hobson’s
indicative, the researcher is well-advised to
choice in India, its domestic strength
prepare a schema before he begins.
largely grew as a result of its international
strength. 11. An analysis should ideally commence
at the level of a linguistic community, and
8. In order to understand how the dynamics
should be ideally aggregated by
of language spread in linguistic block
geographical region.
affect the dynamics of language spread
within the political or economic entity, the 12. This exercise must always be carried
patterns of intersection between the out in conjunction with a context-based
linguistic block and the political or analysis and a role or a function-based
economic entity need to be understood. analysis (See section on Contextual
There may be many possible patterns of Suitability and Role-based suitability in
intersection between the two. In scenario this paper) to understand the forces of
A, the two may be synonymous. In language spread more accurately.
scenario B, a linguistic block may be a 13. This exercise may also be carried out in
subset of a political or economic entity, and conjunction with the other principles in the
the political or economic entity may have paper such as the Theory of win-win
only one linguistic block. In scenario C, a propositions, and an exercise in this section
linguistic block may be a subset of a explains how this can be done to greater
political or an economic entity, and the effect.
political or economic entity may have more
than one linguistic blocks. In scenario D,

14. The key to getting this approach correct symbol of Pakistan and Islam. Though this
would be to define Linguistic policy appears to have worked well in West
Communities, Linguistic blocks, Political Pakistan, where Sindhi. Punjabi, Baluchi
and Economic entities and other levels and Pashto were widely spoken, the
correctly. For example, if India is chosen as “imposition” of Urdu was not well-
the focus area of study, a linguistic state received in East Pakistan or Bangladesh,
would ideally be a linguistic community. In despite the language’s neutrality to all the
some cases like Karnataka, the state can be provinces of Pakistan, East Pakistan
split up into two levels. However, a region included. Thus, not only linguistic pride,
comprising Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh but geographical distance, and a feeling of
or Gujarat and Rajasthan, or even the cultural separation played a role here, as
whole of South India (despite the fact that globalization in its present-form was
they speak languages belonging to a unique unknown then. The Theory of Linguistic
language group) can never be a linguistic Osmosis may apply here, as East Pakistan
block as such a region can produce no was a separate linguistic community within
unique dynamics and would be irrelevant a combined Pakistan for our purpose. This
for the purposes of such studies. Likewise approach can be put to practical use in a
such a region, or even an Indian state, wide variety of situations, and can be a
except in rare circumstances in case of the great boon and can be used to predict
latter, cannot be chosen as a Political or language trends in specific regions or
Economic entity either as such is region or across the world, including spread or
a state does not qualify to be a political or decline of languages. Readers can also
an economic unit of any kind. Another evaluate for themselves to what extent the
interesting picture emerges from the study Indian Government’s attempts to spread
of Bangladesh which attained Hindi outside India, and at an international
independence in 1971 from Pakistan, when level, would succeed in altering the
then comprised of two wings, West dynamics of language spread outside and
Pakistan and East Pakistan, separated by a within India, given that Hindi is hardly
few thousand kilometres of alien and spoken in a handful of countries outside
hostile Indian territory. Urdu was chosen as India. The spread of English occurred
a link language in Pakistan as it was neutral because it satisfied the principles laid down
to all language speakers and was the in this paper, and English Language
mother tongue of a very small group of Teaching programs have succeeded in the
people. Moreover, it was seen as a cultural recent past because of the underlying

demand for such programs, and the large Central Government would be much, much
gap between demand and supply. On the higher, even from the long-term
contrary, even costly Francophonie perspective of Indian national integration.
programs may at best consolidate the Hindi has already killed, or is in the process
position of the French language in the short of killing many minor languages in North
to the medium term, and may not prevent India. In major urban centres like Mumbai,
its long-term decline unless a new set of Hindi has marginalized Marathi as an
factors which we do not have any entry-level lingua franca, even though the
knowledge of currently manifest written use of Hindi in practically non-
themselves. On the other hand there is no existent. Hindi still continues to play
huge demand-supply gap for the learning second fiddle to English in commerce,
of Hindi outside India, and it may be wrong science and technology, and the
to promote the language of one region to replacement of English by Hindi as
the exclusion of all other Indian languages envisaged by Hindi chauvinists and zealots
in a federal set-up like India, or even to appears to be nowhere in sight.
mislead foreigners about the linguistic
We also believe the changes in language
scenario in India. Such efforts would be ill- take place through the following three
conceived in a post-globalized context. Per dimensions:
the principles of this paper, and to put it

Geography-driven propagation: In this
extremely crudely, such endeavours would
type, language spreads primarily through
be tantamount to throwing money out of
geographies, and usually has one or more
the window. Instead, the same money can
roles to play. In the 1930’s, the Gujarati
be used to increase literacy levels or
language was very widely used in Bombay,
improve the standard of education across
now known as Mumbai, and was likely to
all regions of India. Alternatively, all
have been widely spoken in the streets. Its
Indian languages can be promoted outside
prominence has somewhat declined as of
India, given the increased interest in India
today, and Hindi and English are widely
across the world in recent times, and the
spoken in addition to Marathi. In addition,
Indian government can play a key role in
Marathi less widely spoken than formerly.
ensuring that awareness is created for the
Marathi is however the medium of
learning of Indian languages outside India,
instruction in many schools and there is a
and that key institutes and universities are
popular resurgence of Marathi linguistic
roped in for the purpose. In the second
pride in the state and attempts to save it
case, the Return on Investment for the

from encroachment from other languages diffusion, Syntactical changes, phonetic
or possible eventual marginalization or changes etc.: We had already discussed this
irrelevance. Another kind of question one in our paper, although these would be, for
may want to ask is this. While Marathi may all practical purposes irrelevant to a study
have been sidelined in Mumbai, it is still of language dynamics. A formal and a
thriving in rural areas in the state. Will well-structured analysis of changes across
Marathi be decimated over a period of time all the three dimensions may be carried out
in rural areas as well? To what extent will from time to time as it would provide
this be driven by migrations from other further empirical data for analysis and
states? How long might this process take? corroboration with other approaches
Social hierarchy-driven propagation: In presented in this paper. This will also
this type, dialects may be levelled, thereby include a ‘Change of status quo.’
adding to the prestige of the language.
Alternatively, trends observed among the
We also propose the following modes by
upper classes or elites permeate through all
which languages can spread in a given
echelons of society, and example being the
region:
current rage for learning the English
Push: In this mode, a language is initially
language. Role-driven changes: In this
imposed from an external source or entity.
scenario, role encroachment takes place,
A typical example is the ‘imposition’ of
and a language spreads by taking on more
English on India and other languages.
and more roles, and eventually restricting
However, this must take into account the
the role played by other language. An
principles of language spread espoused in
example of this may be the demand for
this paper, otherwise failure or unintended
science and mathematics classes in the
consequences will result. Push factors may
English language worldwide. The
either be hard or soft (i.e. Hard push and
popularity of English music in Germany is
Soft push). The former is associated with
another example of the soft power of the
political and military factors and the latter
English language. We have discussed this
is predominantly associated with cultural
under the heading ‘Intangible roles played
factors.
by a language’. A term we would like to
Pull: In this mode, a language is learnt
use here is ‘Role encroachment’ where a
because demand exists for it. An example
language cedes the one or more roles
of this is the demand for the learning of the
played by it to other languages gradually
Sanskrit language. Another example for
and over a period in time. Lexical

this is the implementation of the English are sending English language teachers.”
language in Rwanda, and its recent (International House Brochure, 1979).
introduction in Gabon.
Pull-Churn or Push-Pull-Churn: In this
Push-Pull: This is a combination of Push mode, a language is introduced in society
and Pull modes. In this mode, a language is and spreads internally due to the language
first introduced by push techniques, and is dynamics of the region in keeping with the
later willingly adopted by a countries or principles mooted in this paper.
regions denizens. If this is to work, a
Pull-Churn-Feedback or Push-Pull-Churn-
language must offer specific benefits to the
Feedback: In this mode, a language is
people or at least a section of society. An
introduced in society and spreads internally
example of this is the popular adoption of
due to the language dynamics of the region
the English language in India. While
in keeping in the principles mooted in this
English was undoubtedly spread by force
paper. This then provides feedback to
in colonial times, the USA has both directly
neighbouring or non-neighbouring regions,
and indirectly played a much greater role in
and impacts the dynamics of language
the spread of English since the dawn of the
spread at a broader level.
Twentieth century than Britain, and the
Subconscious adoption: Subconscious
United States has played a much greater
adoption is a more subtle variant of the Pull
role in shaping the forces of globalization
mode. This type of scenario may typically
as well. Contemporary arguments in favour
be non-contact based and may be more
of English are mostly driven by the state of
common in the Post-globalized era or
the market for English and Force of
epoch.
argument i.e. rational analysis in the light
Porosity Analysis
of available information. Thus, a huge
demand has been created in the recent past Linguistic Blocks and Linguistic units
for the learning of English in places as far may also be categorized on the basis of
apart as Senegal and Papua New Guinea, their porosity, and this aspect also needs to
and the worldwide demand for English be borne in mind while carrying out any
learning has even begun to play a not-so- analysis. The three possible classifications
insignificant role in Britain’s economy. As are:
a director of a chain of international (a) Highly porous: In this case, there is

schools put it, “Once we used to send very little legal protection for linguistic
gunboats and diplomats abroad. Now we groups, and languages are open to

