Industrial Electronics N2

Industrial Electronics N2
Industrial Electronics N2

R B J van Heerden

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TROUPANT
./ Publishers
Copyright © 1996 by R.B.J van Heerden

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means
without prior written permission by the publisher.

ISBN: 978 1 91978050 4; eISBN: 978 1 43080256 3

First edition 1998

Second impression 2003
Third impression 2005
Forth impression 2007
Fifth impression 2011
Sixth impression 2012
Seventh impression 2012

Published by
Troupant Publishers
Suite 10, Private Bag X12
Cresta, 2118

Cover design by Alix Gracie

Set in 9.5 on 12pt Times New Roman
Setting by Roelf van Heerden using Corel VENTURA 5.0
This textbook is not a revised edition of my Electronics N2 textbook.
I have made as much use of that text as I could, but most of the explanations offer a new approach to the
Industrial Electronics N2 syllabus. After leaving the department of Education in 1989, I spent more than
three years in the private sector, involved with computer-based training, and later taught at a high school. It
was worrying to see in the private sector how little students, who had passed the grade, really knew about
the subject. The reason is that too much emphasis is placed on passing the examination and not enough on
learning the subject itself. Students told me that they would have preferred the textbooks to have had more
explanations in them, which would have allowed them to later go and read about the subject themselves. It
is with this suggestion in mind that I have given more explanations ofthe subjects, sometimes going beyond
the limits of the syllabus.
It is a fact that lower grade students hardly ever read other textbooks or magazines. Many of the new
generation students travel far each day and have no access to libraries to do additional reading. Classes are
also bigger today and the lecturer does not have time in class to go back to basics. With the explanations in
this textbook, students can now read about the subject in their own textbook and in their own time.
infonnation sheet similar to the one accompanying the examination paper, is also included in the
An information
appendix to this book to assist lecturers and students. I find that students always ask for these information
infonnation
sheets and sometimes it is very difficult to get hold of the proper list of formulas.
fonnulas.
I would like to thank all my friends who encouraged me to write another book, and especially Basil van
Rooyen, who had the confidence in me to publish this book.

