Hydrocarbon Exploration and

Seismology

The Seismic Method, reflection seismology

Mitchum et al., 1977b

AAPG©1977 reprinted with permission of the AAPG

whose permission is required for further use.

Most Images Courtesy of ExxonMobil

1
1
Basic Exploration Workflow
Identify
Opportunities
Capture
Prime Areas
Acquire
Seismic Data
Drill
Process
Wildcats
Seismic Data
Interpret
Seismic Data Failure Success
Assess
Prospects Confirmation
Well

Economic Uneconomic
Success
Analysis
To D/P
Drop
Prospect
2
2
The Seismic Method

Energy
An Explosion! .4 s Listening Devices .1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
00 sss
Source

.8 s

Some Energy is Reflected

Most Energy is Transmitted

Some Energy is Reflected

Most Energy is Transmitted

3
3
Raw Seismic Data

Device Device
#1 #2 For the explosion we just considered ..
Time

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4 Listening device #1 records a
0.5 reflection starting at 0.4 seconds
0.6
0.7
0.8 Listening device #2 records a
reflection starting at 0.8 seconds

To Image the Subsurface, We Use Many Shots (explosions)

and Many Receivers (listening devices)
Arranged in Lines either on Land or Offshore
4
4
Seismic Acquisition

 A 3D survey is designed based on:

 Imaging Objectives: image area, target depth, dips,
velocity, size/thickness of bodies to be imaged, etc.
 Survey Parameters: survey area, fold, offsets,
sampling, shooting direction, etc.
 Balance between Data Quality & $$$$$

Land Operations Marine Operations

Vibrators Generate a Disturbance Air Guns Generate a Disturbance
Geophones Detect Motion Hydrophones Detect Pressure
Images Courtesy of ExxonMobil
5
5
Raw Data - Marine

6
6
Seismic Processing

Data Processing
Stream

Field Record
(marine)
Subsurface
‘Image’ 7
7
Shot Gather
For Shot 1
Source Receivers
Direct Arrival Offset (Distance)
S1
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

1
Direct Arrival

2 Way Travel Time

2
Reflections
3

For each shot, reflections

are recorded in 5 Reflection

receivers

There are 5 ‘bounce’

points along interface 3 8
8
Common Midpoint Gather
For Point A
Sources Receivers
CMP Gather
S5 S4 S3 S2 S1 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

A
We sort the shot-receiver pairs
so that data from the same
‘bounce’ point (e.g., at ‘A’) is
captured
CMP = common midpoint
Offset Distance
9
9
CMP Gather

CMP Gather

The travel times differ

since the path for a near
offset trace
is less than the path for a
far offset trace

With the correct velocity,

we can correct for the
difference in travel time
for each trace.

The curvature of this hyperbola is a

function of the average velocity
down to the depth of the reflection
Offset Distance

10
10
With Correct Velocity, Gather is Flat

CMP Gather

Velocity
Curves
Too Slow Down

Velocity Flat
Correct

Velocity Curves
Up
Too Fast
Offset Distance

11
11
A Stacked Trace
CMP Gather Moveout Corrected Stacked
Midpoint Gather Trace We stack
several offset
traces
(# traces =
fold)

The geologic
‘signal’ will be
additive

The random
‘noise’ will tend
to cancel
Offset Distance
10 Fold Stacking
12
greatly 12
Positioning Problems
Energy
Source
 
0.2
up s
0.2
sd
ow
n

0.4 s -

Bounce
Point

The reflection is
The seismic ray hits an displayed beneath the
inclined surface at 90º and source-receiver
reflects back midpoint
13
13
Preview of the First of Three
Exercises
1 2 3 4 5 6

     

90º
Where would the reflection lie?

14
14
 Seismic Interpretation
Mitchum et al., 1977

AAPG©1977 reprinted with permission of the AAPG

whose permission is required for further use.

Determine the local geology from the subsurface images

 Map faults and other structural features
 Map unconformities and other major stratal surfaces
 Interpret depositional environments
 Infer lithofacies from reflection patterns & velocities
 Predict ages of stratal units
 Examine elements of the HC systems
15
15
Questions?

16
16
Hydrocarbon Exploration and
Seismology

Seismic Reflections
Shot Receiver Seismic Record
- +
Trough Peak
0

Travel Time (2 way) in msec

Layer 1

Layer 1 Impedance
Layer 2 Increase

Layer 2

Layer 2 Impedance
Layer 3 Decrease
Layer 3

Layer 3 Impedance
Layer 4 Increase
Layer 4

Impedance = Velocity * Density

17
17
The Ideal Seismic Response

Able to resolve boundaries of beds a few meters thick

1 meter

Increase in Impedance Decrease in Impedance

18
18
Stratigraphic Hierarchy
Lamina 9th Order Thin Units, Limited Extent
Core
Lamina Sets8th Order

Beds 7th Order

Logs
Bed Sets6th Order

Parasequences
5th Order

Parasequence Sets
4th Order
Seismic
Sequences
3 Order (3-5 MY)
rd
Mid to
Lower
Sequence Sets
2nd Order Thick Units, Widespread Order
Stratal
Units