influences from other linguistic Latency time
groups. An example of this scenario The Latency time refers to the time taken
may be Sri Lanka which does not for changes to propagate within a linguistic
follow a federal structure. India may be community, linguistic block or globally.
less porous because of its federalism While there are no reliable measures for
but is constrained in this respect by the measuring this, it is expected that the
free movement of peoples across its latency time will gradually decrease owing
state borders. Pakistan may actually be to the improvement of communication
on a better footing than India because systems, a general rise in the standard of
the chosen link or national language is living and improved levels of literacy, and
neutral to all its provinces, unlike India then eventually level off beyond a point.
(b) Moderately porous: An example of this
Factors influencing dynamics of
would be a linguistic block comprising
language spread in Pluri-lingual
fully independent political units.
societies
Examples that would readily come to
our mind are the European Union and We now propose some factors that will
invariably and inevitably affect human
Francophonie West Africa.
(c) Low level of porosity: Examples of behaviour, and consequently alter the
dynamics of language spread in any pluri-
such blocks would be a hypothetical
block comprising all English speaking lingual society. While there were
contemplated in the narrow context of
countries or a hypothetical block
comprising all countries where French India, arguably the world’s most diverse
pluri-lingual and multi-ethnic society, they
is the official language.
are bound to work in the context of any
The porosity of a linguistic block would be
pluri-lingual society and the world in
determined by the legal rights available to
general, and most are based on the
its speakers, the political structure
fundamentals of human behaviour and
including degree of autonomy in decision
disposition. We therefore strongly believe
making granted to speakers of various
that these principles will be applicable to
languages, the design of the federal
varying degrees in most societies in the
structure, the design of the education
word. There may be other kinds of pluri-
system, the relationship between speakers
lingual societies however, where these
speaking various languages, the dominance
principles will not apply. One interesting
of one or more linguistic groups etc.
example to illustrate a unique form of pluri-

lingualism is the case of the Tucano tribe Theory of aggregated personal
who live along the Vaupes River in advantage
Columbia and smaller parts of Brazil in
In this scenario, humans subconsciously or
South America and practice linguistic
consciously evaluate what is good for
exogamy, normally marrying outside their
them, and act accordingly. For example,
linguistic group. It is therefore, extremely
most South Indians, reject Hindi as a
common for a member of a tribe to speak
replacement for English, and use Hindi
several languages. This therefore
only in situations and circumstances where
constitutes a different and a unique form of
they stand to benefit.
pluri-lingualism where the principles
described in this paper will not apply. Theory of perceived aggregated
personal advantage
We must also always bear in mind the fact
that a combination of two or more factors This is a modification of the previous
described in this paper will come into play scenario, and in this case, humans act on
in most practical and real-word situations. the basis of perception. Thus, there is a
The factors specified must be necessarily craze for English schools in India, and this
studied for each language and role and may epitomize a herd mentality.
within a geographical, cultural and social According to a recent report, the highest
context before any analysis is done. While growth in enrolment in English schools
carrying out this exercise, DPPF was in the Hindi-speaking states. It was the
techniques or Dialogue between past, highest in Bihar, where it grew 47 times or
present and future techniques that we had 4,700 percent, while enrolment in Hindi
proposed in a previous paper can also be schools grew by just 18 percent. In Uttar
used. The weightage given to these factors Pradesh, enrolment in English schools
during an analysis will influence and partly grew over 10 times or by over 1,000
determine the dynamics of language spread percent compared to just 11 increase in
in the region. A few of these may be purely Hindi-schools. In other Hindi speaking
micro factors, but can nonetheless be states too, increase in English schools
aggregated or ignored if not applicable. increased steeply -- Haryana 525 percent,

Jharkhand 458 percent, and Rajasthan 209
percent. In states like Jammu and Kashmir,
almost all students study in English
schools. What is worse still, is that few opt

for their native tongues even as a second judgement, but let themselves be carried
language. In most situations, Hindi is away by current or prevalent trends. This
chosen. As a matter of fact, the situation is would led to further amplification or
so bad that the Bharatiya Bhasha Suraksha magnification of current trends, or at the
Manch has demanded the shutting down of barest minimum ensure that such trends
all English schools in Goa, and their perpetuate unchecked and unimpeded.
replacement by Konkani and Marathi
Linguistic attitudes and loyalties
schools.
Linguistic attitudes can play a role in
Theory of simplicity, practicality and
influencing dynamics of language spread.
convenience
Tamils, and other linguistic groups in India
In an overwhelming majority of situations, are undoubtedly worried that the spread of
practicality and convenience would weigh rapid Hindi may lead to cultural
in. This may explain the rise of Hinglish in homogenization at a certain level,
India, and the slow and steady decline of obviating the need for outsiders to learn
the French language in Laos, Vietnam and other Indian languages, thereby pushing
Cambodia. In Laos, the decline of the them down the road towards eventual
French language has been slow, but is oblivion. The opposition towards the
being slowly being eroded by English. The imposition of Hindi in Tamilnadu has had
decline of the French language has been a long history. The first Anti-Hindi
more rapid in Cambodia, even though there agitations in Tamilnadu took place in 1937,
has been some revivalism. The French nearly a decade before Indian
language also slowly declined in Vietnam independence and were led by Periyar and
after the Second World War, even though other Dravidian nationalists, as a result of
there has been a slow rebound. Per our attempts to make the learning of Hindi
approach, all analysis must be data-driven, mandatory in the Madras presidency. Anti-
and attempts must always be made to carry Hindi agitations resurfaced in 1965 when
out a root-cause analysis keeping in mind an attempt was made to position Hindi as
the principles mooted in this paper. the sole official language after a fifteen
year hiatus. Needless to say, there were
Theory of non-judgment
minor Anti-Hindi agitations in other parts
This is a more extreme version of ‘follow of India such as the Sambalpur agitation of
the herd’ mentality where speakers of a Odisha. Some Bengali and Telugu likewise
language exercise practically no opposed the promotion of Hindi at the cost

of other Indian languages or the mandatory respectively. Linguistic loyalties to this
study of Hindi. Nonetheless, reactions to degree may not be exhibited by all other
the promotion of Hindi varied widely from communities in India. The Bengali
region. One factor may have been language movement of East Pakistan was a
linguistic loyalties which may have varied similar linguistic movement which sought
widely from region to region. The some rights for the Bengali language in a
centrality of language to culture also varies united Pakistan such as its usage in media,
widely from community to community, administration, education and politics.
and this aspect may need to be understood Many Thais also consider the Lao language
by planners as well. Not all traits exhibited to be inferior, while many Laos tacitly
by various ethnic groups may be seen to accept the ‘cultural superiority’ of the Thai
desirable in a global context. Some may Language. Most linguists accept the theory
exhibit a high degree of ethnocentrism, of inequality of languages, and the French
consciously or unconsciously, and may in use the term ‘Langue de Culture’ to
part be even driven by inward-looking distinguish culturally evolved languages
approaches and a lack of awareness of from less evolved ones. On the other hand,
other cultures. Ethnocentrism has being even languages that may be considered
observed in many cultures across the primitive may have a fair degree of
world, cultural relativism being the exact complexity. For example, a study by
opposite point of view. In any case, Daniel Everett of the Piraha language
Community sentiment, which R.M McIver spoken in the Amazon region has shown
and Page associate with a “we-feeling” and that it is by no means primitive, and
a “role-feeling” is common throughout the possesses a complex protean verb structure
world, but to varying degrees. In the state and prosody. Many new fields such as
of Tamilnadu in India, the Tamil language Ethnolinguistics which deals with social
is widely worshipped as a God or a Demi- interactions and its relationship with
God, and Goddess Tamil or Thamizhthai is language are emerging as distinct fields of
deified. This concept is less well- study. Such factors are also determinants of
entrenched in Andhra Pradesh and the effects of language in fostering cultural
Telangana where the concept of Telugutalli pride or a sense of ethnicity among
nonetheless exists. Nonetheless, the songs speakers of different languages. From our
“Invocation to the Goddess Tamil” and “To point of view, one reason for the inequality
my Mother Telugu” are the state languages of languages is the stalling of the
of Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh development of specific languages in

various epochs due to social, cultural, As per this hypothesis, fashionableness,
economic and political factors besides trendiness and chicness play a major role in
dominance from other languages. Research propagation of language. For example,
is currently underway into the extent of speakers of certain basliects of Telugu,
social and linguistic accommodation of abandon their language for Tamil within a
different cultures, including assimilation generation of migrating to Tamilnadu. As
and adjustment, and all these factors should observed by the author in a study in the
have a bearing on language dynamics as early 1990’s, this can happen very rapidly
well. These may vary widely for each indeed, and less than a generation.
linguistic community, and must be However, speakers of more prestigious
evaluated on a case to case basis dialects of Telugu, particularly those
higher up in the economic ladder, prefer to
Ideological factors
learn English instead and opt for a
The opposition of Dravidian parties to the combination of Telugu and English.
imposition of Hindi was not just logical or
Theory of Linguistic dominance
analysis-driven; it was also largely
ideology-driven. The Dravidian parties, Per this scenario, more dominant and
who have somewhat mellowed down now, established or entrenched languages
were seen as Anti-North Indian, Anti- continue to propagate while less dominant
Aryan, Anti-Bramhinical and Anti-Hindu languages are further pushed into
as well. Another well-known movement at irrelevance and obscurity. This is
that time was the xenophobic Thani representative of the ‘Big fish eats the
Thamizh Iyakkam movement which sought small fish syndrome’ and languages
to eliminate all Sanskrit word borrowings spoken by smaller number of speakers may
from the Tamil language which were be gradually pushed into irrelevance. This
considered impure. Consequently, the may also be referred to as the ‘Strong
Tamilnadu government does not teach language versus weak language
Hindi in schools run by it, and proficiency syndrome’. In this case the number of
in Hindi is by far the lowest in Tamilnadu speakers of a language, their geographical
among all Indian states. distribution, the clout enjoyed by them, the
lexical strength of the language, and its
Theory of fashionableness, trendiness
suitability for various roles will make a
and chicness
difference in a speaker’s choice.