THE AUTHOR
co~rrE~rrs
co~rrE~rrs

1. ATOMIC THEORY 3.4 Maximum and peak-to-peak values

1. ATOMIC THEORY 3.4 Maximum and peak-to-peak values
1.1 Matter 1 of a sine wave 19
1.1 Matter 1 of a sine wave 19
1.2 Elements 1 3.5 Rms and average values of a
1.2 Elements 1 3.5 Rms and average values of a
1.3 The atom 1 sine wave 19
1.3 The atom 1 sine wave 19
1.4 Valency electrons 2 3.6 Form and crest factors 20
1.4 Valency electrons 2 3.6 Form and crest factors 20
1.5 Energy levels 3 3.7 Instantaneous value 20
1.5 Energy levels 3 3.7 Instantaneous value 20
1.6 Free electrons 3 3.8 The mid-ordinate rule 22
1.6 Free electrons 3 3.8 The mid-ordinate rule 22
1.7 Covalent bonds 3 3.9 Phase angle 23
1.7 Covalent bonds 3 3.9 Phase angle 23
1.8 Conductors 4 3.10 Ac circuits with resistance 23
1.8 Conductors 4 3.10 Ac circuits with resistance 23
1.9 Insulators 4 3.11 Ac circuits with inductance 24
1.9 Insulators 4 3.11 Ac circuits with inductance 24
Exercise 1.1 4 3.12 Ac circuits with capacitance 25
Exercise 1.1 4 3.12 Ac circuits with capacitance 25
3.13 Impedance 26
3.13 Impedance 26
3.13.1 The series XL circuit 26
3.13.1 The series XL circuit 26
3.13.2 The series Xc circuit 28
2. DIRECT CURRENT 3.13.2 The series Xc circuit 28
2. DIRECT CURRENT 3.13.3 The series Xc. XL and R circuit 28
2.1 Electrical current 6 3.13.3 The series Xc. XL and R circuit 28
2.1 Electrical current 6 3.14 Resonance 30
2.2 Voltage 7 3.14 Resonance 30
2.2 Voltage 7 Exercise 3.1 30
2.3 Resistance 7 Exercise 3.1 30
2.3 Resistance 7
2.3.1 Resistivity 7
2.3.1 Resistivity 7
2.3.2 Insulators 7
2.3.2 Insulators 7
2.3.3 Determination of resistance 7 4. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
2.3.3 Determination of resistance 7 4. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
2.3.4 Definition 8 4.1 Introduction 32
2.3.4 Definition 8 4.1 Introduction 32
2.4 Ohm's law 8 4.2 How a meter works 32
2.4 Ohm's law 8 4.2 How a meter works 32
2.5 Resistance in series and parallel 9 4.2.1 Sensitivity 33
2.5 Resistance in series and parallel 9 4.2.1 Sensitivity 33
2.5.1 The series circuit 9 4.3 The voltmeter 33
2.5.1 The series circuit 9 4.3 The voltmeter 33
2.5.2 The parallel circuit 10 4.3.1 Circuit loading 34
2.5.2 The parallel circuit 10 4.3.1 Circuit loading 34
2.. 5.3 Series-parallel circuit 11 4.4 The ammeter 35
2.. 5.3 Series-parallel circuit 11 4.4 The ammeter 35
2.6 Power 13 4.4.1 Circuit loading 35
2.6 Power 13 4.4.1 Circuit loading 35
2.7 Kirchoff's laws 14 4.5 The ohmmeter 35
2.7 Kirchoff's laws 14 4.5 The ohmmeter 35
2.7.1 Current law 14 4.6 Reading meter scales 36
2.7.1 Current law 14 4.6 Reading meter scales 36