19
19
Scale for Seismic Data
Lamina 9th Order
• Although seismic data can
Lamina Sets8th Order not image small-scale
Beds 7th Order stratal units, it can image
mid- to low-order stratal
Bed Sets6th Order units
Parasequences
5th Order

Parasequence Sets
4th Order The big advantage of
Sequences3rd Order
seismic data is its
extensive areal coverage
Sequence Sets
2nd Order

20
20
Seismic - Units 10s of Meters Thick

Predominantly
Shale

Predominantly
Sand

Predominantly
Shale

5m

21
21
Wave Equation Lingo
Rarefaction Compression
Negative 0 Positive
Numbers Numbers

A A = Amplitude
λ
λ = Wavelength
length, ft or m

P = Period
time (ms)

Dp = Pulse
Period = Time for the waveform
Duration
to travel 1 wavelength
time (ms)

22
22
Basic Equations

P=1/f (1)

λ = V * P = V / f (2)
d=V*T/2 (3)
where
P = Period V = Velocity
f = Frequency d = distance (depth)
λ = Wavelength T = two-way time

23
23
What Causes Reflections?

 Any interface between

Shot Receiver
bodies with different
acoustic properties
 Acoustic properties define
Impedance (I), in which: Layer 1

Layer 2
Boundary
I = velocity * density

 Small change in impedance – small reflection

 Large change in impedance – large reflection

24
24
Seismic Interface

Velocity = 2300 m/s

Shale Density = 1.8 gm/cc

Velocity = 2450 m/s

Sand Density = 1.7 gm/cc

Reflection I below
–I above
Coefficient = = =
I below
+I above

25
25
Seismic Interface

Velocity = 2300 m/s

Shale Density = 1.8 gm/cc
I = 2300 * 1.8 = 4140

Velocity = 2450 m/s

Sand Density = 1.7 gm/cc
I = 2450 * 1.7 = 4165

Reflection I –I 4165 - 4140

= 0.003
below above
Coefficient = =
I below
+I above
4165 + 4140

Of the incident energy, 0.3% is reflected, 99.7% is

transmitted
26
26
Back to Basics
Seismic energy travels down and
is reflected off acoustic boundaries
Shot Receiver Seismic
Record
0.0

0.1

0.2
0.3

0.4

0.5

Increase in 0.6
impedance 0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2
1.3
Increase in
1.4
impedance

27
27
 Acoustic Structure of the Earth

Shot Receiver
Imped Reflection Pulse Seismic
Low High Coefficients Trace

I1 = 1 * V1 C
O
N
I2 =  2 * V2 V
O
L
I3 =  3 * V3 U
T
I4 =  4 * V4 I
O
N

28
28
That ‘Pesky’ Pulse
If the frequency content (bandwidth)
is very large, then the pulse
approaches a spike and we can
resolve fine-scale stratigraphy
Typically the frequency
content is limited to about
10 to 50 Hz (BW = 40),
which greatly limits our
vertical resolution

Reflection Ideal Seismic Typical Seismic

Coefficients Pulse Trace Pulse Trace

29
29
Types of Pulses

Minimum Phase
Reflection
Coefficients  Causal (real – no motion
before wave arrives)
 Front loaded
 Peak arrival time is
frequency dependent
 RC is at the first
displacement; maximum
displacement (peak or
trough) is delayed by ¼ λ

30
30
Types of Pulses

Zero Phase
Reflection
Coefficients  Not causal (not real, since
there is motion before the
wave arrives)
 Symmetric about RC
 Peak arrival time is not
frequency dependant
 Maximum peak-to-side
lobe ratio
 RC is at the maximum
displacement (peak or
trough)

31
31
Polarity – Minimum Phase
Polarity = How will an increase in impedance be
displayed?
Reflection
Coefficients SEG Normal Convention
- + A compression is:
 Negative # on the tape
 Displayed as a Trough

SEG = Society of Exploration Geophysics

32
32
Polarity – Zero Phase
Polarity = How will an increase in impedance be
displayed?
Reflection
Coefficients SEG Normal Convention
- + A compression is:
 Positive # on the tape
 Displayed as a Peak

SEG = Society of Exploration Geophysics

33
33
Seismic Reflection – Single Interface

Impedance R.C. Response

Shale

Sand

The mathematical operation to model the interaction

of a pulse with a reflection coefficient is called
CONVOLUTION
34
34
Seismic Reflections – Thick Interval
Impedance R.C. Response

Shale

Sand

Shale
NOTE: The
response
“flips” for a
negative R.C.
A thick interval is one in which the response from the top
interface finishes before the response from the base
interface begins 35
35
QUESTION:

What would happen if an interval is thin, i.e., the

response from the top interface does not finish
before the response from the base interface
begins?

ANSWER:
At depths (two-way times) where the two responses
co-exist, the two values would add together. The
receiver would “hear” both responses simultaneously
with no way to “know” it is “hearing” the tail end of
the response from the top and the start up of the
response from the base.