Theory of Elitism little Sinhala, and among these, speakers at
the bottom of the social pyramid, speak
As per this scenario, elites alter the
virtually no Sinhala. Tamils living in
dynamics of language spread so as to
Colombo on the other hand, have some
maintain their power, pelf or relative
knowledge of Sinhala as do many
advantage. However, only very rarely will
upcountry Tamils or Indian Tamils. The
they be successful in preventing others
knowledge of Tamil among Sinhala
from emulating them. Linguistic elitism is
speakers is rather limited, though it varies
exhibited by English-speakers in India and
from region to region. Thus, individuals
by French-speakers in parts of Africa.
need to know a language before they can
Theory of Emulation use it. Thus, the use of the Hindi language
Per this scenario, language speakers tend to is not widespread in Tamilnadu because
emulate speakers of other languages and most people do not know it.
dialects, and this leads to linguistic change Theory of Need to know

and affects language dynamics. For
As per this scenario, individuals acquire
example, the popularity of Bollywood in
proficiency in a language only where it is
India, has led to an increase in the demand
absolutely necessary. For example, the
for the Hindi language and may eventually
dominance of English and Hindi in India
erode the popular base of other dialects of
has ensured that few Non-Kannada
Hindi and other Indian languages. Speakers
speakers make any attempts to learn the
of some dialects may tend of emulate
Kannada language in Bangalore. The
speakers of other acrolects leading to
Kannada Rakshana Vedike, a Pro-Kannada
linguistic change willy-nilly, and this
organization, argues that this is slowly
would in turn pave the way for dialect
killing the Kannada language.
levelling, and other forms of linguistic
change. Theory of Mutual consensus
Theory of Pre-existing knowledge or As per this theory, two individuals agree

familiarity upon a language through mutual consensus
during the course of an interaction. Often,
As per this scenario, the existing language
this may be a sub-conscious process. Thus,
fluency of proficiency would continue to
a Nepali language speaker who marries a
dictate linguistic trends. For example, the
Bengali language speaker opts for either
Tamils living in the Northern Province and
English of Hindi as their language of
Eastern Province in Sri Lanka speak very

communication. This must be aggregated As per this theory, speakers prefer a neutral
to understand its impact on the dynamics of language for all their interactions. The
language spread. benefit of this is that it does not give the
speakers of one language undue benefits
Theory of Mutual comfort
over speakers of one or more other
As per this theory, two individuals speak languages. This may have ensured the
the language they are most comfortable in. survival and predominance of English in
Thus, a Nepali language speaker who formal, written contexts in almost all parts
marries a Bengali language speaker opts of India. This is a trend which is likely to
for Hindi over English as their language of continue into the foreseeable future. In
oral communication, bypassing English most parts of Africa, linguistic boundaries
which may be restricted for more formal do not equate to political boundaries, and
situations. In this case, both parties must be this has propped up the demand for either
relatively or reasonably comfortable in the English or French.
chosen language. The language usually
Theory of Force of habit
chosen would be a subset of the ‘Least
Common denominator’ of the linguistic In this scenario, a speaker who is skilled in
repertoire of both the parties. This factor many different languages, chooses the
must be aggregated to understand its language he is most used to speaking, and
impact on the dynamics of language typically on a constant basis. This factor
spread. Another interesting variant of this will be aggregated across various speakers
would be two speakers of different dialects speaking one or more languages to
of the same language speaking a different determine the dynamics of language spread
languages because the dialects vary in a region.
somewhat widely. The Author has
Theory of Relative fluency
witnessed such scenarios.
In this scenario, a speaker who is skilled in
Interlocutor preference theory
many different languages, chooses the
As per this theory, a speaker prefers to use language he is most fluent of comfortable
the language the other person or people in in. This factor will be aggregated across
the conversation are familiar with, so as to various speakers speaking one or more
make them feel comfortable. languages to determine the dynamics of
language spread in a region.
Theory of Neutrality
Theory of formal initiation

In this scenario, a speaker prefers the French language is now actually thriving,
language is formally taught or grounded in. and widespread legislative measures have
Thus, a man who is taught in an English been implemented to prevent an
school in India, prefers to send his children encroachment by English.
to English schools it turn. This naturally
Immigrant language hypothesis
increases the demand for the English
language over time. As per this hypothesis, immigrants bring
their language to a region, impacting the
Theory of Social Interaction
language dynamics in that region. This
According to the Theory of Social gives the language a toehold in that region
interaction, a speaker’s preferences are which enables it to spread its wings even
shaped by the company he keeps, and this further.
drives language dynamics. For example,
Rival language hypothesis
lower-middle class families in India
generally do not speak English in social According to this hypothesis, the spread of
contexts, whereas elites do. a language will also be influenced by the

existence and prevalence of other
Local language theory
alternatives, and other viable alternatives.
The Local language theory which is a part
Limitations of, and difficulties in
of ‘Nativity versus immigrants’ debate
Second language acquisition
proposes that speakers prefer to speak the
local language of the region as far as According to this hypothesis, the dynamics
possible or practicable. An example to of language spread would be influenced by
illustrate this, is general fact that Tamils the ability or the inability of speakers of
prefer to learn the language of the region one or more languages in a region to learn
they migrate to, but prefer to use their own the other more dominant languages in the
language within their ethic homelands. region. This would determine the spread of
This may have allowed English to languages in a region, both in totality and
eventually triumph in the United States by role. As Fishman, Conrad and Rubal-
with barely a whimper of protest from Lopez have pointed out, acquiring a new
speakers of other languages. The Cajun language requires changes in language
French dialect of Louisiana appears to have behaviour of speakers. According to
survived but is now slowly dying. An Cooper, a new language requires
exception to this rule is Quebec, where the


awareness, evaluation, awareness and use, 1982) and Bahasa Malaysia has become a
and such changes typically take time. symbol of Malaysian identity and English
cannot play this role.
Practical versus Non-practical
considerations Context-based suitability, Role-based
suitability, Context-based indispensability
As per this approach, a complete list of
and Role-based indispensability
practical considerations influencing the
spread of language must be made. Needless to say, this would be crucial to
Examples of such causes are technological any analysis and naturally cannot be given
superiority, economic factors and even role the short-shrift given the fact that these
and context based suitability and would play a crucial role in language
indispensability. Non-practical dynamics, but we have already discussed
considerations would include emotional these factors elsewhere in the paper.
and cultural aspects or linguistic pride.
Judgement-driven, Rule of thumb
Without getting into a discussion about the
driven and instinct-driven approaches
moral and ethical aspects of such debates,
we will at least state that a list of practical Judgement-driven, Rule of thumb driven
and non-practical considerations must be and instinct-driven approaches may be
made, and their impact assessed on a case driven by experienced planners and
to case basis. One hypothesis is that assessors without resorting to formal
practical considerations would outweigh evaluation methods. These approaches
non-practical consideration in the longer may however lead to errors in many cases.
run, thereby impacting the dynamics of Changes to factors influencing the

language spread, but we would like this dynamics of language
hypothesis to be tested more empirically.
Changes to factors influencing the
This may also be alternatively be recast as
dynamics of language in a pluri-lingual
Tangible factors and Intangible factors.
society can be artificially induced through
Tanglible factors include factors driven by
at least the following five methods.
economic or social considerations, while
However, by no means can such
Intangible factors include cultural pride, a
endeavours ever override the core tenets
feel-good factor associated with language
and principles outlined as a part of our
etc. Again, for example, Swahili
paper:
symbolizes local ethnicity in East Africa,
in a way English simply cannot, (Scotton:

(a) Obfuscation of free flow of linguistic osmosis’ to determine
information: This approach was this for themselves.
attempted in many Marxist and (c) Waiting for cultural changes to
Semi-Stalinist societies. For manifest themselves. This is
example, Television was typically a slow process, as
practically controlled by the Indian languages is often seen to be central
government prior to the to cultural and ethnic identity.
liberalization of the Indian Community sentiment, which R.M
economy in the 1990’s, and an McIver and Page associate with a
attempt made to telecast “we-feeling” and a “role-feeling” is
predominantly in Hindi and not in common throughout the world, but
other Indian languages. Similar to varying degrees.
policies were followed in the (d) Changes to the education system:
erstwhile USSR. Whether this Examples of this are the non-
approach is workable in the long introduction of Hindi as a
run is debatable, as totalitarian mandatory subject in Tamilnadu
societies have collapsed already. schools resulting in a lack of
(b) Creating a situation of knowledge among the public of the
indispensability: Another approach language and the low importance
is to create a situation of given to English in some Hindi
indispensability. The English speaking states.
language has entrenched itself (e) Political and ideological
worldwide primarily by the ‘Push- opposition: Examples of this were
pull’, ‘push-pull-churn’, the ‘push- the Anti-Hindi agitations of
pull-churn-feedback’ and the ‘sub- Tamilnadu in 1937 and 1965.
conscious adoption’ modes. The While these cannot influence the
Indian government is promoting dynamics of language directly, they
Hindi abroad with the hope that it can serve to create awareness
will influence the dynamics of among the larger public and the
language spread within India. laity. Pro-English and Pro-Hindi
Whether they will be successful is campaigns many of them shallow
anybody’s guess, by readers can and devoid of any substance are
use the principles of the ‘Theory of common on the internet even today.