2.7.2 Voltage law 14 4.7 Multirange meters 36
2.7.2 Voltage law 14 4.7 Multirange meters 36
Exercise 2.1 14 4.7.1 The ammeter 36
Exercise 2.1 14 4.7.1 The ammeter 36
4.7.2 The voltmeter 38
4.7.2 The voltmeter 38
4.7.3 The ohmmeter 39
4.7.3 The ohmmeter 39
4.7.3.1 Series ohmmeter 39
4.7.3.1 Series ohmmeter 39
3. VOLTAGE 4.7.3.2 Shunt ohmmeter 40
3. VOLTAGE 4.7.3.2 Shunt ohmmeter 40
3.1 The sine wave 17 4.7.3.3 Multirange ohmmeter 41
3.1 The sine wave 17 4.7.3.3 Multirange ohmmeter 41
3.2 Frequency 17 4.8 Multimeter principles 41
3.2 Frequency 17 4.8 Multimeter principles 41
3.3 Simple alternating current generator 18 4.9 Precautions and care 42
3.3 Simple alternating current generator 18 4.9 Precautions and care 42
4.9.1 Ammeter 42 7.5 Light dependent resistors (LDRs) 70
4.9.2 Voltmeter 42 Exercise 7.1 71
4.9.3 Ohmmeter 42
Exercise 4.1 43

8. SYNCHRO SYSTEMS
8.1 Introduction 72
5. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES 8.2 The synchro system 72
5.1 Introduction 45 8.3 Advantages of synchro systems
5.2 Characteristics of materials 45 over mechanical systems 73
5.3 N-type semiconductors 46 8.4 Synchro torque tr~smitters and
5.4 P-type material 47 synchro indicators 73
5.5 The P-N junction 48 8.5 Synchro torque differential transmitter 73
5.6 Bias 49 8.6 Synchro control transformer 74
5.6.1 Bias on the P-N junction 49 8.7 Synchro torque transmitters and
5.7 Diode characteristics 50 indicators 75
5.8 Zener diodes 51 8.8 Synchro schematics 75
5.9 Point-contact diodes 52 8.9 Magnetic fields 76
5.10 Varactor diodes 52 8.10 Simple transformer theory 77
5.11 Photodiodes 52 8.11 Lenz's law 77
5.12 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 53 8.12 Synchro transmitter-indicator as a team 78
5.13 Half-wave rectification 53 8.13 Differential synchro 79
5.14 Full-wave rectification 55 8.13.1 Transformer action in a
5.15 Filter circuits 56 differential transmitter 80
Exercise 5.1 57 8.13.2 Subtracting by means of the
differential transmitter 80
8.13.3 Addition 81
6. SEMICONDUCTOR TRANSISTORS 8.13.4 Differential receiver 82
6.1 Introduction 59 8.13.5 Control transformer 82
6.2 The basic junction transistor 59 Exercise 8.1 83
6.3 Simple amplifiers 62
6.4 The three basic circuits 63
6.4.1 The common emitter circuit 63
64
9. THE DECIBEL
6.4.2 The common base circuit
9.1 Introduction 85
6.4.3 The common collector circuit 64
9.2 Calculating gain or loss 85
Exercise 6.1 65
9.3 Power gain or loss 86
9.4 Multistages 86
9.5 Voltage and current gain or loss 88
7. TRANSDUCERS Exercise 9.1 89
7.1 Introduction 67
7.2 The bimetallic strip 67
7.3 The thermocouple 68
7.4 Thermistors 69 APPENDIX: Formula list 90
1\ }.,fOJV\IC ~ft-IEOR.Y