36
36
Interference Effects

Constructive Destructive
Interference Interference

Wavelets Composite Wavelets Composite

R.C. R.C.
1 1
1 1

2 2
2
2

37
37
 Seismic Data & Stratal Surfaces
 Seismic reflections parallel mid to low order stratal surface
 Reflection terminations mark unconformities
 Changes in reflection character indicate facies changes

Stratal Surfaces Unconformities

Facies Changes

Fluvial Incised Valley Fill Coastal Plain Foreshore/Upper Shoreface

Lower Shoreface - Offshore Slope - Basin Submarine Fan
Estuarine Condensed Interval
38
38
Why Stratal Surfaces?
Recall: Reflections are generated where there is a
change in acoustic properties (I = v)
Consider: Where can there be sharp changes in
impedance?
 horizontally as lithofacies change?
 vertically across stratal boundaries?
Brushy Canyon Formation, West Texas

SB Very Gradational Lateral

Changes in Physical Properties

SB
Can Have Abrupt VerticalSSB
SB
Changes in Physical Properties
Especially at PS Boundaries
39
39
Not Every Reflection is Strata!
There are other seismic reflections out
there that may not be stratigraphic in
origin
 Fluid Contacts Multiples
 Fault Planes  Others

G
Stratal Surfaces O
Unconformities
W

Facies Changes

40
40
Questions?

41
41
 Hydrocarbon Exploration and
Seismology

The Seismic Method, reflection seismology

Mitchum et al., 1977b

AAPG©1977 reprinted with permission of the AAPG

whose permission is required for further use.

Most Images Courtesy of ExxonMobil

1
1

This part gives a very simple introduction into reflection

seismology. This lecture covers an introduction into the seismic
reflection method, seismic acquisition, and seismic processing.
The goal is to obtain subsurface images so that we can
interpret geology and hydrocarbon (HC) system elements.

1
 Basic Exploration Workflow
Identify
Opportunities
Capture
Prime Areas
Acquire
Seismic Data
Drill
Process
Wildcats
Seismic Data
Interpret
Seismic Data Failure Success
Assess
Prospects Confirmation
Well

Economic Uneconomic
Success
Analysis
To D/P
Drop
Prospect
2
2

This is what staff in exploration do at a very high level:

1. They identify opportunities (high potential basins where we might gain access – licenses),
2. They capture prime areas – typically through lease sales,
3. If they get one (1) or more blocks, they may acquire better seismic data,
4. The seismic data has to be processed,
5. Then the data are interpreted,
6. During interpretation, interesting features/anomalies that might be associated with undiscovered fields are noted
After Step 6, the features/anomalies are Initially called ‘leads.’ If some detailed work indicates that there is a good chance the features hold economic
amounts of HCs, they are called prospects. The use of the term ‘prospect’ varies – some say it is used when a lead is good enough to present to a
manager as a drilling candidate.
Prospects have to be assessed – to help decide on whether or not to drill it. Questions need answered include: 1) Will it hold oil or gas?; 2) How much
(what volume of recoverable oil/gas)?; and 3) What is the quality of the reservoir? An economic analysis would then be performed to answer whether the
value of the predicted volume of HCs greater than the costs involved. The information is presented to the manager – he/she decides if it should be drilled,
and the first well drilled is called a ‘wildcat’. If the wildcat is a success (i.e. we find evidence for enough HCs that we want to proceed), exploration may
need to drill one (1) or more confirmation/delineation wells.
We will illustrate this with a hypothetical example in a few minutes. Once the economic viability is established, the new field is turned over to: 1) the
development department/company, if facilities (platform, pipeline, etc.) will be expensive, or 2) the production department/company, if inexpensive (e.g.,
two (2) land wells and an extension of a pipeline a couple of miles).

2
 The Seismic Method

Energy
An Explosion! .4 s Listening Devices .1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
00 sss
Source

.8 s

Some Energy is Reflected

Most Energy is Transmitted

Some Energy is Reflected

Most Energy is Transmitted

3
3

This slide illustrates the basics of reflection seismology. We start

with an energy source – like an explosion. Acoustic energy
radiates down through the Earth (represented by the half-circles
and the arcs). For simplicity, geophysicists use rays (lines with
arrows) to represent the acoustic energy traveling through the
Earth.

At a boundary between one unit and the next deeper unit, some
of energy is reflected – most is transmitted (continues to travel
down). The reflected energy travels towards the surface where
we have set out “listening” devices.

In this cartoon example, some energy is3 reflected off the top of
 Raw Seismic Data

Device Device
#1 #2 For the explosion we just considered ...

Time
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4 Listening device #1 records a
0.5 reflection starting at 0.4 seconds
0.6
0.7
0.8 Listening device #2 records a
reflection starting at 0.8 seconds

To Image the Subsurface, We Use Many Shots (explosions)

and Many Receivers (listening devices)
Arranged in Lines either on Land or Offshore
4
4

This slide shows what the raw seismic data would look like for the
two (2) reflections we just considered.

