Reading and Writing

1.0 PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

help us sort out information and shape TYPES OF NARRATION
paragraphs or essays. ➢ Fictional narrative – uses imaginary people,
help organize an outline or depending on the events, or place. This is characterized as
purpose they can determine the form that a creative and fun.
paper will take. Example: Novel
is the way the essay is organized, from one ➢ Factual narrative – is an event that happens
paragraph to the next, in order to present its in a real life. This is usually characterized as
thesis and the relevant, authoritative support urgent and logical.
for it, in a coherent and meaningful fashion. Example: News

NARRATION

➢ contains signal words such as verbs (walk, run,

sing, drink, etc.) and adverbs (Every morning,
later, yesterday, etc.) which convey an element DESCRIPTION
of time, place, and event. ➢ is a pattern that expresses details of a mental
➢ uses transitions such first, then, then, soon, after, image using complimentary words (adjectives)
and suddenly. as signal words.
➢ requires physical elements such as size, shape,
➢ presents sequence of events in a text. It is color, brand, texture, etc. to properly convey a
normally chronological and at times it uses mental image.
flashback.
TYPES OF DESCRIPTION
CHRONOLOGICAL
1. Objective description – a presentation of a
A man swore his woman to be his wife someday. After
mental image in its actual form and without
three years, they are now about to get married. The
biases.
woman is in tears as she prepares to walk down the aisle
remembering their countless memories together. ➢ often uses plain sensory images and
spatial patterns
2. Subjective description – gives personal
The man The couple is The woman impression of the mental image which may be
swore to his about to get walks down different as to how other people imagine it.
woman married the aisle
➢ uses more figurative languages
3. Mixed description – presents both objective
and subjective description in a text.
FLASHBACK (IN MEDIAS RES)

A woman is about to get married. As she puts on her

veil, she remembers her fiancé three years before,
swearing he would make her his wife someday. A tear
comes to her eyes as she prepares to walk down the aisle. ➢ Sensory images – use five senses to create a
more vivid mental picture of a subject. These
five senses are visual (sense of sight), auditory
The man The couple is The woman (sense of hearing), olfactory (sense of smell),
swore to his about to get walks down gustatory (sense of taste), and tactile (sense of
woman married the aisle touch).

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 Reading and Writing

Example: Example: ➢ is a pattern that organizes ideas into problems

In my dreams, I was In my dreams, I felt the cold and proposed solutions.
sitting in a chair breeze of the air with the ➢ is a pattern of development that focuses on
outside a tiny house sweet fragrance of a misty either a problem or solution in a particular area
while drinking a cup fog while sipping freshly or situation.
of coffee. The air was grinded coffee beans in a
fresh, and the waterfront veranda. Then, ➢ reflects a form of critical thinking that tends to
weather was cold. It something woke me up—a be more argumentative and evaluative.
was a nice feeling. screeching wheel from the ➢ useful in writing introductions, research
Then, I woke up outside and the pattering of reports, proposals, and essay answers to
because I heard noisy the raindrops through my examination questions.
cars and raindrops. windowpane.

➢ Spatial pattern – arranges the placement of
an object based on the location or physical
space.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Problem – is an unsatisfactory situation that causes
troubles or difficulties.
Solution – is a way to deal with situation so that the
troubles or difficulties are removed.

MOST PROBLEM-SOLUTION TEXTS

Example: Example: INVOLVE FOUR STEPS
➢ Situation – the first sentence in a paragraph,
There were three In the wild, there
often referred to as the Situation.
sisters who decided lived three young sisters who
➢ provides background information
to build their own decided to build a shelter.
and the setting for the problem
house in a far-away However, they had different
➢ Problem – the second or topic sentence states
land. The youngest preferences, so each of them
the problem.
girl decided to decided to build their own
➢ Solution – introduces a solution to the
build her house house. And so it was that
problem.
away from the opposite to a river, the
➢ Evaluation – when presented with a possible
river. Near her youngest girl built a house
solution, readers naturally wonder:
house will be the using leaves and twigs.
➢ is the solution is effective in light of
shelter of her eldest Adjacent to the youngest girl’s
the criteria described in the problem
sister which has an house is the shelter of the
step?
easy access to the eldest. She built a house using
➢ if the evaluation is negative (i.e., the
drinking water. But logs and she constructed it near
solution is ineffective), then your
the middle child the spring so she can easily
reader will expect an explanation as
wanted to build her access drinking water. In the
to why it will not work.
house in the middle middle of the forest, the middle
of the forest far child built her house. It stands
SITUATION
from her sisters. between two hills and is quiet
far from her two sister’s Importance?
houses, but she was contented. Relevance?
PROBLEM
➢ Figurative language – sometimes uses Causes? Past solutions?
symbols to convey a deeper meaning
Consequences? Criteria for solving?
SOLUTION
uses two uses one word to Features of solution?
contradictory words modify two other How does it work?
joined together to words in two EVALUATION
create a specific tone. different ways.
How effective is it? Meet criteria?