Theory of Win-Win Paradigms (d) Language interactions need to be
studied with specific reference to a
We also propose the Theory of Win-
region and the role played by the
Win Paradigms as follows
language in that region and in a
(a) The Theory of Win-win specific context.
propositions as opposed to the (e) The Theory of Win-Win paradigms
principle of Unnatural Control must be applied in conjunction with
states that within a given set of all the other principles in this paper.
circumstances, languages spread in (f) Proposals to address discrimination
such a way that they provide as far may be classified into ‘Intrinsic
as possible, a win-win proposition bargains’ and ‘Non-intrinsic
to all stakeholders, and any bargains as discussed in this paper.
paradigm which results in a win- (g) In case language interactions are
lose proposition would either fail or based on win-lose paradigms they
throw up a counter-reaction. will be successful only in specific
(b) All language interactions are conditions and must be studied in
typically based on the theory of conjunction with other principles of
win-win paradigms. In other words, language spread.
the usage of languages in specific (h) If this principle is not met, a break-
situations (based on contexts and up of the linguistic unit may result
roles) must lead to some kind of a e.g. the disintegration of USSR,
gain to all the parties involved in Pakistan and civil war Sri Lanka.
the interaction. Alternatively, dissatisfaction may
(c) There may be exceptions to the result.
theory of win-win paradigms and in (i) In some cases, the principles of the
such a cases the paradigm fulfilling Theory of win-win paradigm may
the conditions of this theory to the lead to some kind of loss to one or
greatest extent usually prevails over more parties. In this case, the losing
the paradigms fulfilling the party would attempt to adopt the
conditions of this theory to a lesser ‘minimum loss’ approach by
extent or not fulfilling the adopting the next best scenario. We
conditions of this theory at all and have also discussed the ‘Doctrine
subject to other principles of of Insubordination’ in this paper.
language spread.

(j) In many other cases, linguistic cause unintended consequences in
paradigms lead to some kind of a the long term.
loss to a specific set of users, and
Let us now attempt to explain this by
these may have other intended
means of suitable examples. Maharashtra is
consequences, such as the
one of the most industrialized states in
extinction of languages. We have
India. Its capital Mumbai (formerly known
discussed this in another section of
as Bombay) is the commercial capital of
the paper under the ‘Net benefits
India, and one of the largest metropolises
approach’. However, this may not
in the world. Pune is another important city
necessarily be a violation of this
in the state and is known for its IT and
theory, as will be discussed.
automobile industries. The state language
(k) While it is unlikely that systematic
of Maharashtra is Marathi. Like Hindi,
violations of this principle can
Marathi is a part of the Indo-Aryan family
happen, we would like exceptions
of languages. It is one of the oldest
to this theory, if any, to be formally
surviving languages of this language group
documented and assessed by other
and dates to at least the 10th Century AD. It
scholars to preclude any possible
is written in the Devanagari script, like
confirmation bias. One exception
Hindi, though another script namely the
we can think of is acculturation or
Modi script was once used. Mumbai was a
enculturation, and a
cosmopolitan city long before India
marginalization of, or a total
attained her independence. In the 1930’s,
disregard for speakers of a
Bombay was home to Parsis, Gujaratis, and
language, but this is typically a very
some North Indians and South Indians as
slow process. We would like such
well. Maharashtra offered very little
scenarios to be evaluated on a case
resistance to India’s post-independence
to case basis.
language policy. This may have been partly
(l) Even if the Theory of Win-Win
because of Marathi’s similarity to Hindi.
paradigms has bonafide exceptions,
However, the language of business and
few would deny that planners need
commerce is English, and the elites send
to evaluate all proposal against this
their children to English-medium schools
, in the interests of short to medium
or schools where English is the medium of
term communal harmony as
instruction. Marathi is the administrative
violations of this principle can
language of the state, and all state

government offices use Marathi. There is constitute a small proportion of the
some use of English in administration at population. Let us now analyse different
the state-level. However, Hindi is almost scenarios in Mumbai city. Hindi remains is
never used as the administrative language a popular entry level lingua franca in
of the state. Moreover, the state Mumbai. This is by virtue of the fact that
government runs most of its schools in the percentage of Marathi speakers is
Marathi. The state government also runs constantly declining in the city. While
some Non-Marathi schools for the benefit English is too elitist, the education system
of linguistic minorities. However, Hindi is is also largely to blame. Many parents send
widely used as a spoken entry-level lingua their children to English schools with Hindi
franca in Mumbai city because the city is as a mandatory second language, thereby
home to a large migrant population and a relegating Marathi to the backburner. Let
floating population who have not taken the us now analyse what this entails for Hindi
trouble or initiative to learn Marathi, the speakers. This is virtually a bonanza and a
language of the state. There are now only a manna from heaven for them, as it would
few Marathi strongholds in Mumbai such appear to validate their cultural superiority
as Shivaji Park. English is too elitist to be and numerical strength, and ratify the case
used as an entry-level spoken language due of Hindi as a national or a link language.
to its association with India’s elites, and the There are no downsides for them either.
fact that only a small number of people are The benefit of this for citizens for whom
comfortable with it. It is also not symbolic neither Hindi nor Marathi is their native
of Pan-Indian values. However, the use of language is an ease of communication and
Hindi as a formal, written language is the fact that their target audience may not
rather limited, given the fact that the elites be comfortable in English either. Such an
and a significant proportion of Hindi individual would make an effort to learn
speakers, and almost all those who really basic Hindi (and usually not Marathi) over
matter, prefer English schools. Thus, we a period in time. However, such a speaker
say a triangular fight exists between three would rarely make an attempt to acquire
different languages in the state. No other perfection in Hindi, and neither would he
language really matters in the state. send his children to a Hindi school. This
Marathi speakers continue to raise provides as win-win paradigm, but only
concerns about the marginalization of their within a very limited realm. For Marathi
language particularly in Mumbai city speakers, Hindi would at first prove to be a
where native Marathi speakers only total loss. It only providers some other

fringe benefits such as their entry into chasm across social lines given most
Central government jobs, their ability to peoples’ unfamiliarity with it. This is
communicate at a Pan-India level and the something Hindi supporters harp on. Hindi
exposure it provides to the Hindi states also famously neglected the study of
entertainment industry. However, this has English due to their Rajbhasha
led to friction of sorts. The demand for a complacency. The support for Hindi by the
Marathi-speaking state was strong in the business sector is also fraught with risks
1950’s and lobbying and politicking given the provisions of international law
ensured that their efforts materialized. and possible objections from minorities. In
However, India’s language is sometimes a this setting, English is seen as the only
source of friction in the state. The Shiv viable alternative. Experience in India and
Sena Party’s and the Maharashtra other parts of the world has borne out the
Navnirman Sena’s verbal broadsides fact that a neutral language or a language
against North Indians in 2008 is a case in that is not native to any ethnic group within
point. Some years later, a legislator by the the society is ideally-suited to become the
name of Abu Azmi, who was a native Hindi lingua franca of that society. Sanskrit,
speaker was slapped for taking his oath in Persian and English have played these roles
Hindi in the Maharashtra assembly. Similar in different periods in Indian history with
incidents manifest themselves at sporadic varying degrees of success. (Refer Table
intervals. Another much more important No.6)
consequence however, is that India’s
The Theory of Win-win propositions may
language policy appears to have cemented
have worked in colonial times and rather
the role of English in India helped to a
remarkably and admirably. The English
significant degree by its international pre-
rulers promoted the English through clever
eminence. Another consequence could be
strategizing and careful planning. English
the breakup of the nation, or the loss of its
was seen as a tool for empowerment by
dynamic stability, but India’s language
Indian clerks in the East India Company
policy may be too illogical to be a
(who constituted a very small percentage of
harbinger such scenarios. It is as a result of
the population) and other Indians who
this that English is widely entrenched in
wanted all kinds of favours from the
business and commerce. English provides
British, including employment
a win-win paradigm for almost everyone in
opportunities. This principle was
this context given its popularity within and
undoubtedly applied subconsciously in
outside India. However, English creates a

other English and French colonies also, and had the larger interests of the nation in
the colonized elites were handed out a mind. Thus, we can even argue that India’s
carrot-and-stick approach by the language policy is structurally flawed.
colonialists. Another strategy adopted by Win-win propositions must again be
the imperial rulers, among others, was to intrinsic or built into the structure of the
divide Indian elites from non-elites for proposal itself, as opposed to non-intrinsic
whom language policy may have mattered propositions. Thus bargains involving
little, and to again divide Indian on reservations for non-Hindi speakers to
linguistic, ethnic and cultural lines after a compensate them from perceived losses
careful study of their ways and patterns of would not have worked as this would not
thinking. This was famously referred to as addressed a wide variety of scenarios.
the ‘Divide and rule’ strategy. Thus, it While Karl Marx may not have spoken
would be very obvious from the very about such linguistic paradigms, they were
outset, that Imperial language policies clearly Soviet-style communist constructs
involved a fair amount of successful and antithetical to the very idea of India
strategizing and deep thought. Even the and synonymous with a totalitarian and an
Indus Valley Civilization elites showed an over-centralized approach. One can even
implicit respect for the principles of ‘Unity provocatively argue that our ancient
in Diversity’ or at least the principles that ancestors were endowed with more
would have fostered communal harmony in practical common sense and that the failed
a multi-ethnic and polyglot society like Rajbhasha policy, despite the success of
theirs. In this case, the polyglot nature of Hindi in other spheres, was a blot on the
the IVC as acknowledged by the society’s idea of a diverse and a multi-lingual India.
architects. Thus, the non-linguistic The doctrine of insubordination comes into
component of the logo-syllabic Indus script play when the speakers of a language or a
and other non-linguistic cultural icons were group of languages accept the supremacy
chosen as tools of national integration. of another language in spite of a historical
Post-Independent India’s language policy track record of opposition to it. This may
may have emphasized religious harmony be a bona fide exception to the Theory of
over harmony among speakers of various Win-win propositions. While such an
languages to prevent an impending equation may rarely lead to the
partition of the nation, but this policy was extermination of the oppressed language
clearly hijacked by people with vested group in the short term or a medium term,
interests as well, who may not even have the speakers of the oppressed language