The seismic energy sent out by the explosion looks like a sine
wave. The filled in (blue) portions would be compressions (i.e.
material is pushed together), which is usually recorded as
positive numbers and displayed to the right of the center (zero)
line. The unfilled portion to the left of the center line would be
rarefactions (i.e. material is expanding out), which is usually
recorded as negative numbers and displayed to the left of the
center (zero) line.
4
 Seismic Acquisition

 A 3D survey is designed based on:

 Imaging Objectives: image area, target depth, dips,
velocity, size/thickness of bodies to be imaged, etc.
 Survey Parameters: survey area, fold, offsets,
sampling, shooting direction, etc.
 Balance between Data Quality & $$$$$

Land Operations Marine Operations

Vibrators Generate a Disturbance Air Guns Generate a Disturbance
Geophones Detect Motion Hydrophones Detect Pressure
Images Courtesy of ExxonMobil
5
5

Today, many of our seismic surveys (land and marine) acquire 3D

seismic data. However, there still are 2D surveys collected.

To design a seismic survey, we start by asking the ones familiar

with the area about what they want to image. For example, an
anticline at 9876 ft covers 10 sq miles with sandstone units
believed to be 150 feet thick. This determines many of the
survey parameters, like the survey area, the fold, shooting
direction, etc. Seismic acquisition is always a balance because
good quality data is expensive, and the quality level will vary to
answer the necessary business questions.
5
 Raw Data - Marine

6
6

Here is a display of raw seismic data recorded for one (1)

shot/explosion in the marine environment. The horizontal scale
is receiver number, which can be translated into ft/miles or
meters/km. The vertical scale is two-way travel time.

The receiver nearest the boat is on the left; the receiver furthest
away on the right. Notice the hyperbolic shape of the
reflections. This shape is because near the boat, the energy
travels almost straight down and up over very little lateral
distance (red arrow on right figure). For receivers far from the
boat (perhaps 4 km), the energy not only has a vertical
component, but also a horizontal component
6 (blue arrows on
 Seismic Processing

Data Processing
Stream

Field Record
(marine)
Subsurface
‘Image’ 7
7

We obtain the raw seismic data for energy that travels from each
shot into each receiver. The raw data goes to the seismic data
processors.
They have methods to manipulate the raw data so that we get
images of the subsurface that can be interpreted. With data
processing, the saying “you get what you pay for” is quite true.
Simple corrections are fast and relatively cheap (in dollars,
manpower and time).

If the subsurface is complex, however, there are very

sophisticated algorithms to “focus” the subsurface image, which
is very expensive. The applied processing
7 is (hopefully) enough
 Shot Gather
For Shot 1
Source Receivers
Direct Arrival Offset (Distance)
S1
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

1
Direct Arrival

2 Way Travel Time

2
Reflections
3

For each shot, reflections

are recorded in 5 Reflection

receivers

There are 5 ‘bounce’

points along interface 3 8
8

This slide illustrates a marine operation. For simplicity, we will consider one (1) shot (S1) and 5 Receivers (R1, R2, ... R5). The shot
record on the right shows two (2) events: 1) the direct arrival, where acoustic energy travels horizontally through the water and is
detected by the receivers (red detected energy or reflections) shown by a straight line over the receivers. The slope of the line is
controlled by the velocity of sound in sea water.

A reflection off the top of the grey layer is shown by the blue detected energy. This event has a hyperbolic shape, which can be used
to estimate the average velocity between the shot and the top of the grey unit.

8
 Common Midpoint Gather
For Point A
Sources Receivers
CMP Gather
S5 S4 S3 S2 S1 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

A
We sort the shot-receiver pairs
so that data from the same
‘bounce’ point (e.g., at ‘A’) is
captured
CMP = common midpoint
Offset Distance
9
9

The first thing the data processors do is to sort the data. They
want to collect all the reflections that “bounce” off the same
subsurface point. For example, they want all the information
related to the red box “A”. Different combinations of shots and
receivers have a “bounce” point at A (e.g., shot 5 into receiver
5).

They display these combinations as a function of lateral distance

to get the figure on the right – a common midpoint gather
(CMP). It looks like a shot record, but for a shot record, the
common feature is the shot, while for a CMP Gather, the
common factor is the “bounce” point or 9 midpoint. Whereas on
 CMP Gather

CMP Gather

The travel times differ

since the path for a near
offset trace
is less than the path for a
far offset trace

With the correct velocity,

we can correct for the
difference in travel time
for each trace.

The curvature of this hyperbola is a

function of the average velocity
down to the depth of the reflection
Offset Distance

10
10

On the CMP gather, we again have reflections with a hyperbolic

shape. The travel times differ since the path for a near offset
trace is shorter than the path for a far offset trace. If we know or
can estimate the correct velocity, we can correct for the
difference in travel time for each trace. From the shape of the
hyperbola, we can estimate the average velocity down to the
depth of the reflection.

10
 With Correct Velocity, Gather is Flat

CMP Gather

Velocity
Curves
Too Slow Down

Velocity Flat
Correct

Velocity Curves
Up
Too Fast
Offset Distance

11
11

With the speed of computers, we can iteratively try different

velocities and see which value is best. We know the velocity is
correct when all the reflections are at the same time valve – or
rather, they are FLAT with offset. This is shown in the middle
figure on the right. If the velocity is too slow, the reflection
curves down – we have not corrected the gather enough (upper
right). If the velocity is too fast, the reflection curves up – we
have over-corrected the gather (lower right).