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 Reading and Writing
SIGNAL WORDS FOR PROBLEM-SOLUTION
one solution ➢ a paragraph that indicates the cause (or
but the problem
is reason) that produces an effect (or result)
first, second the solution one way is ➢ explains why a condition occurs or the effect
one reason that this condition brings about.
nonetheless
for the ➢ answers the questions “Why” such as “Why
did it happen?” or “What”, such as “What are
its causes?” or “What are its effects?”
VARIATIONS OF PROBLEM-SOLUTION
Examples of Writer’s Purposes when using Cause
1. Problem-Solution PROBLEM and Effect Pattern Development:
The fast-food chain Charlie's Chicken wants to ✓ To justify or condemn some action
attract younger customers, ages 13 to 17, to dine ✓ To prove or disprove an idea, belief, or
in their restaurants. The management is thinking
assertion
of launching a new mascot called Clucky, a cool
✓ To explain or to give an account of something
SOLUTION

and trendy anthropomorphic chicken. This brand

overhaul would be very expensive, though. So, they or situation
are also exploring digital marketing options. ✓ To convince, or
Through the Web and social media, the company ✓ To draw a conclusion
can promote the brand at a lower cost.

2. Problem-Cause-Solution PROBLEM CHARACTERISTICS OF A PARAGRAPH

Women are significantly underrepresented in DEVELOPED BY CAUSE AND EFFECT
the fields of science, technology, engineering,
• the writer points out the relationship between
and mathematics (STEM). The small number of
women working in those fields can be attributed to certain events or situations and their
consequences
CAUSE

the prevailing attitudes of people in general about

the ideal career aspirations of women. Educating
people then is a way to change how they think and
feel about women. Furthermore, the government
and public organizations should support programs
that increase women’s interest in the STEM fields.
• sometimes several causes contribute to the
same effect.
• this effect further becomes a cause for other
effects so that a cause-effect chain of events
results

3. Problem-Process-Solution PROBLEM SIGNAL WORDS FOR CAUSE AND

A study will set out to determine the effects of EFFECT
ultraviolet light on live cells. In an experiment, a in view of
SOLUTION

microbial sample will be subjected to UV light from as for

PROCESS

(the fact)
a 24-watt light bulb. After six hours, the sample will
be analyzed. The experiment aims prove that the UV because (of the for the reason in as much
light causes irreparable DNA damage that causes fact) that as
cell death. The results can be used to develop more being that in that one reason
effective ways to protect human skin from the UV due to (the fact
accordingly consequently
light from the sun. that)
in
SOLUTION as a consequence for this reason
consequence
as a result (of this) hence so
so much (so)
because (of this)
that

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 Reading and Writing
TWO BASIC PATTERN OUTLINES
Cause-to-Effect Pattern:
In the cause-to-effect pattern, the topic sentence of a
paragraph states the main idea in such a way that some
cause produces some effects. This pattern states the
causes first and then its effects.
Effect-to-Cause Pattern:
In the effect-to-cause pattern, the paragraph starts with
the effects first and then the cause/s.
➢ explains the essence of a word, an idea, a concept,
or an expression
➢ gives information to the reader as to what the
author intends to explain and not argue or
persuade
➢ a way of clarifying misinterpretation or misuse of
conventional understanding of words
TWO WAYS OF DEFINING
Denotation
- the primary, explicit, or literal definition of a
word
- the meaning of a word based on a dictionary
TECHNIQUES
1) Analysis
• The process of breaking down a concept into
its constituent parts
• Also entails detailing in which one, rather than
zooming out and describing the concept as a
whole, zooms in and focuses on describing the
aspects that make up a concept
Example:
The guitar is a musical instrument that
produces sound primarily through strumming
its strings. Its sound is modified or
manipulated through the interaction of the
strings with the other parts of the guitar, which
are the headstock or simply the head, the
tuners, the nut, the neck, the sound hole, the
body, and the bridge.
2) Collocation
• Means that there are words or expressions that
are usually almost immediately associated
with the concept you are trying to define
• The words or expressions are usually located
together, hence the name “collocation”
Example:
Passion is usually collocated with the terms “love”
and “lust”. While these three words are not
only compared but also contrasted in the sample
text above, they are most often defined in terms of
each other because they share a common semantic
feature of “intense liking”.