1.1 Matter forms when two hydrogen atoms combine with one
oxygen atom to form a molecule, H 20.
Matter is anything that takes up space. It cannot be
created or destroyed. It is possible to change its state • A molecule is the smallestpart ofa compound that
from one form to another. Until recently, it was retains the characteristics of the original com-
thought that there were only three forms of matter, pound without breaking up into atoms.
but it has been proved that there are four: solid,
liquid, gas and plasma. Take ice for example: it is a
solid; heat it and it becomes water, which is a liquid;
1.3 The atom
heat it further and it becomes steam, which is a gas.
The temperature thus 4etermines the state of the
matter. Plasma is the fourth form of matter. (We are
not referring to blood plasma.) Plasma consists of
ionised particles, and emits light, like lightning or
the gas in a gas-discharge chamber.
• A solid does not usually change its natural state protons neutrons
unless it is subjected to pressure or other influ-
ences. Solids can be subdivided into metals and
nonmetals, which we shall refer back to later.
• A liquid normally takes the form of its container,
and, if the volume of the liquid is less than that of
+tt
the container, it will only partly fill the container.
• A gas will always fill its container, but with a
decrease or increase in pressure.
H
1.2 Elements Fig. 1.1
Elements are substances that consist of only one
type of atom, such as iron, copper, germanium and The atom is the smallest part of an element that can
silicon. A compound or an alloy is formed when take part in a normal chemical reaction. The known
one or more elements react chemically. The most elements are classified in a table known as the
common compound that exists is water, which periodic table. It contains important information
like atomic number, atomic symbol and density.
There are 103 known elements.
Fig. 1.1 represents the simplest atom, the hydro-
gen atom, with its symbol "H", while fig. 1.2
shows the different shells, electrons, and the nu-
cleus which consists of protons and neutrons. The
electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits
or shells.
electrons~
shells
Fig. 1.2
An electron is usually represented by the symbol e.
The orbits ofthe electrons are called the K, L, M, N,
etc., orbits. When an electron is in one of its orbits,
it will not move to another, higher energy orbit
unless it is given enough energy by external means.
Each orbit can take up only a certain number of
electrons. The number is determined by the formula
2n 2 where n represents the orbit number; in the first
orbit, it is 2 x 1 x 1 = 2 and in the second orbit it is
2 x 2 x 2 = 8.
An exception is the so-called inert gases, which
have a maximum of eight electrons in the outer
shell. These elements are also called non-active
elements.
The nucleus, which consists of protons and
neutrons, has been mentioned. The protons have
a positive charge while the neutrons have no
charge at all. The electron has a negative charge.
There is always the same amount of protons and
2
electrons in an atom, which keeps the atom electri-
cally neutral.
The atomic number always indicates the amount
ofprotons or electrons in the atom. The mass of
the protons differs considerably from that of the
electrons. If the mass of the proton is taken as
one, then the mass of the electron is in the order
of 5,488 x 10-4.
When an electron is removed from an atom, there
is no significant influence on the atom as a whole,
except that the charge of the atom changes.
1.4 Valency electrons
Those electrons in the outermost shell, or the shell
farthest from the nucleus ofan atom, are often called
valency electrons. In this study, we are concerned
primarily with the behaviour of valency electrons
since they can, under certain conditions, leave their
"parent" atoms. The number ofvalency electrons in
atoms also determines several important electrical
and chemical characteristics of the substance made
up of these atoms.
Consider an atom of germanium, which has an
atomic number of32.
nucleus (32 protons, 41 neutrons)
first shell [K]
second shell [L) )5( ~:.-.--,
fourth--~·
shell[N]
... ,
....... -e-· . . "o
Fig. 1.3
It can be seen that the K shell contains only two
electrons, the L shell has eight and the M shell has
18. This leaves only four electrons for the N shell.
Therefore, germanium has four valency electrons.
Ifthe valency electrons are easily removed from the recombination, they soon release the acquired en-
atom, the element is called a conductor. When elec- ergy and once again become part of an atom.
trons are removed from the atom, it gains a positive
charge. This positively charged atom is called a
positive ion or a cation. The process of removing or
1.7 Covalent bonds
adding electrons is called ionisation. A negative ion
or anion results when electrons are added to an Some atoms cannot exist on their own as a stable
atom; such an atom has a negative charge. element. The hydrogen atom is an example. Such an
When the valency electrons are not easily re- atom must combine either with another atom like
moved, the element is an insulator. There is a itselfor with a completely different atom. Hydrogen
group between conductors and insulators, namely gas, for instance, consists of two hydrogen atoms
the semiconductors. This group will be discussed
(H 2). The gas is lighter than air and is readily avail-
later.
able. It is used to send weather balloons into the air.
It is highly inflammable and dangerous to use.
When two hydrogen atoms combine, a bond is
1.5 Energy levels formed that is known as a covalent bond, which
means the atoms share their free electrons with each
A stable (in balance) atom has a certain amount of other (see fig. 1.4).
energy, which is equal to the sum ofthe
of the energies of
its electrons. Electrons, in turn, have different ener-
gies called energy levels. The energy level of an
electron is proportional to its distance from the
nucleus. Hence, the energy levels of electrons in
orbits farther from the nucleus are higher than those
closer to the nucleus.
If the last orbit is not completely filled with elec-
trons, then that orbit is called the valency band. The
electrons in that band are known as the valency
electrons. It is these electrons that are important to
us, because they determine whether an element is a
conductor, a semiconductor or an insulator.