group accept the inevitable and may Likewise, although Hindi has lost the race
grudgingly accept the supremacy of the to English, Hindi speakers are not on
other language either on the basis on the uneven keel with other language speakers
numerical strength of its users, its for jobs, and English has greatly benefitted
widespread usage, or its cultural or Hindi elites too. Thus, the complete
technical superiority. This however works subjugation of one linguistic group by the
only in conjunction with other principles of other may be extremely rare, at least where
language spread in multi-lingual societies. a change in status quo is involved, and a
Examples of such cases include the slow time-consuming process as all parties
acceptance of English in many circles in always try to make best use of any given
France as the world’s leading lingua situation. For such a language policy to
franca. The recent desire expressed by work the language in question or its
many Tamil speakers to acquire at least a speakers must possess and enormous
basic level of proficiency in Hindi, in amount of clout of goodwill, and no other
addition to Tamil and English is another roadblocks or impediments must exist. As
case in point. In case of the latter, English such, such cases are relatively rare in the
is however a neutralizing factor, as the real world, and this explains why Hindi
extent of linguistic domination by one failed to replace English. As a matter of
group in a single country or a political fact, few scholars ever expected it would.
entity may be far more severe as it is at a There may be a few exceptions here, such
global level as there may be fewer checks as the co-existence and linguistic
and balances here. We may invoke the subordination of Tulu and Konkani
‘Theory of Linguistic Osmosis here’. Even speakers in Karnataka, the reasons for
so, most French speakers may have which have been laid bare in this paper, but
climbed on to the English Bandwagon for this paper proposes a principle and
self-benefit, or to make the best use of a recommends that exceptions be studied
situation in which they have relatively less separately, as such an approach would
leeway, and English is increasingly seen in always put an onus on those providing
France as an indispensable tool of differing viewpoints to provide empirical
internationalization. Tamil speakers, evidence and a logical justification. As
likewise may learn Hindi for the limited Horton and Hunt have pointed out,
purpose of entry-level inter-state assimilation and acculturation are always
communication and for the very limited two-way processes involving some amount
purpose of Central Government jobs. of give-and-take, and exceptions to this

principle may be relatively rare. However, India’s language policy. The third may be
the Doctrine of Insubordination does imply the spread of Hindi-speakers outside non-
that the subordinating language is not on Hindi states in pursuit of job opportunities.
even keel with the subordinated languages, Thus, Hindi has begun to be used even by
and as such it may take a greater effort to groups of non-Hindi speakers, none of
break its stranglehold. Thus, the doctrine whose native language is Hindi to
of Insubordination does imply a change in communicate with each other in specific
the language hierarchy. In case of the contexts. Thus a Telugu speaker in
Rajabhasha policy which would have led to Bangalore who does not know Kannada
a win-lose proposition, by benefitting only and is indisposed to learning the local
the speakers of one language. In the case, language and is not fluent in English, may
they were many inconsistencies in policy speak to a Marathi speaker in Bangalore in
between central and state governments as Hindi. This is because the usage of Hindi
well. The policy not only failed but also at this level provides a win-win proposition
encouraged English even more, by making to both the parties. Hence, after providing
Hindi and other Indian languages a modicum of unity to compensate for the
subservient to English. English also may be impracticality of English in specific
based on a win-lose paradigm as it may contexts, Hindi may actually divide beyond
benefit a small number of speakers fluent a point, and, obviously encourage English
in English at the expense of the even more. Hindi may not provide a win-
disempowered majority. This may win proposition at any other level, either.
automatically restrict the use of English to Hence, as explained, as a written language,
specific contexts and encourage another or as a language used exclusively in formal
language or set of languages in other communication, it is well and truly defunct
contexts. Here is another example: Hindi outside the Hindi belt, at least at this point
has spread in recent years outside the Hindi in time. As a fallout of this paradigm, both
speaking states. There may be many the parties mentioned above may lose
reasons for this. One is the three language interest in Hindi altogether after acquiring
formula followed in most of India; this fluency in English, and their increased
policy familiarized a large number of fluency in English would curtail their usage
Indians with the Hindi language and of Hindi. On the other hand, Hindi speakers
provided them with a working knowledge may have had a false sense of
of Hindi. The second is the rise of complacency, a kind of wishful thinking
Bollywood which rode piggy-back on that did not ultimately work in their

interests , and resultantly, economies of would not have worked. In spite of the so-
Non-Hindi states were poised for take-off called neutrality of the English language
in the early years of liberalization, in spite from the standpoint of various Indian
of the limited English proficiency of the linguistic groups, the language is obviously
larger populations of Non-Hindi states. A heavily biased in favour of English
parity across various states in the nation is speaking countries, and gives them a clear
of course being achieved now. This is a key advantage in fields such as science and
principle that needs to be borne in mind by technology, for example. Secondly, the
while formulating language policies, and English language is at best known to small
any violation of this principle may work groups of people outside native English
against communal harmony. There may be speaking countries, and is heavily biased in
exceptions to this rule- examples are the favour of urban and educated elites in all
spread of Kannada in non-Kannada parts of India. Thirdly, native English
speaking areas of Karnataka (This may speakers get away by leaning English alone
have happened because Kannada was the which is their native language and rarely
language through which widespread learn any other language. However,
literacy was achieved throughout English learners in Non-English speaking
Karnataka and the other languages in the countries must not only learn English as a
state were only spoken ones lacking written foreign language, but must also learn one
records or a literary tradition.) and the or two additional language as well.
spread of English in non-English speaking Fourthly, it is doubtful if the elites in Non-
areas of Britain. In both cases, the status English speaking countries can achieve the
quo may have been achieved only after same level of proficiency in English as
centuries, and other languages did not die native English speakers. In spite of all these
out completely. In case of the latter, the factors and the fact that English is known
spread of English into parts of Britain may only to a small number of people in India
have been effected by that language’s when compared to Hindi, the forces of
prestige as an international lingua franca as language spread in the region have booted
well. The relative decline of French and the out Hindi in favour of English, despite the
spread of English does not provide a win- latter’s lack of political patronage at any
win proposition to French speakers; level, and knowledge only among the
however, there is an inevitability to this, elites, allowing Hindi only to play second
and the enforcement of such a scenario fiddle to it. The forces of language spread
through political methods for example, in the region clearly took precedence over

the forces of language spread at an much of its luck here can be said to be
international level here. Again the fortuitous. French colonies here are found
principles of the Theory of Linguistic closer together, with allows for trade and
Osmosis manifested themselves. In India, cultural contacts between those regions. In
French, like Portuguese, disappeared after addition, a costly and a controversial
French colonies won their independence Francophonie program run by France may
and were merged into the Indian Union. have propped up the importance of the
The reasons for this would be not too far to French language somewhat. The
seek: French colonies in India were small availability of a large number of native
and far apart like French colonies in Asia, tongues within each of the Francophonie
and did not have the benefit of being able countries, besides the fact that most are not
to interact with each other. This is yet written languages have helped the cause of
another example of Linguistic Osmosis. French in the region. The absence of any
The availability of more practical other lingua franca, the low levels of
alternatives like English proved to be the literacy (which may have actually been a
final nail in the coffin for French in India. blessing in disguise as it empowered a
In the case of the European Union the small group of elites), the absence of a
usage of English is far greater than French, political will to enforce major changes to
and English undoubtedly established itself the language policies have also
as the EU’s most important language far undoubtedly helped the cause of French in
ahead of both French and German. In the region, and the rapid population growth
Scandinavian countries and Holland, for in the region is perhaps the only icing on
example, the use of English is well- the cake for a language that is seen to be
entrenched, and is widely seen to be a steep and terminal decline around the
second language. However, in the EU, the globe. This has not prevented the
widespread usage of English does not pidginisation and creolisation of French
appear to have been associated with the into mutually unintelligible forms, even
domination of one group, as the usage of though a substantial proportion of the
English as a useful lingua franca has population of some Francophone countries
currency outside the EU as well. The claim a working knowledge of French, and
political independence of constituent this may be an interesting manifestation of
nations may have served to allay fears of policies involving the import of a language
the linguistic domination of one group. that may not be the best-suited for the
French has been far luckier in Africa, but region. In addition, the region has not been

immune to wider global forces, and technical repertoire of words and the
English is making slow inroads into the deficiency of many other languages in this
region as well. In Rwanda, English has regard. Its future is hard to predict, but the
almost replaced French. This has impacted rapid spread of English may eventually
neighbouring Burundi as well. Of late, stop and may level off by around 2050.
countries such as Gabon, Morocco and Another factor that needs to be taken into
Zaire have made progress in introducing consideration is the fact that the percentage
English. In Algeria, English is already of native English speakers out of the total
beginning to take over from French. In number of English speakers and the
Senegal, a bastion of French culture in percentage of native English speakers as a
Africa, Wolof is gnawing away at the percentage of the world population will
hegemony of French despite alarm in some decline even as the total number of
circles, and there are even indications that speakers and users of the English language
that country wants to swap French for increase. Other factors such as the future of
English in the longer term. In spite of all French may have a bearing on the future of
this, French still remains strong in many English as a lingua franca, albeit
parts of Africa and will remain entrenched marginally. More importantly and
there for a long time to come. The interestingly, the future of English around
unparalleled success of the English the world is also likely to have a bearing on
language this far can be attributed to the its popularity in India, and vice versa.
combination of the following factors (a)
Net benefits approach
Colonialization of all the ‘right’ places (b)
The rise of the USA as a superpower (c) Its As per the Net Benefits approach, speakers
presence in other important countries such of a language subconsciously evaluate the
as South Africa and Australia (d) The benefits and demerits involved in using a
absence of any other viable alternatives and role in a given role or context. This is a
the demand for a global lingua franca. (e) purely subconscious process, but will result
The spread of the internet and information in a certain outcome of decision. This
technology industry (f) the onslaught of approach must again be applied in tandem
globalization and the collapse of the USSR with the other principles laid out in this
(g) the timing and the order of all the above paper. For example, speakers of Kumaoni
events which played a key role in its and Garwhali languages, but of which are
success (g) Its relative practicality vis-à-vis critically endangered languages, may not
French and other languages (h) its large choose to speak it outside their native