11
 A Stacked Trace
CMP Gather Moveout Corrected Stacked
Midpoint Gather Trace We stack
several offset
traces
(# traces =
fold)

The geologic
‘signal’ will be
additive

The random
‘noise’ will tend
to cancel
Offset Distance
10 Fold Stacking
12
greatly 12
improves S/N
(signal-to-noise)

The next step is to sum all of the flatten gathers, which are called
moveout corrected gathers. In this case, we have ten (10)
traces that are from a common midpoint, where each has a
different amount of lateral offset. We add the ten (10) traces
together. Since it is ten (10) traces, we say that this is ten (10)
fold data.

Why do we add the traces? Each individual trace has information

about the midpoint (like the red A box in Slide 9) and a certain
amount of ‘noise’. The receivers pick up the reflected seismic
energy, but also other sound energy. On land, it might be noise
from passing cars/trucks, wind, etc. In12marine operations, it
 Positioning Problems
Energy
Source
 

0.2
su
0.2

p
sd
ow
n
0.4 s -

Bounce
Point

The reflection is
The seismic ray hits an displayed beneath the
inclined surface at 90º and source-receiver
reflects back midpoint
13
13

Thus far, we have kept everything quite simple by assuming the

boundaries that generate reflections are horizontal (flat). Problems
develop if the boundaries are not flat – they have some dip. When the
boundary dips, what we record is the energy that travels from the
source and hits the boundary at 90º (normal incidence).
In the figure on the left, we record the energy that follows the dotted black
line. In this case, the energy travels 0.2 seconds down to the bounce
point and 0.2 seconds up to the receiver for a total of 0.4 seconds.
When this is displayed, we would plot the reflection vertically below the
shot at 0.4 seconds (the blue peak). Thus we capture the reflected
energy, but do not place it in the correct position. This is another thing
we have to correct – Need methods to13 apply this correction!
 Preview of the First of Three
Exercises
1 2 3 4 5 6

     

90º
Where would the reflection lie?

14
14

Time for an exercise! Here we have a dipping seafloor. We will

consider six (6) shot locations and only the direct down and
direct up ray path. That direct down – direct up raypath hits the
seafloor where it is 90º – as shown for shot #1. We want to
figure out where the reflected energy would be displayed
(without corrections).

14
 Seismic Interpretation
Mitchum et al., 1977

AAPG©1977 reprinted with permission of the AAPG

whose permission is required for further use.

Determine the local geology from the subsurface images

 Map faults and other structural features
 Map unconformities and other major stratal surfaces
 Interpret depositional environments
 Infer lithofacies from reflection patterns & velocities
 Predict ages of stratal units
 Examine elements of the HC systems
15
15

After seismic acquisition and processing, we have seismic

interpretation. Here is where we take the images and deduce
the subsurface geology. This includes:
Map faults and other structural features,
Map unconformities and other major stratal surfaces,
Interpret depositional environments,
Infer lithofacies from reflection patterns & velocities,
Predict ages of stratal units, and
Examine elements of the HC systems.

15
Questions?

16
16

16
 Hydrocarbon Exploration and
Seismology

Seismic Reflections
Shot Receiver Seismic Record
- +
Trough Peak
0

Travel Time (2 way) in msec

Layer 1

Layer 1 Impedance
Layer 2 Increase

Layer 2

Layer 2 Impedance
Layer 3 Decrease
Layer 3

Layer 3 Impedance
Layer 4 Increase
Layer 4

Impedance = Velocity * Density

17
17

This unit gives a very simple explanation of seismic reflections.

The lecture goes through reflection coefficients, pulses and
convolution, and then walks through three (3) exercises to
reflect on those points.

17
 The Ideal Seismic Response

Able to resolve boundaries of beds a few meters thick

1 meter

Increase in Impedance Decrease in Impedance

18
18

The ideal seismic response gives us information about the

subsurface stratigraphy at the same scale as an outcrop. Here
the beds are about a foot thick – the ideal seismic line would
show us this level of detail. However, we do not live in an ideal
world. The seismic method does not allow us to “resolve” (be
able to distinguish) strata at this fine a scale.

18
 Stratigraphic Hierarchy
Lamina 9th Order Thin Units, Limited Extent
Core
Lamina Sets8th Order

Beds 7th Order

Logs
Bed Sets6th Order

Parasequences
5th Order

Parasequence Sets
4th Order
Seismic
Sequences
3rd Order (3-5 MY)
Mid to
Lower
Sequence Sets
2nd Order Thick Units, Widespread Order
Stratal
Units

19
19

There is a hierarchy of layering within sedimentary rocks – the

strata. This hierarchy (or scale) is shown on the left. The
smallest scale of sedimentary layering is the lamina. Two (2) or
more related lamina form a slightly thicker stratal unit are called
a lamina set. Several lamina sets form beds, and several beds
stack to form bed sets. This continues on to very thick units
called depositional sequences and sequence sets.

