QUALIFYING EXAM REVIEWER BS PSYCHOLOGY 1-2
pATRICIA EIMEREN BARRON | INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
& PSYCHOGENESIS ( 10% )
PSYCHOGENESIS
➔ beginning of Psychology
➔ the origin and development of personality,
behavior, and mental and psychic processes
PSYCHOLOGY
➔ comes from the words “psyche” meaning
soul and “logos,” meaning study.
Etymologically, psychology means the study
of the soul.
➔ Holy trinity: Body, Soul, Spirit
➔ Early Greeks believed that the soul is the
deciding factor that contributes to our
behavior.
➔ Ancient people believed that people who are
suffering with mental illness are under the
influence of witchcraft.
➔ Trephining/trepanning is an ancient medical
practice that involves cutting a hole in the
patient’s skull. It’s believed to have been
used as a method of releasing the evil spirits
that ancient people believed were
responsible for mental and physical illness.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
OF PRESENT-DAY PSYCHOLOGY
➔ The Big Three (Greek Philosophers) -
Aristotle, Plato, Socrates (they all agreed
that psychology is the study of the soul)
➔ On the nature of the mind, the souls, the
body and of human experiences are what
contributes to the behavior.
➔ Rene Descartes - Ideas are innate at birth
(it's in our nature)
➔ John Locke - Knowledge is acquired
through experience and interaction in the
world (our mind is a tabula rasa / blank
slate / empty minded)
NATURE VS. NURTURE
Nature - Innate, Biologically acquired
Nurture - Environment
MODERN DAY PSYCHOLOGY
➔ The scientific study of the behavior and
mental processes.
➔ Behavior
◆ Overt - can be directly observed
◆ Covert – cannot be directly observed
➔ Mental Process
◆ Internal experiences such as
thoughts, sensations, dreams, and
feelings
FOUR GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
1. To Describe - Observing behavior and taking
note of what is happening
2. To Explain - behavior is being understood by
explaining it
3. To Predict - determining what will happen in
the future
4. To Control - to change behavior from an
undesirable one to desirable
WHAT PSYCHOLOGY IS NOT?
1. Psychology Is Just Common Sense
2. Psychology Is not a Real Science
3. Psychology Is a Mystery
DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF
PSYCHOLOGY/THOUGHTS
1) Structuralism – Pioneered by Edward Bradford
Titchener and based on the concept of Wilhelm
Wundt.
➢ They analyzed conscious experience into its
elements, namely: sensations, images, and
affective states.
➢ Behavior based on senses and structure of
the body
➢ According to structuralists, there are 8
senses ( sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch,
balance, movement, and organic sense or
 the sense of being hungry and
thirsty/interoceptive )
➢ The method of study used by the
structuralists was introspection, a process
of self-observation.
2) Functionalism
➢ Behavior depends on the function of the
mind / brain, or how you'll react to certain
stimuli in the environment.
3) Behaviorism - Founded by John B. Watson
➢ Behaviors are experimental observation
➢ All behavior represents learned response to
a particular environment stimuli
➢ When people are being
conditioned/experimented to a certain
stimuli, it will contribute to our behavior
➢ Ex.
○ Behavior: Crying
Stimuli: Movie
○ Little Albert experiment (John B.
Watson)
➢ Edward Thorndike - role of rewards in
learning
➢ B.F. Skinner - Behaviors are learned and
that's how we respond to stimuli.
4) Gestalt Psychology - Founded by Max
Wertheimer
➢ Psychology should study the whole pattern
of behavior or experience or the perception
of organized configuration
➢ The sum of the whole is more important than
its part
➢ We do not simply look at the context, we
look at it as a whole.
5) Psychoanalysis - Sigmund Freud (Followers: Carl
Jung,
➢ Human desires and primitive impulses are
the central factors of behavior.
➢ A type of treatment based on the theory that
our present is shaped by our past.
○ The unacknowledged meaning of
personal experiences can influence
our mood and behavior, and
contribute to problems with
relationships, work and self-esteem.