1.6 Free electrons

e
When external energy such as heat, light or electri-
cal energy is applied to certain materials, the elec-
trons. within the atoms of these materials gain
energy. This may cause the electrons to move to a
higher energy level, Le. to move farther from the
nuclei of their atoms. When an electron has moved
to the highest possible energy level, or the outermost Fig. 1.4
shell, it is least attracted by the positive charges of
the protons within the nucleus ofthe atom. Ifenough Note that oxygen has only six valency electrons. To
energy is then applied to the atom, some of the complete the last orbit, the atom needs two more
outermost shell's electrons (valency electrons) will electrons. When oxygen combines with hydrogen,
leave the atom. These electrons are calledfree elec- one oxygen atom must combine with two hydrogen
trons. atoms so that it obtains two more electrons in the
Free electrons remain in the mobile state for only last orbit. This forms a complete orbit, and the result
a comparatively short time. By a process known as is H 20, which is one molecule of water.
3
1.8 Conductors 2. Electrons move about the nucleus of an atom
in paths which are usually referred to as ....
A conductor is a material containing a large number
3. The nucleus of an atom consists of particles
offree electrons that can pass through the material
called ... and ... .
quite easily under the influence of a driving force,
4. Atoms differ from one another only in the
called voltage. (We will learn about this in module
number of . .. and ... which they contain.
2.) In such materials, the valency electrons in the
5. The number of protons in the nucleus of an
outermost shell can be quite easily removed from atom is known as the atomic ... ofthat atom.
their parent atoms by the above-mentioned force. 6. When all the atoms within a substance are
• A conductor is a material having many free elec- alike, the substance is called a chemical ... .
trons. 7. Common examples of chemical elements are
Three good electrical conductors are silver, copper . .. , .... and ....
and aluminium. In fact, metals generally are good 8. Different elements can combine to form a
conductors. Certain gases are also used as conduc- substance called ~ ....
... .
tors under special conditions. For example, neon 9. A. .. is the smallest particle of a compound
gas, argon gas, mercury vapour and sodium vapour which retains all the properties of that com-
are used in various types of lamps. pound.
10. Electrons are basic ... charges, while pro-
tons are basic ... charges.
11. A... atom is one which contains the same
1.9 Insulators number of . .. and ... .
12. The electrons in the outermost shell of an
Electrical insulation is material which does not eas- atom are often called the ... electrons.
ily conduct current. Such materials contain valency 13. The energy ... of an electron is determined
electrons which are tightly bound to the nuclei of by its distance from the nucleus of an atom.
their atoms. As a result, it requires an unusually high 14. If a neutral atom gains electrons, it becomes
voltage to produce significant numbers of free elec- a ... ion.
trons. Such materials are also called insulators, 15. If a neutral atom loses electrons, it becomes
non-conductors or dielectrics. a ... ion.
Typical insulating materials include glass, porce-
16. The process by which atoms either gain ,or
lain, mica, rubber, plastics, paper and wood. These
lose electrons is called ... .
materials are used to electrically isolate conductors
17. A conductor is a material through which elec-
so that the current which they carry will not leak off
trons can flow ... .
or pass through unwanted conductor materials.
18. In a conductor material, there are many ... .
There is no sharp, well-defined dividing line sepa-
rating conductors from insulators. All insulating 19. In addition to metals, certain ... are also
used as conductors.
materials will break down and conduct current if a
sufficiently high voltage is applied across them. 20. All insulating materials will break down and
conduct current if a sufficiently high ... is
applied to them.
21. The ability of a material to act as an insulator
Exercise 1.1 is measured in terms of its ... .
22. Describe the composition of an atom.
1. Make simple labelled sketches and describe
23. How do atoms differ from one another?
the following:
a) an atom; 24. What is
b) an element; a) an element;
c) electrons; b) a compound;
d) a cation; c) a molecule?
e) a covalent bond; 25. Define the atomic number of an atom.
f) ionisation. 26. Explain what is meant by a neutral atom.

4
27. What are valency electrons? 31. Describe the movement of electrons through
28. Explain the relationship between electron en- a conductor.
ergy levels and free electrons. 32. Define electrical insulation and name five
29. How does an atom become common insulating materials.
a) a negative ion; 33. Under what condition can a material which is
b) a positive ion? normally an insulator become a conductor?
30. Define an electrical conductor and name at
least three good conductor materials.

5
2.1 Electrical current electrons move through the conductor from the nega-
tive terminal to the positive terminal; this conduction
In module 1, the basics ofthe atom were discussed. We
process lasts until the chemical reaction is ex-
mentioned electrons circulating the nucleus and also
hausted.
learned about valency electrons in the outer orbital.
Electrons further away from the nucleus are more
easily removed than those nearer to the nucleus, and applied +
conductors easily emit or replace their free electrons. voltage

In practice, nonnal room temperature is enough to free

the valency electrons in a good conductor. tI electron
current
electron
current
i
It must always be remembered that an atom is
3
very small. For example, 1 cm (lcm x 1 em x 1cm) _---. _-... _.--.' e--.
----. --...
e--+ _--+
-~
24 e--+
of copper consists of approximately 10 atoms. e~e~e~ e-...
The electron is even smaller than the atom. If only
one out of every 100 atoms in a cubic centimetre of
copper is removed from the metal, there will be a Fig. 2.1
vast number of electrons moving freely in the cop-
per at room temperature. If this small piece of The electrons within the cell move from positive to
copper is stretched out in the form ofa wire, and one negative and in the outer circuit from negative to
side is made positive and the other side is made positive. It is the movement ofelectrons in the outer
negative, most ofthese electrons will be attracted to circuit that is important, in contrast with conven-
the positive side, and pushed from the negative side tional current flow, which flows from positive to
at the same time. negative in the outer circuit. This may sound con-
This movement ofelectrons in one direction along fusing but will soon become clear.
the conductor is known as current·flow. (Fig. 2.1) When one electron starts to move, all the other
An electrical cell has the ability to set electrical electrons also start to move one by one. This can be
energy free. This is normally achieved by a chemical compared to a locomotive pulling trucks: when the
reaction within the cell. The cell normally has two locomotive starts pulling, all the trucks start mov-
terminals, one positive and the other negative. The ing, and the second one moves to where the first one
negative terminal has an excess of electrons, while was, etc. All the trucks cover the same distance. The
the positive terminal has a shortage of electrons. positions differ in that all the trucks at a station are
When a conductor is connected to the terminals, in different positions. The difference with electrical