Seismic data cannot image (resolve) beds or bed sets. However,

they are able to image parasequences, parasequence sets, and
larger-scale (thicker) stratal units. Thus, seismic data is limited
to imaging larger-scale stratal units. However,
19 the advantage of
 Scale for Seismic Data
Lamina 9th Order
• Although seismic data can
Lamina Sets8th Order not image small-scale
Beds 7th Order stratal units, it can image
mid- to low-order stratal
Bed Sets6th Order units
Parasequences
5th Order

Parasequence Sets
4th Order The big advantage of
Sequences3 Order
rd
seismic data is its
extensive areal coverage
Sequence Sets
2nd Order

20
20

There is a hierarchy of layering within sedimentary rocks – the

strata. This hierarchy (or scale) is shown on the left.

The smallest scale of sedimentary layering is the lamina. Two (2)

or more related lamina form a slightly thicker stratal unit are
called a lamina set. Several lamina sets form beds, and several
beds stack to form bed sets. This continues on to very thick
units called depositional sequences and sequence sets.

Seismic data cannot image (resolve) beds or bed sets. However,

they are able to image parasequences, parasequence sets, and
larger-scale (thicker) stratal units. Thus,
20 seismic data is limited
 Seismic - Units 10s of Meters Thick

Predominantly
Shale

Predominantly
Sand

Predominantly
Shale

5m

21
21

The resolution of the seismic data (or the thickness of stratal units
that can be distinguished) depends on: 1) the time duration of
the seismic pulse that was used to acquire the data and, 2) the
velocity of the rocks.

Since velocities tend to increase with depth, we can resolve

thinner stratal units at shallow depths (e.g., 10 meters) than we
can at intermediate depths (e.g., 25 meters). In addition, we can
resolve finer stratal units at intermediate depths (e.g., 25
meters) than we can at great depths (e.g., 40 meters).

As shown on this slide, the seismic data21tend to “integrate” or

 Wave Equation Lingo
Rarefaction Compression
Negative 0 Positive
Numbers Numbers

A A = Amplitude
λ
λ = Wavelength
length, ft or m

P = Period
time (ms)

Dp = Pulse
Period = Time for the waveform
Duration
to travel 1 wavelength
time (ms)

22
22

In this slide, we have some of the most common terms related to

seismic data. The black “sine wave” is a simple wavelet, which
is a simple approximation of the acoustic wave that travels
down through the earth and is reflected back up to receivers on
the surface. The wavelet consists of movement that is part
compression (positive values as recorded by sensors on the
surface, i.e., receivers) and part rarefaction (negative values).

Amplitude (A) is a measure of how big the wavelet is – or the

magnitude of the excursion to the right of zero (compression =
positive) or to the left of zero (rarefaction = negative). Lambda
() is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in is is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in the is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in waveength is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in of is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in the is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in waveet is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in
22 – is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in o is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in its is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in ength is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in in is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in
 Basic Equations

P=1/f (1)

λ = V * P = V / f (2)
d=V*T/2 (3)
where
P = Period V = Velocity
f = Frequency d = distance (depth)
λ = Wavelength T = two-way time

23
23

Equation 1 tells us that the Period is equal to 1/Frequency.

Equation 2 tells us that the Wavelength is equal to the Velocity

times the Period or, with Equation 1, the Wavelength equals the
Velocity divided by the Frequency.

Equation 3 tells us that the distance (or the depth) is equal to the
velocity times the time divided by 2.

Q: Why the division by 2? A: The acoustic wave travels the

distance twice – once down and once up.
23
 What Causes Reflections?

 Any interface between

Shot Receiver
bodies with different
acoustic properties
 Acoustic properties define
Impedance (I), in which: Layer 1

Layer 2
Boundary
I = velocity * density

 Small change in impedance – small reflection

 Large change in impedance – large reflection

24
24

Let’s review what causes a seismic reflection. A seismic reflection

is generated at any interface between rock layers with different
acoustic properties. These acoustic properties are the velocity
and the density of the rock.

Again, geophysicists use the term impedance (I), which equals

velocity * density. If the change in impedance across a
boundary is small, the amount of reflected energy is small. If the
change in impedance across a boundary is large, the amount of
reflected energy is large.

24
 Seismic Interface

Velocity = 2300 m/s

Shale Density = 1.8 gm/cc

Velocity = 2450 m/s

Sand Density = 1.7 gm/cc

Reflection I below
–I above
Coefficient = = =
I below
+I above

25
25

This slide shows the acoustic properties for rocks above and
below an interface – in this case, shale on top of sand. If there
is time, let the students perform the calculation. The solution is
on the next slide.

25
 Seismic Interface

Velocity = 2300 m/s

Shale Density = 1.8 gm/cc
I = 2300 * 1.8 = 4140

Velocity = 2450 m/s

Sand Density = 1.7 gm/cc
I = 2450 * 1.7 = 4165

Reflection I –I 4165 - 4140

Coefficient = below above
= = 0.003
I below
+I above 4165 + 4140

Of the incident energy, 0.3% is reflected, 99.7% is

transmitted
26
26

This is the answer for the RC for the previous slide.