context because they are too embarrassed the larger populations of the region. Even
speaking it, not fluent in it or because they they may have unknowingly followed the
do not wish to inconvenience third parties. tenets of this approach! We may represent
This is in spite of the ethnic pride this as under, and also state the limitations
associated with it, which is an intangible of this approach below. A speaker
factor. Kumaoni and Garwhali speakers subconsciously evaluates the benefits and
may eventually abandon their language if demerits of using Language A and
the demerits such as lack of fluency, Language B (and possibly Language C and
fluency in an alternative language such as Language D as well) in a specific role and
Hindi, convenience, frequent intercourse context and then takes a decision. Other
with composite groups, outweigh the factors will also need to be included in the
merits such as ethnic pride. Speakers of assessment. These are Cultural factors,
certain basilects of Telugu abandon the Social factors, ethno-biological factors,
language sooner still because they are too relative fluency, linguistic distance,
embarrassed to speak it in public. They relative ease of use, linguistic power and
may continue to speak it with their elders prestige, other factors. (Refer Table No.7)
for a generation and then abandon it
Thus, this approach can also be used as an
altogether. This will lead to the death of a
aid to model the decline and eventual death
language. This is critical because
of languages. If the principles proposed in
languages seldom die out because all their
this paper are violated, several counter-
speakers have died due to declining birth
reactions can result. Other factors such as
rates, a population implosion, epidemics or
linguistic simplicity, practicality,
some other reason. Languages die out
eloquence and lucidity, productivity and
because their speakers have abandoned
creativity, clarity, emphaticness,
them in stages. A language keeps losing the
flexibility, grammatical and syntactical
roles played by it in society one by one, and
similarity or dissimilarity with other
its functions one by one. It then dies. This
languages in the region, phonetic
is a very important point to note. It is also
compatibility with other languages in the
important to note that the benefits and
region, lexical strength and attributes.
demerits in this regard may be either
Other factors such as level of education,
tangible or intangible. Similarly, speakers
infrastructure, penetration of technology
of primitive proto-languages in the stone
and other related factors must also be taken
age would have abandoned their tongues at
into account, and these will constitute the
a certain point in time, and assimilated with

limitations of this approach. Per our predictable and non-predictable factors.
prognosis, the spread and power of English Predictable factors for our purpose include
will increase worldwide for the next two or those which can be incorporated into the
three decades at least, and then level off. science of language dynamics and those
After this English will continue to be the which assume no change in status quo; they
world’s leading language. However, simply assume even if somewhat naively
several key linguistic blocks will emerge, and fallaciously, that current trends will
and a clutch of languages, say ten, will continue, that no cataclysmic political or
dominate the world. Many other languages economic changes will take place and that
will either become subservient to them, or no disruptive and game-changing
try to compete with them. Role-based technologies will enter the fray.
stratification will increase, and English will Unpredictable factors include those which
continue to dominate in international cannot be incorporated into the science of
communication, science and technology. language dynamics. Example of such
However, the role played by other factors are political and economic factors.
languages in this regard will increase Unpredictable factors may still be
slowly. Languages will influence each expressed as scenarios. For example,
other, more than ever before in the past. Scenario A may assume an increase in the
This will be bi-directional but the world’s economic power of the USA, scenario B
leading languages will influence less may assume no change in status quo while
widely spoken languages to a greater scenario C may predict a decline.
degree. There will be movements to Unpredictable factors will have a bearing
empower other languages and make them on future assessments, more so in the long
more internet and technology savvy. The term. It is sometimes said that the future is
number of languages will continue to fall a set of possibilities; a list of such scenarios
precipitously, but will then level off. The must therefore be made, to the extent
total number of languages in the world will possible. In a nutshell, the reliability of
level off at a figure greater than one predictions decreases with time, and
thousand. We also strongly believe that the predictions are always fraught with risks
use of languages will eventually align and uncertainties.
themselves worldwide in a way that will
A short-list of counter-reactions arising
maximize human creativity and
from the violation of these principles is
productivity with but minor exceptions and
given below (This list is purely indicative
aberrations. We also categorize factors as

and demonstrative, and many other types Limitations of the theory of Linguistic
of situations may occur): Osmosis
(a) Changes to the role played by a (a) Linguistic attributes of languages:

language in a geographical, cultural We have discussed various
and social context. measures of linguistic complexity
(b) Linguistic decline in the elsewhere in the paper, and it would
geographical context leading to be pointless to reiterate them here.
possible death of the language in (b) Linguistic distance between two or
some circumstances. more languages: We have
(c) Promotion of an alternative discussed various metrics to
language or languages. calculate linguistic distance
(d) Breakup of the linguistic unit or elsewhere in the paper and it would
country such as the disintegration be pointless to reiterate them here.
of the USSR or Pakistan. (c) Cultural factors: Cultural factors
(e) The manifestation of factors would unquestionably impact the
leading to a breakup of a linguistic adoption of language. Popular
unit or country, an example being surveys in India and other parts of
Sri Lanka. the world have revealed that
(f) Gross dissatisfaction among English is associated with Science,
members of one or more linguistic Technology, the Internet,
communities typically manifesting modernization and social mobility.
itself in some form. On the other hand it is also
(g) Lowered linguistic ability in one or associated with Imperialism,
more languages among segments of materialism, Westernization, anti-
the population or a wider populace. nationalism and cultural alienation
(h) The emergence of pidgins which and rarely with national identity.
will eventually lead to creolization. Thus, cultural preferences vary
(i) The emergence of hybrid languages from region to region, and need to
such as Hinglish. be taken into account in any
(j) Innovation leading to borrowing of analysis.
new words, or rapid changes to (d) Social factors: Social factors such
language. as the quality of education, the
caste system, the gender divide and

any other social evils would increased only after the fall of the
undoubtedly hamper the spread of Iron curtain.
languages, and would need to be (i) Lack of technology: In spite of
taken into consideration while ambitious schemes like the Digital
carrying out any analysis. India which aim to eventually
(e) Role of the language: If the use of connect every village seamlessly
the language is purely colloquial with high-speed digital
and informal, it may be immune to connectivity through broadband
the forces of linguistic osmosis. highways, digital literacy remains
(f) Bi-Polarity and the presence of two very poor in India, and bandwidth
or more rival languages: To abysmal. Unless such missions
illustrate, the rivalry between meet their stated and avowed goals,
English and French will logically the technical empowerment of
diminish the ability of the English Indian languages will remain a
to rule the world in vital areas such distant pipedream.
as diplomacy and haute couture. (j) Presence or absence of education:
(g) Absence if interactions between Although most Indian states have
different regions of the world: A claimed universal enrolment or
suitable example here would be the near universal enrolment in
Cold War of the 1970’s which led schools, the dropout rate is very
to the emergence of two political high, the school infrastructure poor,
and economic blocs with wholly the teaching methods outdated, and
incompatible political and the teachers badly trained. Among
economic ideologies who refused the major Indian states, Kerala has
to talk to each other, and were the highest literacy rate of 93.91%
mutually antagonistic to and in 2011, while Bihar was at the
hostile to each other. bottom of the heap at 63.82%.
(h) Economic autarchy and Cultural Many African countries have fared
isolation: Economic autarchy and much worse and countries like
cultural isolation would hamper the Burkina Faso and the Central
spread of languages. As a result, African Republic have literacy
English has been able to make very rates of less than 40%.
little headway in North Korea, and (k) Lack of infrastructure: Lack of
demand for English in Russia infrastructure in India and

elsewhere continues to be a sore How will France’s attempts to push
point. An estimated 200 million to English out of the European Union after
300 million Indians lack electricity Brexit affect the future of French in the
as on 2015, and even as per EU? How will it affect the status of French
government estimates, the rural globally?
electrification program will not be
To what extent will a hypothetical shift
completed till 2022. Even if this
from French to English in Francophonie
date is achieved the regularity of
Africa affect the status of French globally?
power supply is expected to remain
To what extent will it bolster the use of
a concern. The Pradhan Mantri
English?
Gram Sadak Yojana or the rural
roads program was launched with To what extent will high birth rates in
great fanfare in 2000 but has been Francophonie Africa affect the status of
saddled with delays and cost French globally?
overruns. Most African countries How will an increase in literacy in

fare much worse than India. Even Francophonie West Africa affect the status
though there is a near universal of French worldwide? Will the medium of
enrolment in schools in India, poor instruction (French versus indigenous
infrastructure is likely to hamper languages wherever applicable, make a
Digital India and other programs. difference?)
Annexure A What are the differences between India’s

Case studies attempt to thrust Hindi on Non-Hindi
The following are some case studies for speaking states and France’s attempt to
evaluation, and an analysis can be block the use of English in the EU? Will
attempted from our approach. A complete both of them work? What are the
list of direct and indirect factors involved differences between both these situations?
must be listed out. List out and evaluate as
How will enforced multi-linguicism policy
many scenarios as possible. Assumptions if
of the Canadian government affect the
any, must be stated clearly:
future of French both positively and
How will Brexit impact the usage of adversely in Canada? How will this in turn
English in the EU? How will this impact affect the future of the French language
the status of the English language worldwide?
worldwide?