6
movement is that the electrons are not linked to- 2.3.2 Insulators
gether, but forces that cause movement are imposed
If the resistance of a material is too high for the
on the electrons.
conduction of current, then t'le material is called an
The unit used to measure current flow is the
insulator. Just as there are good and bad conductors,
ampere (symbol A). If a current of 1 A flows
there are good and bad insulators. There are several
through a conductor, about 6,26 x 1018electrons pass
factors that determine the quality ofan insulator: the
any point in one second. Current flow is usually
material of which it is made, the temperature, hu-
indicated by means ofan I in a circuit, with an arrow
midity, etc.
pointing in the direction of the current flow.
The ampere can be subdivided into smaller units.
3
There are, for instance, I 000 or 10 milliampere
(rnA) in one ampere. There are 106microamperes (JlA) 2.3.3 Determination of resistance
J..l in one rnA, or 1 rnA = 10-3 A.
in one ampere, 10 3 Jl
There are four factors that determine the resistance
of a material:
• the kind ofmaterial (the resistivity, r in ohm-metres);
2.2 Voltage • the length (l in metres);
2
• the cross-sectional area (a in m or square metres);
From what we have learned so far, it is clear that the • the temperature of the conductor (t, usually in
higher the resistance of a conductor, the more diffi- kelvin or DC).
cult it will be for electrons to flow through the To determine the resistance of a conductor at a
conductor, and vice versa, provided that the source constant temperature, the following formula must
of electricity is kept constant. The source of elec- be used:
tricity is known as voltage (V) or the electromotive
force (emt). Voltage is measured in volts. The dif-
ferent methods for the generation of voltage are R=Ei
R=£i
a
............ ' Q)
considered later.
Where R is in ohms (n)
I is in metres (m)
p is in ohm-metres (n.m)
2.3 Resistance a is in square metres (m 2)
• Remember that a is the cross-sectional area and
There are good and bad conductors, but a perfect not the diameter of the conductor.
conductor does not exist. The process whereby an
electron travels through a conductor with difficulty,
and does not move instantly, but in fact very slowly
from point A to point B, is known as resistance. Example 2.1
Resistance is expressed as R and measured in ohms
A conductor is 1 m long and has a diameter of 0,2
(symbol Q).
mm. Its resistivity is 0,001 7 Iln.m.
J..ln.m. The conductor
is round. Determine the resistance of the conductor
in ohm.

2.3.1 Resistivity I rr.d2 P 14

/4
R == -P and a =- - therefore: R =-''-
2
We already know that the availability of free elec- a 4 rr. d
trons determines the conductivity of a conductor. 0,0017 x 10-6 x 1 x 4
This characteristic also has a special name: resistiv- rr. x
1£ (0,2 xX10- 3)2
ity (p-Greek rho). The unit of resistivity is the
ohm-metre (n.m). It is sometimes known as the 0,001 7 x 10 -h X 1x 4
con- ductivity of a conductor and is determined by 1t x 0,2 X 10-h
the material ofwhich a conductor is made. == 0,054113 n = 54,113 rnn
7
You can see from this example how low the resis-
tance of a copper conductor of 1 m is.
Milli-ohm and ohm are known quantities; thou-
sands and millions ofohms are known as kilo-ohms
and mega-ohms and are written as follows:
• The voltage necessary to force a given amount of
current through a circuit is equal to the product of
the current and the resistance of the circuit.
V=lxR @