Connotation
- the secondary meaning of a word
- not based on a dictionary
- how people understand a word based on their
own personal or consensual experiences
Word Denotation
The flower or a flowering
stem of any of numerous wild
and cultivated plants of the
genus Rosa; esp. the large,
many-petalled flower of any
of the numerous cultivated
Rose
varieties of this plant,
typically red, white, or
yellow, and often scented, but
also occurring in a wide
variety of other forms and
colors
3) Comparison
• Associating the word or expression being
defined with something else not necessarily
synonymous with it
• Highly dependent on imagery which creates a
vivid picture of a concept in the reader’s mind
• Usually used through analogy or through
Connotation figurative language like similes and
metaphors
• Used to make abstract concepts more
understandable by using comparison to appeal
to the human senses of sight, sound, smell,
taste, and touch
Love and
Example:
romance “Groping for imagery I find myself thinking of…
passion as hot, strong, almost thick coffee. …
Coffee unleashes energy, has a full-bloodied
flavor, a touch of bitterness unpleasant to others,
but delicious to the drinker.”

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 Reading and Writing
4) Contrast
• Understanding how at least two similar
concepts are different from each other
Example:
“Love is softness; passion is smolder. Love might
be contentment, but passion is adventure. It must
be free, untethered. It must explore, drive beyond
the boundaries, break molds. Passion discovers,
unearths, examines, magnifies, revels in details.
Love rolls up details into a coherent whole. Love is
passive; passion hyperactive. Where love is
melancholic, passion is pain.”
5) Etymology
• The history of a word
• Explains the evolution of a word or how it has
come to be
Example:
“Appassionato is the past participle of a Latin
word that means ‘to impassion’… If passion is so
good, then why do many fear it? Because by its
etymology (from the Latin word ‘passus,’ past
participle of ‘pati’ meaning to suffer) it brings pain.
To be capable of passion one must be open,
vulnerable, and brave enough to stare pain in the
eye.”
6) Exemplification and Illustration
Exemplification – Defining something by giving
examples
Illustration ‒ Giving an example and focusing on it to
elaborate on the concept you are trying to define
Example:
Books are considered to be credible and
reputable resource materials to consult when you are
trying to find the definition of a word. Some
examples are dictionaries, thesauri, encyclopedias,
and manuals.
7) Extended Definition
• A personal interpretation of an author to an
abstract and multifaceted concept
• Goes beyond denotation and connotation
• Gives the reader a new and fresh
understanding of a concept as it largely draws
upon the author’s own perspective of the
world
Example:
“I believe that a life lived with passion
shimmers, shines, rises above the ordinary. Allow
me to seduce you into passionate existence. To
think, to sing, maybe even to sigh—appassionato.”
8) Function
• Know what the purpose of the word or
concept is
• Answers the question: What is it used
for?
Example:
Whether it may be an ancient
sundial, a classy pocket watch, a Rolex or
Swatch wristwatch, an antique grandfather’s
clock, or the mighty Big Ben of London, a
clock, first and foremost, is a mechanical
device or technology whose primary purpose
is to measure time.
9) Negation
• A technique that you can use to define a word
or concept by explaining what it is not
Example:
“Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it
does not boast, it is not proud. It does not dishonor
others, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered,
it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight
in evil but rejoices with the truth.”
– 1 Corinthians 13: 4–6
10) Synonyms
• A single word or phrase that shares almost the
same meaning with the concept being tried to
be defined
• Slang or colloquial language can also be
something considered under the umbrella term
of synonyms
Example:
According to Dictionary.com, “mawkish” means
“characterized by sickly sentimentality” or
“weakly emotional.” It can be considered
synonymous to “nauseating” and “sickening” due
to dependence on too much emotion.
Example:
Another name for hashish is marijuana; popular
slang in the United States also calls it “pot” or
“grass.”
– Concepcion D. Dadufalza, Reading into
Writing 2:
A Handbook-Workbook-Reader for Critical
Reading and Writing in Expository Discourse
LACRA, TRISHA NICOLE B. 5
 Reading and Writing
2.
• a pattern that starts with a general statement
and expounds it by giving examples
• uses some prepositional phrases (as an
example, for instance, specifically, namely,
first, second, lastly or to illustrate) as signal
words
Inductive Method – starts with the examples
leading to the general statement at the end of the
paragraph
I don’t participate in class. I can’t draw things in
my mind. I don’t like singing in front of the
audience. I dance but only with my one foot. I like
sports but my body can’t endure it. Such a poor
self! Until now I still don’t know my strength.