To what extent will Hindi be able to replace what extent will it affect the prospects of
English in India in the long term? How English worldwide?
long might such a process take?
What are the prospects of the English
Will Gambia’s attempts to push out language in the Twenty-first century?
English succeed? What assumptions do you need to make in
this regard?
Will Burundi’s attempts to replace French
with English succeed? What are the What are the prospects of the French
differences between Rwanda and Burundi language in the Twenty-first century?
in this regard? What assumptions do you need to make in
this regard?
Will changes to Vietnam’s language policy
cause a ripple effect or a domino effect in What are the prospects of the Spanish
the region? Will the situation be different if language in the Twenty-first century?
the change first occurred in Laos instead of What assumptions do you need to make in
Vietnam? this regard?
To what extent are the prospects of the How will China influence the dynamics of
French language worldwide dependant on language spread in the Twenty-first
the economic success of France? century? Will Chinese weaken the
stranglehold of English?
To what extent are the prospects of the
English language worldwide dependant on How will India influence the dynamics of
the economic success of the USA? language spread in the Twenty-first
century? How will India influence the
Telugu has more dialects and geographical
spread of English worldwide?
and social variation than Tamil. To what
extent will this impact its spread and power
outside the state than Tamil? Will it cause
its speakers to abandon the language earlier
as they spread to other states? What other
factors must this be studied in conjunction
with?
Did India’s language policy encourage the

use of English in India? If so, why? To

Annexure B other Indian languages. This survey must
Role encroachment cover all languages in use in a region and
Role encroachment may be studied as must analyse all the roles played by each
follows: A formal survey may be carried language. This will be followed by a Root
out in different geographical regions from Cause Analysis which will further be used
time to time to understand the roles played to analyse patterns and underlying causes
by different languages in society. For that will be applicable across regions.
example, though the use of English is (Refer Table No.8) (Refer Annexure C,
rapidly increasing in India, it has already D or E).
ceded some of its soft power to Hindi and

LIST OF TABLES:
Table No.1
Period Pre-historic Proto-historic Historic period Modern Pre- Age of
period period globalized era globalization
Time The Stone Age The Neolithic The Late The Victorian The end of the
frame (including the age and the Chalcolithic era to the end Twentieth
Paleolithic age Early age, The Old of the century and the
and the Chalcolithic age world, The Twentieth Twenty-first
Mesolithic age) Iron age, The century Centuries
and the Neolithic Ancient world,
age The Medieval
era, The
Renaissance,
The Age of
discovery and
The Georgian
era
Compon
ent
The idea Perhaps Spoken Spoken Spoken Spoken
of autochthonous language pre- language pre- language pre- language pre-
spoken with other inputs existed in this existed in this existed in this existed in this
languag from neighboring epoch and hence epoch and epoch and epoch and hence
e regions this is not hence this is hence this is this is not
applicable not applicable not applicable applicable
Basic Perhaps Proto-language Proto- Proto- Proto-language

spoken autochthonous; pre-dated this language pre- language pre- pre-dated this
languag epoch and hence dated this dated this epoch and hence
Theories such as
e and this is not epoch and epoch and this is not
Bow-wow theory,
early applicable hence this is hence this is applicable
Pooh-pooh
Proto- (However, not applicable not applicable
theory, Eureka
languag words were (However, the
theory and Uh-oh
e) constantly over- standardization
theory;
ridden, and of languages
Clan codification; language progressed
standardized) during this
Neural epoch)
transmission of
language from
key nodes (Refer
our explanations)
Basic Neural Neural Proto- Proto- Proto-language

Proto- transmission of transmission of language pre- language pre- pre-dated this

languag language from language dated this dated this epoch and hence
e (Late key nodes partly continuing into epoch and epoch and this is not
Proto- over-riding this epoch over- hence this is hence this is applicable
languag autochthonous riding not applicable not applicable
e) development autochthonous
development
and levelling
dialects and
proto-
languages)
Further Quasi-political Political Political Linguistic

spread factors factors factors, Osmosis,
and Science and Political factors,
refinem Technology Science and
ent of Technology
Spoken
languag
e
Spread Historical factors Historical Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable
of (Primarily) factors
writing (Primarily)
(Proto-
writing)
Spread Not applicable Not applicable Historical Global and Global and local
of factors local factors factors
Writing (Primarily) (wherever (wherever
(Logo- applicable) applicable)
syllabic
scripts)
Oral Autochthonous Autochthonous Autochthonou Not applicable Not applicable

tradition with inputs with inputs s with inputs
s borrowed as borrowed as borrowed as
applicable applicable applicable;
would have
been strongly
influenced by
or subservient
to written
traditions
Literary Not applicable Not applicable Autochthonou Autochthonou Autochthonous

tradition s and external s and external and external
s influences influences influences
driven by driven by
Intellectual
enlightenment Intellectual Intellectual
enlightenment enlightenment
and

Universalization
of education
Nature Limited Increased Cross- Cross- Cross-

of borrowings from borrowing borrowing and borrowing and borrowing,
Lexical key and including more literary literary literary
borrowi subsidiary nodes complex influences due influences due influences and
ngs gradually vocabulary; this to political and to political and permeation due
increasing with epoch may have cultural factors cultural factors to global factors
time; borrowings witnessed the
still limited to introduction of
basic vocabulary some abstract
adding to or over- vocabulary; a
riding vocabulary higher level of
in lesser proto- standardization
languages. including
phonetic and
phonological
standardization,
standardization
in syntax and
grammar.
Other Proto-language Increasing Increasing Increased use Further increase

key standardization literary of scientific in scientific
No
characte of vocabulary, traditions; jargon; vocabulary;
standardizations
ristics of syntax and some societal accelerating
languag No complex grammar, dichotomy changes due to decline in
e grammar introduction of literary and near- number of
abstractions common universalizatio languages; non-
No abstractions usage; n of education; contact driven
(Refer increasing some scenarios of
explanatory standardization languages linguistic
notes) but develop much change.
geographical faster than the
and social others.
dialects
continue.
Migratio Almost never Rarely Applicable on Applicable on High degree of

n- applicable (There applicable a case to case a case to case linguistic churn
induced may have been (There may basis basis due to human
scenario case to case have been case migrations in
s exceptions) to case the Post-
exceptions) globalized world
Table No.2
S.No Component Driven by
1 The capacity for speech Instinct and facilitated experimentation driven by Ontogenetic and
other factors
2 Primitive speech and proto-language Instinct and facilitated experimentation driven by Ontogenetic and
other factors
Innovation and creativity
Necessity and dire necessity
Societal pressure, peer pressure and societal needs
3 Full-blown spoken and written language Societal pressure, peer pressure and societal needs
Other higher order factors such as Intellectual enlightenment driven
by societal needs and Innovation and creativity.
Table No.3
S. No Observation or hypothesis Attributed to
1 Infants babble (a) Instinct and facilitated experimentation
(b) Innovation and creativity
2 Parental initiation and transmission of Societal pressure, peer pressure and societal
language from generation to generation needs
3 Sound mimicry (Bow-wow) Innovation and creativity
4 Expression of emotions (Pooh-pooh) Instinct and facilitated experimentation
5 Eureka theory or invention theory Innovation and creativity
6 Warning of dangers (Uh-oh theory) Necessity and Dire necessity
Table No.4
S.No Phase Parts of speech
1 Phase One Basic interjections
Onomatopoeia
Basic concrete and non-abstract nouns (Common nouns and Proper nouns)
Personal pronouns
2 Phase Two Basic verbs
Basic adjectives
Other pronouns
3 Phase Three Basic adverbs
4 Phase Four Basic propositions
Table No.5
S.No Type of contact Common in Possible Impact and Additional notes
1 One-time contact This scenario would have had some This kind of contact may have led to the
applicability in pre-historic and proto- borrowing of the idea of language from one
historic scenarios where stone age tribes clan to the other and its adoption in
sometimes came into contact with each different cultural contexts. It may also have
other or warring or sparring clans, led to very limited word borrowings.
tribes, proto-kings, kings or monarchs
came into limited contact with each
other.
2 Intermittent or sporadic This scenario would have had some Word borrowings to cover lexical gaps;
contacts applicability in pre-historic and proto- earliest factors driving standardization of
historic scenarios where stone age tribes language in a limited or wider geographical
came into contact with each other at region.
regular or irregular intervals.
3 Regular contacts Would have arisen due to cultural, Would have led to the elimination of
(insignificant) technological (such as the spread of several proto-languages, isolates and
(Cultural, Iron, writing, horse-trade), political dialects
Technological, factors etc.
Economic, Political
factors etc.)
4 Regular contacts Would have arisen due to cultural, Would led to early standardization of
(Deep-rooted) technological (such as the spread of language
(Cultural, Iron, writing, horse-trade), political
Technological, factors etc.
Economic, Political
factors etc.)
5 Language influences This type of language spread would be Would led to the introduction or secondary
primarily through observed in conquests, invasions, large- or allied languages in non-native contexts,
political, cultural scale migrations, annexations, and may in some cases marginalize or
hegemony subjugations of other empires etc. supplant them
6 Language influences An example for this is the spread of Would led to the introduction or secondary
primarily through English in North America, and the or allied languages in non-native contexts
political, cultural spread of English and French in Asia despite limited frequent contact, and may
hegemony (involving and Africa due to colonialism. These in some cases marginalize or supplant them
limited or one time two scenarios bear some resemblance to and in other cases, co-existing or leading to
contacts) one another, even though they are a linguistic sprachbund.
unidentical, with differing drivers and
principles. The spread of Hindi in India,
and Urdu in Pakistan may also be
categorized under this category.
7 Non-contact leading to This type of scenario would be most Would led to the introduction or secondary
linguistic influences common in Post-Globalized situations. or allied languages in non-native contexts
(Push, Pull, Refer our section on ‘Theory of despite limited frequent contact, and may
Subconscious adoption, Linguistic Osmosis’ in some cases marginalize or supplant
Push-Pull, Pull-Churn, them. In many or most cases, co-existence
Pull-Churn-Feedback) would be common,
8 Non-contact leading to Cultural isolation An example of this would be the gradual
linguistic autarchy changes to the North Korean language (The
North Korean language borrowed very few
English words, but some Russian words)
Table No.6
6Scenarios Linguistic Group A Linguistic Linguistic Tabulation of
Group B group C results,
conclusions and
inferences
Name of Role or Geographical
languag context of context
e study
Marathi speakers Hindi speakers Other
language
speakers
(English-
knowing and
Non-English
knowing)
Marathi Marathi as Mumbai City, Primary Disad Prima Disad Prima Disad
entry level Maharashtra and vanta ry vanta ry vanta
lingua state, India secondary ges to and ges to and ges to
franca benefits to the secon the secon the
(Scenario the group group dary group dary group
A) benefi benefi
ts to ts to
the the
group group
<Refer text <Ref <Refe <Ref <Refe <Ref <Refer text for
for er r text er r text er explanation>
explanatio text for text for text
n> for expla for expla for
expla nation expla nation expla
natio > natio > natio
n> n> n>
Hindi Hindi as Maharashtra Primary Disad Prima Disad Prima Disad
entry-level state, India and vanta ry vanta ry vanta
lingua secondary ges to and ges to and ges to
franca benefits to the secon the secon the
(Scenario B) the group group dary group dary group
benefi benefi
ts to ts to
the the
group group
n> n> n>
English Business Maharashtra Primary Disad Prima Disad Prima Disad
and official state, India and vanta ry vanta ry vanta
language secondary ges to and ges to and ges to
(Scenario C) benefits to the secon the secon the
the group group dary group dary group
benefi benefi
ts to ts to
the the
group group
n> n> n>
Table No.7
Name of the Language:
Role played by the language:
Geographical context:
Social Context (If applicable)
Cultural Context (If applicable)
Speaker Name:
Language A Language B Remarks
Serial No Tangible Demerits Tangible Demerits
benefits (Tangible) benefits (Tangible)
Intangible Demerits Intangible Demerits