• 1 000 ohm as 1 kQ; Where V = voltage

• 1 200 ohm as 1,2 kn (and sometimes just Ik2); I = current in amperes
R = resistance in ohms
• 1 200 000 ohm as 1,2 MQ (or just 1M2).
• The current in a circuit is equal to the voltage
applied to the circuit divided by the resistance of
the circuit.
2.3.4 Definition
The definition of the ohm (not Ohm's law) is: 1=~
l=~ ............................. @
@)
R
• A conductor has a resistance of one ohm when a
• The resistance of a circuit is equal to the voltage
voltage of one volt across it causes a current of
applied to the circuit divided by the amount of
one ampere to flow through it.
current in the circuit.
Voltage is applied across a conductor and causes the
current to flow through the conductor. The amount
of current is detennined by the resist~nce of the R=~ ~
conductor as well as the voltage applied to the I
colMklctor.
coJMklctor. Ohm's law shows that the current is directly propor-
As already stated, this is true only for one tem- tional to the voltage. "'' '
Ie ..,

perature. To detennine the resistance at different As can be seen in equation 4, the R in the denomi-
temperatures, the temperature coefficient (a) must nator shows that with the voltage V constant, the
n/oc. The formula is:
be used. This is expressed in O/oC. current I is inversely proportional to the resistance R.
If the resistance increases, then the current will
If
decrease in the same ratio; similarly, a decrease in
R, = Ro(l +uoL\,) Q) resistance results in an increase in current.
An easy way to remember Ohm's law fonnulas is
Where Ro is the resistance at O°C
by means of a triangle as in fig. 2.2.
Rl the resistance at t °c
°C
0 is the temperature coefficient at DoC
0. o
U

~t the change in temperature

2.4 Ohm's law

The name Ohm's law is given to a formula which

relates the voltage, current and resistance i~ a cir-
cuit. A knowledge ofthis relationship is essential if
the operation of circuits is to be understood.
In a circuit supplied by a source of dc
de voltage, the
opposition to the current is the resistance. There is,
V V
in fact, a definite relationship between the voltage, V=IxR 1=- R=-
R I
the current and the resistance. This relationship was
discovered by Georg Simon Ohm in 1827 and is
known as Ohm's law. It can be stated in three ways: Fig. 2.2

8
To use this triangle, cover the quantity you want and
the relationship of the other two will indicate how
the chosen quantity can be calculated.
Ohm's law is the most important law in electricity
and electronics; before you go any further, make
sure you know how to use it.
When resistive components are connected in se-
ries, the current in the circuit must overcome the
resistance of each component as it passes through
the complete circuit. The total resistance to current
in the circuit is then, in effect, equal to the sum of
the various resistances in the circuit or

R1 = R) + ~ + R3 + . . . Rn •••••••••••• ®
Where R{ total resistance
2.5 Resistance in series and parallel
2.5.1 The series circuit
R) , R12 , R3 • •• = resistances in the circuit

There is only one path for electrons to flow in a Example 2.2

series circuit. The path consists ofthe conductor and
the components that are connected one after another 27 n, a 1500
A 270, 150 n and a 2 7000
700 n resistor are connected
as in fig. 2.3. in series. Calculate the total resistance.

RI=R,+~+R3
= 27 + 150+ 2 700
=

to voltage = 2877 n
source
Since the magnitude of the current flowing through
each component of a series circuit is the same, the
circuit voltage must be distributed among the com-
ponents of the circuit in direct proportion to their
+ resistance in order for the current to be maintained.
The sum of the voltage drops in any series circuit
(a)
is always equal to the voltage that is applied to the
circuit. This relationship, known as Kirchoff's law
.for voltage, is expressed by the following formula:
to voltage
source
~ =V R1 + VR2 + VR3
Where ~ = total (applied) voltage
VR1 , VR2 , VR3 = voltage drops across
+ circuit components
(b)

Example 2.3
Fig. 2.3
A 90 volt voltage source is connected in series with
a 20 0, a 100 n and a 180 n resistor as in fig. 2.4.
I fthe circuit is broken or opened at any point, it becomes
Calculate the voltage drop across each resistor.
inoperative, as there is no longer a continuous path
To solve this problem, it is first necessary to
through which electrons can move; see fig. 2.3 (b).
determine the magnitude of the current in the
Electrons are not consumed as they flow through
circuit:
a circuit. There is as much current movingfrom any
point in a series circuit as there is moving to that V
1=- (Ohm's law)
point. Therefore, the same magnitude of current R
passes through all of the components in a series 90 =~=03 A
circuit. 20 + 100 + 180 300
20+100+180 '