TYPES OF EXEMPLIFICATION

1. Typical-case – talks about knowledge-based topics TECHNIQUES

that do not require personal approach. It often uses 1) Visual Illustration
brief examples as a device to create a common • Appeal to the sense of sight
exemplification. • Can be used to concretize abstract concepts
2. Personal-case – usually presents more emotional like poverty and love
or bias topics. It often uses an extended example as 2) Facts
a device. • concepts, ideas, and statements that are
Extended example uses a narrative or anecdote to generally assumed to be true, real, and/or
expound the main idea. For instance, you will write existing
a text about fear as a great motivator. The best way • useful in supporting a point as most people
to give examples for this is to share a personal accept these facts as already part of reality that
experience. they are almost always uncontested
3) Anecdotes
TYPICAL-CASE PERSONAL-CASE • brief narratives within a piece of writing
1. Top Endurance 1. Advantages of Playing • serve as supporting points or claims that
Sports based on ML in the perspective of an explain or elaborate the author’s intended
topendsports.com ML player argument
2. 21 Legit Ways to • powerful instruments of persuasion
2. Teenage Problems
Make Money Online according to a hands-on • based on the author’s own memory and
based on forbes.com mother portrays him/her in a relatable and
understandable way because anecdotes,
3. Richest Filipino
3. The sacrifices of the ultimately, humanizes the storyteller
Celebrities in 2018
frontliners based on one’s 4) Details
based on
experience • entails analyzing, the process of breaking
asianmoneyguide.com
down a concept or idea into its constituent
parts
• the minute parts, as opposed to the big picture
5) Opinions
METHODS IN WRITING
• individual interpretations of people on certain
EXEMPLIFICATION events, situations, ideas, and/or concepts
1. Deductive Method – starts with the general • naturally vary from one person to another due
statement and develops into examples to people’s different backgrounds and
The annual salary report from jobstreet.com personalities
determines the top earners in the Philippines in • can have the power to make a claim well-
2013. For fresh graduates, the best-paying jobs are founded as these are first-hand reactions or
in the fields of legal services, corporate strategy, reviews from people
secretarial services, education, and real estate. For 6) Observations
those with one to four years of experience, the top • make use of description which is appealing to
salaries are from oil and gas engineering, aircraft the five human senses
maintenance, information technology, and • can be done anytime as all is needed are the
instrumentation. five senses

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 Reading and Writing

• divide things into groups, classes, or • organizes ideas based on how concepts or things
categories are similar to or different from one another.
• organizers ideas into divisions based on • Comparison examines how the subjects are the
criteria or standard same
• Contrast examines how subjects are different
TYPES OF STANDARDS
SIGNAL WORDS FOR COMPARISON
1. Objective Criterion – underwent series of studies
to conclude a particular classification in the same way similarly in like manner
2. Subjective Criterion – only requires series of
personal observations to conclude one’s own by the same token likewise in similar fashion
classification of a thing
SIGNAL WORDS FOR CONTRAST
SIGNAL WORDS FOR
CLASSIFICATION nevertheless yet otherwise
nonetheless and yet on the contrary
classified the last
another one kind after all but in contrast
as group
another the first the next however though not withstanding
final type on the other hand
kind category part

METHODS IN WRITING METHODS IN WRITING COMPARISON

CLASSIFICATION AND CONTRAST

1. Level Method – starts with the general statement
and develops into examples
Based on Level:
There are two categories of plants. First is the non-
flowering plant which is reproduced and is dispersed
mainly by spores. Second is the flowering plant which
produces seeds.
A non-flowering plant may be those with no true
roots, stems, or leaves such as algae and those with
roots, stems, or leaves such as ferns. A flowering plant
may also be categorized under no flowers such as
conifers and those with flowers such as sunflower.
2. Category Method – introduces the first category
under the first level then develops into its sub-
categories or examples
Based on Category:
There are two categories of plants. First is the non-
flowering plant which is reproduced and is dispersed
mainly by spores. It can be further categorized in to two
namely plant with roots, stems, or leaves such as algae
and those with roots, stems, and leaves such as ferns.
Second is the flowering plant which produces
seeds. It may also be categorized under no flowers such
as conifers and those with flowers such as sunflower.
1. Separate Method – which describes entirely the first
item and followed by another item. This focuses on
the items being compared than to the point of
description.
2. Side-by-side Method – describes both items in every
point of comparison
• a piece of writing used to convince readers to
agree to an argument or claim about a
particular topic
TIPS IN WRITING PERSUASIVE TEXTS
➢ makes use of pathos, or appeal to the
audience’s emotion
➢ is almost always coupled with argumentation
which makes use of logos, or appeal to the
audience's logic
➢ persuasion paragraph requires convincing the
readers that the opinion of the writer of a
subject is the right one

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 Reading and Writing
FLOW OF WRITING

1. State the Issue - this will serve as a background

information about the topic
2. Argument – one’s claim or position that can either
support or reject the issue previously stated
3. Evidence – gives details on how and why it
supports the argument. Can be factual, logical,
statistical, or anecdotal in nature. It can also explain
counterarguments not because the writer wants to
prove which claims are wrong or right but to
enlighten the readers about other positions.
4. Conclusion - restating the main argument of
the text will be the end of the text. This will be
your final statement to persuade your readers.
SIGNAL WORDS FOR EMPHASIZING
A POINT
ORGANIZATION
➢ also known as arrangement, is achieved
when ideas are logically and accurately
arranged with focus on the
➢ arrangement of ideas, incidents,
evidence, or details in a definite order in
a paragraph, essay, or speech.
➢ It can be done with a recognizable plan
that defines one sentence connection to
the other sentence and paragraph to the
other paragraph.
COHERENCE