benefits (Intangible) benefits (Intangible)
Other factors involved in assessment:

(a) Cultural factors:
(b) Social factors:
(c) Ethno-biological factors
(d) Relative fluency:
(e) Linguistic distance:
(f) Relative ease of use:
(g) Linguistic power and prestige
(h) Other factors
Table No.8
Name of the Language: Language A
Geographical location: XXX, Say, Bangalore, India
S.No Role played by the Period of Usage Period of Usage Root Cause
language Evaluation A (Dominant/High/Medi Evaluation B (Dominant/High/ Analysis
um/Low/Non-existent) Medium/Low/Non
-existent)
1 Business or
commercial usage
2 Administrative usage
3 Quotidian or daily
usage
4 Literary usage
5 Lingual franca within
the region
6 External
communication
7 Language as a symbol
of cultural power:
Soft power enjoyed
by the language
8 Liturgical, sacerdotal
or religious usage
9 Peripheral or
secondary usage
Name of the Language: Language B
Geographical location: XXX, Say, Bangalore, India
S.No Role played by the Period of Usage Period of Usage Root Cause
language Evaluation A (Dominant/High/Medi Evaluation B (Dominant/High/ Analysis for
um/Low/Non-existent) Medium/Low/Non change
-existent)
1 Business or
commercial usage
2 Administrative usage
3 Quotidian or daily
usage
4 Literary usage
5 Lingual franca within
the region
6 External
communication
7 Language as a symbol
of cultural power:
Soft power enjoyed
by the language
8 Liturgical, sacerdotal
or religious usage
8 Peripheral or
secondary usage
LIST OF FIGURES:
Fig.No.1
Fig.No.2
In the very early days, it was quite likely that the development of spoken language was autochthonous to many
different regions but key attributes of language eventually spread from key nodes, to lesser nodes, and then
even smaller nodes, ultimately spreading to a given region in its entirety and replacing other minor proto-
languages or endowing them with standardized features. Wherever, this process did not manifest itself to a
significant degree, linguistic isolates would continue. This approach would explain the presence of language
groups, languages, dialects and dialect continuums the way we know them today. This would be akin to the
spread of cultural traits
Fig.No.3
In an alternative scenario, spoken languages spoken in different influential nodes jointly known as a staging area,
cross-influenced each other substantially before influencing proto-languages spoken in more isolated
geographical regions and eventually levelling off differences to a significant degree. A combination of core nodes
here would be known as a ‘Staging area’
Fig.No.4
In yet another scenario, changes radiate or propagate from a core node to outlying regions concentrically until
proto-languages or dialects in outlying regions are killed off. However, tempting this approach may be,
scholars may be hard-pressed to demonstrate real-world examples.
Fig.No.5
Examples of Vinca symbols which are believed to date to at least 6000 BC. We have every reason to believe,
given the rather limited archaeological record at present, that the origin of proto-writing actually predates this.
This can be used to draw inferences along with other fossil evidence, about the state of evolution of spoken
language at that time.
Fig.No.6
Map showing anticipated dialect shifts in the English language (Source: Paul Kerswill, Lancaster University)
LIST OF ANNEXURE:
Annexure C
Speaker Profiling
Name of the speaker:
Additional details:
Complete list of languages known:
Name of the Spoken fluency Written fluency Role in which used Geographical Social and
language context in which cultural context
used (Provide in which used
details) (Provide details)
Annexure D
Fluctuation in the number of spoken languages as per the ‘Epochal Polygenesis approach’
This graph shows the number of proto-languages and languages as per the ‘Epochal Polygenesis’ approach. The
number of proto-language must have rapidly increased in the stoneage and the pre-historic period due to an
independent effort in the development of proto-languages. The number of proto-languages or languages would
have begun declining towards the end of the Pre-historic era, and the rate of decline would have accelerated,
accelerating in the modern Pre-globalized era and accelerating even further in the modern Post-globalized era.
The rate of decrease in the number of languages spoken will however level off due to the limitations of ‘Linguistic
Osmosis’ and other factors.
Annexure E
Non-Contact-Based Drivers In Different Epochs
S.N Name of the epoch Prevalence of Non-contact driven Contributory factors (New and
o scenarios additional technologies)
1 Pre-historic period Non-existent Boats (However, formal memory aids
did not exist)
2 Proto-historic Extremely low, if at all as true literacy did Proto-writing
period not exist and the impact of new inventions The invention of the wheel
on the dynamics of language spread was Horse riding
negligible Horse and cart
Bullock cart
3 Historic period Moderately low. True literacy existed by True writing
was limited to small sections of society. Trade contacts
The impact of new inventions on the Cultural contacts
dynamics of language spread was Political contacts
negligible Chariot and Horse-carriage
4 Modern pre- Moderate Printing press from the Thirteenth

globalized period Century
Radio
Television
Steam locomotive
Steam ships
Automobile
Aeroplane
The age of exploration
Colonialism
Increase in literacy levels
5 Modern post- Very high Internet

globalized Globalization
scenarios (The role of non-contact based
scenarios is likely to increase because
the factors working in favour of
globalization are expected to
outweigh the factors working against
it.)
Near-universalization of literacy

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ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ON THE ORIGIN AND SPREAD OF LANGUAGES: PROPOSITIONING TWENTY-

Sujay Rao Mandavilli

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

An Introduction to language languages in the world today, some of

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

during the dawn of spoken language. distinct properties such as Displacement

Language is typically acquired by humans (Ability to encode messages that refer to

language is typically formal or structured Semanticity or meaning, Syntax or

with a set of codified or uncodified rules. combination of phonemes to convey more

Language is the basis of much of human complex ideas, Encapsulation of messages,

accomplishment in the fields of science, Arbitrariness (Absence of a direct co-

civilization as we know it, would most representing it), Productivity or Creativity

role in the transmission of knowledge, and transmission to future generations,

therefore augments civilizational Discreteness of words and their meanings,

complexity. Language is also inseparably Learnability (a speaker of one language can

as the ability to communicate is seen as a certain constraints and limitations),

human psyche. As Henry Bretton (1976, p. listeners, Organization of sounds to form

447) points out: “Language may be the distinct meanings, Specialization of

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

Palmer's Studies in the History of Western

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

being sounds made by dogs, cats, snakes, theories by various scholars,

cows, rivers, streams, rain, thunder, including Jean-Jacques

While there is a possibility that early

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

Darwin’s ideas appeared to have supported sources.

this hypothesis at one point. However, the

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

behaviour, it is learnt. This learning is Another somewhat similar concept is the

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

University. However belief in language eoglottic period, the paleoglottic period,

Stephen Levinson. 22 of the four periods. He also advocated the

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

23 Evolutionary Theory Robert J. Richards The

Darwin, August Schleicher, Ernst Haeckel, University of Chicago

and the Missing link in Nineteenth-Century

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

ISSN 2349-2317 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJMRM/issn. 2349-2317/2015; Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)

“Transformation” or “Progression” are ‘Tree model’ consists of supposed Proto-

sometimes also used to describe linguistic Language, say ‘Proto-languages ‘A’

detects linguistic variations and changes It may be difficult to demonstrate real-

generations of populations at a given point real-time scenarios and may therefore be

variance with the existing approaches in very badly outdated.

the marketplace. 33 The Wave Model