26
 Back to Basics
Seismic energy travels down and
is reflected off acoustic boundaries
Shot Receiver Seismic
Record
0.0

0.1

0.2
0.3

0.4
0.5

Increase in 0.6
impedance 0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2
1.3
Increase in
1.4
impedance

27
27

In review, the essence of the seismic method is that:

geoscientists generate energy at the surface through Vibroseis
trucks and/or through dynamite. The energy travels down
through the earth, and at a boundary between one rock unit and
another, there can be a change in either the velocity of the
rocks, the densities of the rocks, or both.

The acoustic properties of a rock layer are described by a

parameter called impedance.

Impedance = velocity times density ( z = V * ). is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in A is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in change is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in in is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in
impedance is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in (e.g., is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in top is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in of is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in the is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in y, the Pulse eow is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in
27 ay, the Pulse e), is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in a is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in faction is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in of is the wavelength of the wavelet – or its length in
 Acoustic Structure of the Earth

Shot Receiver
Imped Reflection Pulse Seismic
Low High Coefficients Trace

I1 = 1 * V1 C
O
N
I2 =  2 * V2 V
O
L
I3 =  3 * V3 U
T
I4 =  * V4 I
4
O
N

28
28

This is a simplification of the previous slide. At a certain location,

we have various layers with different impedance values. We
can calculate the impedance of each layer by multiplying the
velocity by the density.

On the far left, we show the impedance as a log curve. The

amount of energy that is reflected is a function of the magnitude
of the impedance change across a boundary. A small change in
impedance results in a small amount of reflected energy, while
a large change in impedance results in a larger amount of
reflected energy.
28
 That ‘Pesky’ Pulse
If the frequency content (bandwidth)
is very large, then the pulse
approaches a spike and we can
resolve fine-scale stratigraphy
Typically the frequency
content is limited to about
10 to 50 Hz (BW = 40),
which greatly limits our
vertical resolution

Reflection Ideal Seismic Typical Seismic

Coefficients Pulse Trace Pulse Trace

29
29

If the frequency content (bandwidth; BW) is very large, then the

pulse approaches a spike and we can resolve fine-scale
stratigraphy. This ideal pulse goes back to what was described
in slide 2. Unfortunately, the frequency of the pulses we are
able to generate are limited, typically from about 10 to 50 Hz
(BW = 50 – 10 = 40 Hz). Thus, our ability to resolve thin beds
on seismic data is controlled by the limited bandwidth of our
pulse. A high-resolution survey would have pulse frequencies
from about 5 to 60 Hz, or a bandwidth of 55 Hz – much better
than 40 Hz.

29
 Types of Pulses

Minimum Phase
Reflection
Coefficients  Causal (real – no motion
before wave arrives)
 Front loaded
 Peak arrival time is
frequency dependent
 RC is at the first
displacement; maximum
displacement (peak or
trough) is delayed by ¼ λ

30
30

Let’s consider the pulse for a few minutes. There are two end-
member types of pulses. The first end-member is a minimum
phase pulse, which is the type of pulse that you would get from
an explosion or an earthquake. There is no particle motion
before the explosion occurs. Immediately after the explosion,
particle motion will build to a compressional maximum, then
decrease, build to a rarefaction maximum (most negative value)
and then go back to zero. Minimum phase pulses are causal
(real – no motion before wave arrives), front loaded, the peak
arrival time is frequency dependent, and the RC is at the first
displacement. The maximum displacement (peak or trough) is
delayed relative to where the RC is by30¼ λ.
 Types of Pulses

Zero Phase
Reflection
Coefficients  Not causal (not real, since
there is motion before the
wave arrives)
 Symmetric about RC
 Peak arrival time is not
frequency dependant
 Maximum peak-to-side
lobe ratio
 RC is at the maximum
displacement (peak or
trough)

31
31

The second end-member type of pulse is called zero phase. The

shape of a zero phase pulse relative to the RC is shown on this
slide. A zero phase pulse is not causal (not real, since there is
motion before the wave arrives), is symmetric about the RC, the
peak arrival time is not frequency dependent, has the maximum
peak-to-side lobe ratio, and the RC is at the maximum
displacement (peak or trough).

31
 Polarity – Minimum Phase
Polarity = How will an increase in impedance be
displayed?
Reflection
Coefficients SEG Normal Convention
- + A compression is:
 Negative # on the tape
 Displayed as a Trough

SEG = Society of Exploration Geophysics

32
32

Next, we will explain seismic polarity – i.e., the mathematical sign

convention. SEG stands for the Society of Exploration
Geophysics. They have set an industry standard for the
definition of polarity for both minimum phase and zero phase
pulses. For a minimum phase pulse and a positive RC
(increase in impedance), the first numbers recorded on the tape
should be negative and the first motion should be displayed as
a trough. If a minimum phase dataset is said to be SEG reverse polarity, that would mean for a positive RC the first
motion would be displayed as a peak.

32
 Polarity – Zero Phase
Polarity = How will an increase in impedance be
displayed?
Reflection
Coefficients SEG Normal Convention
- + A compression is:
 Positive # on the tape
 Displayed as a Peak

SEG = Society of Exploration Geophysics

33
33

As this slide shows, for SEG normal, zero phase pulse and a
positive RC (increase in impedance), the numbers recorded on
the tape for where the RC is located should be positive, and the
motion centered on the RC should be displayed as a peak. If a zero
phase dataset is said to be SEG reverse polarity, a positive RC means that motion centered on the RC

would be displayed as a trough.