again in fact in that case ➢ Is the connection of ideas in the concept

for this reason indeed to emphasize level.
➢ Refers to the rhetorical aspects of your
writing, which include developing your
SIGNAL WORDS FOR CONCLUDING argument, synthesizing, and integrating
OR SUMMARIZING readings, organizing, and clarifying
accordingly consequently in brief ideas.
➢ It means the overall understandability of
all in all due to in conclusion what you write or say.
as a result finally in short ➢ Coherence is based more on logic of the
as I have said in any event in summary ideas and how they are presented rather
inevitably since in a nutshell than on the language that is used to
in essence to sum up thus express these ideas.
on the whole therefore

SIGNAL WORDS FOR CONCEDING COHESION

TO A POINT ➢ Is the connection of ideas in the sentence
admittedly it is true true level.
assuredly needless to say obviously ➢ Cohesion of writing is focused on the
certainly no doubt of course grammatical aspects of writing.
granted undoubtedly to be sure ➢ Refers to the degree to which sentences
unquestionably (or even different parts of one sentence)
are connected so that the flow of ideas is
easily to follow.
➢ Cohesion has nothing to do with the
content but rather on whether the
paragraph has well connected or merely a
group of unrelated sentences. Is serves as
the glue that holds the structure
together.

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 Reading and Writing
Examples:
Coherent but not cohesive
"My favorite color is blue. I'm calm and relaxed.
In the summer I lie on the grass and look up."
Cohesive but not coherent
“My favorite color is blue. Blue sports cars go very
fast. Driving in this way is dangerous and can
cause many car crashes. I had a car accident once
and broke my leg. I was very sad because I had to
miss a holiday in Europe because of the injury."
Coherent and cohesive
"My favorite color is blue. I like it because it is
calming, and it relaxes me. I often go outside in the
summer and lie on the grass and look into the clear
sky when I am stressed. For this reason, I'd have to
say my favorite color is blue."
UNITY
➢ is achieved when a composition is
focused on one idea. In a unified text, all
supporting ideas are relevant to the main
thought. Without unity, text will be
confusing.
➢ LANGUAGE USE
➢ Appropriate language increases one’s
credibility, strengthens one’s argument
and keeps his audience.
➢ The overview of the different aspects of
using appropriate language is presented
on the next slides.
LEVELS OF IN LANGUAGE USE
1. Informal/ Personal - slang, local
expressions, text messaging
2. Standard/Academic - widely accepted
words and phrases found in books,
magazines, and newspapers
3. Business/Technical - scientific terms,
jargons, and special expressions
SIX CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE
LANGUAGE
1. Concrete and Specific Language
- includes descriptions which creates
tangible images with details the reader
can visualize. Abstract Language is
vague and obscure and does not bring to
mind specific visual images.
2. Concise Language
- A hallmark of effective writers is the
ability to express the desired message in
as few words as possible. Good writers,
in other words, use language which is
straightforward and to-the-point.
3. Familiar Language
- familiar language is that which the
readers easily recognize and understand
because they use it on a regular basis.
- One of the most important functions of
language is to build homophily or a sense
of commonality with one’s readers.
4. Precise and Clear Language
- the use of appropriate language is a tricky
matter because the meaning of words is
relative and situational. The more precise
and clear one’s use if language becomes,
the fewer the number of possible
interpretations for a message. Clarity
decreases the potential
misinterpretations.
5. Constructive Language
- constructive language phrases a
potentially negative message in a positive
way, whereas destructive language
directs blame and criticism toward the
reader, creating defensiveness.
6. Formality of Language
- The formality of the language one uses
should match the formality of the
situation and the relationship between the
writer and the reader.
MECHANICS
➢ Mechanics focuses on the technicalities
of the structure.
1. Spelling
LACRA, TRISHA NICOLE B. 9
 Reading and Writing
2. Capitalization
3. Abbreviation and Acronyms
4. Punctuation Marks
5. Grammar
HYPERTEXT
➢ is simply a non-linear way of presenting
information. Rather than reading or
learning about things in the order that an
author, or editor, or publisher sets out for
us, readers of hypertext may follow their
own path, create their own order-- their
own meaning out the material.
1. Online hypertext - hypertext
can be seen through the
hyperlinks embedded by the
author
2. Print hypertext - uses
commentaries and footnotes
under the text or in the margin
TWO COMMON EXAMPLES OF HYPERTEXT
1. Static Hypertext – This hypertext is
prepared, encoded, and stored in advance.
Usual example of this is what we commonly
see online which give out information about
something and are written by web authors
such as historical articles and online
encyclopedias. In static hypertext, things
can be stagnant and may remain unchanged
over time.
2. Dynamic Hypertext – As the name
suggests, and opposite to static hypertext,
this changes continuously depending on and
in response to user’s input. Good example
of a dynamic text is what we find in blogs
and social media platforms where users can
interact with the writer and with other users.
INTERTEXT
➢ refers to a work whose meaning is shaped
by referencing or calling to mind other
texts.
➢ In an intertextual work, the context is not
given immediately; only through the
wealth of previous knowledge and
experience or further research will the
reader be able to understand the text. It
can occur in either online or printed
media, but it is not limited to literature.
TWO COMMON EXAMPLES OF INTERTEXT
1. Deliberate Intertextuality – Sometimes,
intertextuality is the result of an author’s
choice. When a heavy metal artist makes
references to Norse mythology, or when a
novelist draws on the works of Shakespeare
as inspiration, these choices forge a
relationship between the old text and the
new.
(http://www.literarydevices.com/intertextu
ality/)
a. External Allusion - Allusion is a
particularly common form of
deliberate intertextuality – it’s when
one text makes a deliberate, but
subtle, reference to another
b. Citation - Citation is another
common form of deliberate
intertextuality – unlike allusion, it
isn’t subtle at all! The point of a
citation is to acknowledge, loud and
clear, that the author is borrowing an
idea or phrase from someone else.
Citation is about giving credit to the
original author.
2. Latent Intertexuality – Even when the
author isn’t deliberately employing
intertextuality, though intertextuality is still
there. Everything you’ve ever seen or read
sticks somewhere in your memory and
affects your understanding of the world.
LACRA, TRISHA NICOLE B. 10
 Reading and Writing

CLAIM

A “claim” (also known as a “thesis statement” or

“argument”) is the central idea of your paragraph
or essay and should appear in the first sentence.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CLAIM

✓ A claim should be argumentative and
debatable.
✓ A claim should be specific and focused.
✓ A claim should be interesting and
engaging.
✓ A claim should be logical. It should result
from reasonable weighing of support
provided.

TYPES OF CLAIMS

Claims of Fact
• Refer to a condition has existed (past),
exists (present), or will exist (future).
• Inferences made are based on data,
documents, and scientific observation,
and research.

Claims of Value
• Are value judgement made based on
morals, standards, and norms.
• Requires the use of standards of
evaluation, presentation of advantages of
moral standards used, use of example to
concrete abstractions, and use of credible
experts.

Claims of Policy
• Proposing a course of action to solve a
problem.
• Focused on suggesting what must be
done or must not be done.
• Argue that certain conditions should
exist. Focused on suggesting what must
be done or must not be done.

LACRA, TRISHA NICOLE B. 11

 Reading and Writing

CLAIM

A “claim” (also known as a “thesis statement” or

“argument”) is the central idea of your paragraph
or essay and should appear in the first sentence.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CLAIM

✓ A claim should be argumentative and
debatable.
✓ A claim should be specific and focused.
✓ A claim should be interesting and
engaging.
✓ A claim should be logical. It should result
from reasonable weighing of support
provided.

TYPES OF CLAIMS

Claims of Fact
• Refer to a condition has existed (past),
exists (present), or will exist (future).
• Inferences made are based on data,
documents, and scientific observation,
and research.

Claims of Value
• Are value judgement made based on
morals, standards, and norms.
• Requires the use of standards of
evaluation, presentation of advantages of
moral standards used, use of example to
concrete abstractions, and use of credible
experts.

Claims of Policy
• Proposing a course of action to solve a
problem.
• Focused on suggesting what must be
done or must not be done.

LACRA, TRISHA NICOLE B. 12

 Reading and Writing
POSSIBLE WEAKNESSES:
• Inclusion of too many adverbs
PARTS OF A BOOK REVIEW • Too many fancy words
• Too much dialogue or lack of it
1. Summary • Over elaborate
• Story • Obscure scholarly terms
• Plot points • Boring
• Outline:
o Characters GUIDE STATEMENTS:
o Major Conflict (Good vs. 1. We believe that one of the book’s
Evil) (Light vs. Dark) greatest points is…
• What is/are the goal/s of the 2. One of the worst aspects of the story
characters? is…
• Include the theme of the book
• NO SPOILERS
NOTE: Mention the weaknesses first and the
strengths last to help the reader know the story’s
2. Overview
good points.
• What emotions did you feel after
reading the book?
• Does the story make sense? 4. Closing Summary
• Are the characters well defined? Is • Recap about what you liked about
there a logic to their motivations? the book and what you didn't like
• What moves the story forward? about it
• Is the ending really the ending? • Overall opinion about the story and
• What might have happened if the the book itself in terms of:
characters behaved differently? o Presentation
o Quality
GUIDE STATEMENTS: • Mention 1 or 2 other books with a
1. The story would have been more similar story or same genre
enjoyable for us if…
2. It would have made more sense for
this character to…
3. We would have liked the end to be…