33
 Seismic Reflection – Single Interface

Impedance R.C. Response

Shale

Sand

The mathematical operation to model the interaction

of a pulse with a reflection coefficient is called
CONVOLUTION
34
34

This is the same interface shown on slides 15 and 16. The RC is

shown as a positive spike at the depth of the interface, a zero
phase pulse (SEG reverse) as the response. (In addition, you
could ask the students the phase & polarity of the assumed
pulse.)

34
 Seismic Reflections – Thick Interval
Impedance R.C. Response

Shale

Sand

Shale
NOTE: The
response
“flips” for a
negative R.C.
A thick interval is one in which the response from the top
interface finishes before the response from the base
interface begins 35
35

The upper interface is the same as on slides 15 and 16. The

lower interface has the same impedance change (RC) times -1.
This means that the lower shale has the same impedance
(velocity * density) as the upper shale.

The upper +RC has a zero phase pulse with a peak centered on
it, while the lower -RC has a zero phase pulse with a trough
centered on it. The sand is thick enough that the response for
the upper interface finishes before the response for the lower
interface begins. Thus, the two responses are clear, and there
are no interference effects.
35
 QUESTION:

What would happen if an interval is thin, i.e., the

response from the top interface does not finish
before the response from the base interface
begins?

ANSWER:
At depths (two-way times) where the two responses
co-exist, the two values would add together. The
receiver would “hear” both responses simultaneously
with no way to “know” it is “hearing” the tail end of
the response from the top and the start up of the
response from the base.

36
36

You can pose this question to get the students thinking about
what happens if a unit thins to less than the pulse duration time.
The answer is revealed with an animation. You can have a mini-
discussion before revealing the answer. The next slide shows
an example for a “thin” unit, one that results in wavelet
interference.

36
 Interference Effects

Constructive Destructive
Interference Interference

Wavelets Composite Wavelets Composite

R.C. R.C.
1 1
1 1

2 2
2
2

37
37

This slide shows a case of: (1) constructive and (2) destructive interference. On
the left, two RC of opposite signs are spaced less that the pulse duration.
Wavelet 1 for RC 1 and wavelet 2 for RC 2 are shown. The net (composite)
response is shown, where the first peak is larger than either individual wavelet
peak due to constructive interference (summation). The second trough is larger
(more negative) than the individual troughs.

On the right, two RC of the same sign (both +RCs) are spaced less that the pulse
duration. Wavelet 1 for RC 1 and wavelet 2 for RC 2 are shown, along with the
net (composite) response. The first peak is smaller and of longer time duration
than either individual wavelet peak due to destructive interference (subtraction).
The second trough is larger (more negative) than the individual troughs.

37
 Seismic Data & Stratal Surfaces
 Seismic reflections parallel mid to low order stratal surfaces
 Reflection terminations mark unconformities
 Changes in reflection character indicate facies changes

Stratal Surfaces Unconformities

Facies Changes

Fluvial Incised Valley Fill Coastal Plain Foreshore/Upper Shoreface

Lower Shoreface - Offshore Slope - Basin Submarine Fan
Estuarine Condensed Interval
38
38

We will talk about this in greater detail in a later unit, but seismic
reflections tend to parallel stratigraphic surfaces. We can use
reflection terminations to identify and mark unconformities.
Changes in the characteristics of a reflection (e.g., amplitude,
frequency, continuity) indicate changes in depositional facies.

38
 Why Stratal Surfaces?
Recall: Reflections are generated where there is a
change in acoustic properties (I = v)
Consider: Where can there be sharp changes in
impedance?
 horizontally as lithofacies change?
 vertically across stratal boundaries?
Brushy Canyon Formation, West Texas

SB Very Gradational Lateral

Changes in Physical Properties

SB
Can Have Abrupt VerticalSSB
SB
Changes in Physical Properties
Especially at PS Boundaries
39
39

Why do reflections parallel stratigraphic surfaces? Recall that

reflections are generated where there is a change in acoustic
properties, so either the velocity of the rocks change, the
densities of the rocks change, or both change.

Let’s look at a thick outcrop in West Texas, which is 1200 ft or 365

meters in relief. From the bottom to top, there are four (4)
formations - the Pipeline Shale (guess what the lithology is?),
the Lower Brushy Canyon, the Middle Brushy Canyon, and the
Upper Brushy Canyon. Each member of the Brushy Canyon
consists of shale with silt and sand layers – sand content
increases Lower to Middle, and Middle 39 to Upper.
 Not Every Reflection is Strata!
There are other seismic reflections out
there that may not be stratigraphic in
origin
 Fluid Contacts Multiples
 Fault Planes  Others

G
Stratal Surfaces O
Unconformities
W

Facies Changes

40
40

A word of caution: there are other seismic reflections out there

that may not be stratigraphic in origin. Some examples include:
fluid contacts, fault planes, and multiples.

40
 Questions?

41
41

It is time to introduce 3 new exercises, but first, any questions.

41