3. Strengths and Weaknesses

- A highly persuasive and informative
• Discuss the strength or weakness of
document with a detailed description of a
how the characters were written in
series of activities that aims to solve a
the story. Are they well defined?
particular problem
• Discuss the strengths or weaknesses
- A document that outlines everything the
of the plot’s logic
stakeholders need to know to initiate a
• Themes – Is the theme appropriate
project.
for the given setting? Is it timely? Is
- It is a bid or offer to initiate a project for
it relatable?
an individual or a group. It ranges from
• Use quotes or the plot from the story
1,000 to 2,000 words depending on the
to emphasize your point
complexity of the project being proposed

LACRA, TRISHA NICOLE B. 13

 Reading and Writing
PARTS OF A PROJECT PROPOSAL
1. Cover Letter
➢ Introduces the proposal to the reader
➢ States the project proposal title, date the
proposal was requested, general purpose
and scope of the proposal, and
acknowledgment of people who have
contributed to the completion of the
proposal.
2. Title Page
➢ Includes the project title that is concise
and informative
➢ Includes the lead organization, place and
date of project, client’s or donor’s name,
proponent’s name and the department or
organization he/she represents and date of
submission.
3. Abstract or Executive Summary
➢ Includes the objectives, implementing
organization, major project activities, and
total project cost
➢ Usually composed of 200 to 250 words
and highlights only the major
➢ points; some abstract may be longer
depending on the culture of the funding
agency
➢ Uses a paragraph format
4. Context of the Proposal
➢ Describes the socio-economic, cultural,
and political background in which the
proposal is situated
➢ Presents data collected from other
sources that are relevant to the planning
stage
5. Project Justification
➢ Provides a rationale for the project
➢ Includes a problem statement that
specified the problem addressed by the
project
➢ Points out why the problem is an issue
that requires immediate attention
➢ Specifies the target group’s needs that
arise from the adverse effect of the
described problem
➢ Presents the approach or strategy that will
be used to address the problem
➢ Describes the capability of the
implementing organization or group by
stating its track record
6. Persons Involved
➢ Lists the people involved in the project,
their corresponding roles, and their
summary of qualifications
7. Project Implementation
➢ Is divided into two: activity plan-
schedule of activities and resource plan-
specifies the items needed to implement
the project
➢ Describes the activities and resource
allocation in detail, as well as the person
in charge of executing the activities
➢ Indicates the time and place of activities
8. Budget
➢ Presents the expected income and
expenses over a specified time period
➢ Itemizes the budget
9. Monitoring and Evaluation
➢ Specifies when and how the team will
monitor the progress of the project
➢ Specifies the method for monitoring and
evaluation
➢ Specifies the personnel in charge of
monitoring and evaluation
10. Reporting Scheme
➢ Specifies the schedule for reporting the
finances and progress of the project
11. Conclusion
➢ Briefly describes the project, the problem
it addresses, and its benefits to all
stakeholders through a summary
LACRA, TRISHA NICOLE B. 14
 Reading and Writing
➢ Directs the readers back to the good
features of the project
➢ Urges the readers to contact the
proponent to work out the details of the
project proposal
3. Define your deliverable and success
criteria
➢ Provide a picture of the functions and
attributes of the deliverable and
indicators of the success of the project

12. Reference 4. State your plan or approach

➢ Lists all the references used in drafting ➢ Discuss how to achieve the objectives of
the project proposal using the format the project. Explain the approach, it’s
required by the funding agency relevance, effectiveness, and how
problems will be managed

GUIDELINES IN PREPARING A 5. Outline your schedule and budget

PROJECT PROPOSAL ➢ Break down project costs and detail to
meet the deadlines
1. Decide on the problem to be addressed.
2. Arrange ideas systematically.
6. Tie it all together
3. Identify your specific activities, outputs,
➢ Summarize the problem, solution and
resources and methodologies.
benefits. Emphasize the significant parts,
4. Create a team for the project and its duties
and make the proposal stand out by
and responsibilities.
restating ideas.
5. Identify the fund sources of the project.
6. Talk about the plans for the project.
7. Edit or proofread your proposal
7. Have sufficient time for planning.
➢ Rewrite to make it interesting, helpful,
8. Orient team members on their tasks and
clear, and persuasive. Ask for feedback.
responsibilities.
9. Ensure that objectives and activities are
within the given time and resources.
10. Study well the project proposal.

HOW TO WRITE A PROJECT

PROPOSAL - is a review of relevant academic books
and articles. It is a required section in
1. Define the problem
academic research paper. The term
➢ Make your audience see the problem the
“literature” does not necessarily mean
way you see it.
literary texts. This refers to collection of
➢ Make sure that the main point is well
books or articles about a particular
described and in a manner that resonates
subject.
➢ with them.
- It presents expert opinions and justifies
➢ Don’t exaggerate. Instead, use data from
their value and importance. It shows what
your research to back up your assertions.
is known and where your research can fill
gaps.
2. Propose a solution
➢ Discuss why other solutions won’t work
for the situation.
➢ Back-up the proposed solutions.
➢ Present the impact of the solution
➢ Provide research-backed examples

LACRA, TRISHA NICOLE B. 15

 Reading and Writing
TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Systematic Literature Review.
➢ This type is particular to health care and
medical studies. It identifies and
compares answers to health care related
questions.
2. Literature or Narrative Literature
Review
➢ It is often used as a chapter in a thesis or
dissertation.
3. Integrative Review
➢ The integrative literature review is a
distinctive form of research that generates
new knowledge about a topic by
reviewing, critiquing, and synthesizing
representative literature on a topic in an
integrated way.
4. Theoretical Literature Review
➢ Theoretical literature reviews play an
instrumental role in establishing what
theories already exist, the relationships
between them, to what degree the existing
theories have been investigated, and to
develop new hypotheses to be tested.
5. Historical Literature Review.
➢ Historical reviews are focused on
examining research throughout a period
of time, often starting with the first time
an issue, concept, theory, and phenomena
emerged in the literature, then tracing its
evolution within the scholarship of a
discipline.
6. Methodological Literature Review.
➢ A review that focuses on how. This
approach provides a framework of
understanding at different levels.
ORGANIZATION
• Like other academic writings, literature
review contains three elements:
introduction, body and conclusion.
Introduction clearly explains the research
topic and its parameters. The body
summarizes and synthesizes the
information from scholarly published
books and articles. The summary of
information can be effectively presented
in the following ways:
1. Chronological – This method of
organizing information arranges
materials to when they were
published. Researches usually
requires recent information. It is
important to clarify with your
teacher the span of publication
years may be considered as current
and may be used in the review.
2. Thematic – Thematic is another
organizing method that shifts
between time period. Instead of
time progression, it organizes
reviews around the topic.
3. Methodological – It is a way of
organizing by focusing on the
‘method’. This determines
whether a research protocol of the
reviewed material is similar, may
be adapted or meritorious.
HOW TO WRITE A LITERATURE
REVIEW
1. Clarify issues as to the technicalities of
the project being made. Ask your
teacher how many relevant materials may
be included in the review, what span of
time to consider the recency of the
material presented, or how will the
review be organized.
2. Search for relevant literature. Before
searching for relevant literature, first
clearly define your topic. Narrow your
topic so that you only get the most
relevant information.
3. Evaluate and select the sources.
Narrowing the topic greatly helps in
selecting the sources as you do not have
the richness of time to read all sources.
LACRA, TRISHA NICOLE B. 16
 Reading and Writing
4. Summarize and Synthesize. When you 2. Body
summarize each material, look into its ▪ State the main arguments and
main points. Establish its relevance with provide sufficient evidence (e.g.,
your new research. Evaluate the statistics, interviews with experts,
weaknesses of previous researches to and testimonies) for each argument.
determine the gaps. ▪ Provide counterarguments against
5. Outline the organizing structure. possible weaknesses of the
Choose the structure you feel effective in arguments
presenting information.
6. Begin composing. Once everything is 3. Conclusion
settled, you may now write your formal ▪ Restate the position and main
review. Always remember to use arguments.
evidence in presenting your interpretation ▪ Suggest a course of action.
of your sources. Use quotes sparingly. ▪ Explain why the position is better
7. Revise. Check whether you work than any other positions.
conforms to the standards set by your ▪ End with a powerful closing
teacher. statement
8. Include references. List down the works
you consulted. GUIDELINES IN WRITING A
POSITION PAPER

1. Do in-depth research on the issue

identified.
2. Explain and analyze the issue
objectively.
- is a type of academic writing that presents 3. Identify the weakness of the issue.
one’s viewpoint on a particular issue. The 4. Cite references and establish
main objective of writing a position paper credibility of your paper.
is to take part in a larger debate by stating 5. Strategize on how you present the
your arguments and proposed course of issue.
action. 6. Limit the position to two pages.
- is an essay that presents an opinion about 7. Know the readers.
an issue, typically that of the author or 8. Summarize counterarguments and
another specified entity; such as political refute them with evidence.
party. Position papers are published in 9. Unlock terms which are not familiar.
academe, politics, law and other domains. 10. Use active voice.
11. Arrange the evidences logically.
12. Use deductive or inductive method
PARTS OF A POSITION PAPER
in presenting the arguments and
1. Introduction evidences.
▪ Use a lead that grabs the attention of 13. Use ethical and logical appeals.
readers. Ethical appeals relate to the
▪ Define the issue and provide a credibility and competence of the
thorough background. writer; logical appeal refers to the
▪ Provide a general statement of the rational approach in developing an
position through a thesis statement. argument.
14. Do some readings and consult an
expert.

LACRA, TRISHA NICOLE B. 17