➢ Sex urges in the unconscious constitute the
main human drive and this is known as the
"Libido" theory
➢ Psychic Energy
○ Id - Pleasure Principle
○ Ego - Reality Principle (Balance)
○ Superego - Moral Principle
→ whoever wins among the three will
lead the behavior of a person
6) Cognitive Psychology / Cognitivism
➢ Cognitive Function – How we decide and
perceive a certain situation
➢ study of mind and how people think
7) Humanistic Psychology
➢ Emphasizes free will and individual's
potential
➢ "I can contribute/function on my own"
➢ Claim that man is not just a mechanized
computer-like organism responding in a
determined way to the stimuli presented to
him.
BRANCHES, FIELDS, & CAREERS IN
PSYCHOLOGY
★ 3 Core Areas of Psychology - Clinical,
Industrial, and Educational Psychology
1. Developmental Psychology – the study of
human development and the factors that shape
behavior from birth to old age.
2. Social Psychology – the study of how people
think about, influence, relate with one another, and
the ways interactions with other people influence
attitudes and behavior.
3. Clinical Psychology – the study of the diagnosis
and treatment of emotional and behavioral
problems.
4. Counseling Psychology – the study that deals
with personal problems such as medical, social or
vocational problems; counseling psychologists deal
with less serious problems compared to clinical
psychologists
5. School and Educational Psychology – the
study that deals with the evaluation of learning and
emotional problems of individuals in schools
6. Industrial/Organizational Psychology – the
study involving the selection of people most suitable
for particular jobs, the development of training
programs in organizations, and the identification of
determinants of consumer behavior
7. Physiological/Biological Psychology – the
study that employs the biological perspective,
seeking to discover the relationships between ◆ A young child forgets being
biological processes and behavior bitten by a dog but develops
a phobia of dogs as he gets
8. Experimental Psychology – the study that
older
employs the behavioral and cognitive perspectives
as well as the experimental method in studying how 3. Projection
people react to sensory stimuli, perceive the world, ➔ Some thoughts or feelings you have
learn, remember and respond. about another person may make you
uncomfortable. When people project
9. Forensic Psychology – the study that applies those feelings, they misattribute them
psychology to the law and legal proceedings to the other person.
➔ Ex:
10. Sports Psychology – the study that applies ◆ You’re saying that a person
theories and knowledge in psychology to enhance hates you but in fact, it’s you
athletes and coaches’ performance
who hates them.
11. Abnormal Psychology – the study that deals 4. Displacement
with the diagnosis and causes of mental disorders ➔ Directing emotions and frustrations to
someone or something you find less
12. Health Psychology – the study of cognitive, threatening
affective, behavioral, and interpersonal factors ➔ Ex:
affecting health and illness. ◆ When your parents scold you,
13. Neuropsychology - the study that deals with you’ll pour your anger onto
the diagnosis and rehabilitation of brain disorders your siblings because you
can’t do it to your parents.
14. General Psychology - is the foundation of 5. Regression
studying the science of psychology that deals with ➔ Returning to earlier developmental
basic principles, problems and methods of human stage / you being a child
development, emotions, motivation, learning,
➔ If they experience trauma or loss,
memory, senses, thinking, perception, processing,
and intelligence. they may suddenly act as if they’re
younger again.
DEFENSE MECHANISM ➔ Ex:
◆ Adults who are struggling with
something may return to
- Originally 15
sleeping with stuffed toys
- According to Freud, there are unwanted
around them.
anxieties that we are covering using
6. Rationalization
defense mechanisms.
- You rationalize / Explain undesirable
behaviors with your own set of facts
1. Denial to make you feel better
➔ Refuse to accept reality / facts ➔ 2 types of Rationalization
➔ They avoid painful feelings or events. ◆ Sour Graping - 'pretended
➔ Ex:
disdain' or belittling what you
◆ After the unexpected death of
cannot achieve
a loved one, a person might
● a person who is
refuse to accept the reality of
turned down for a date
the death and deny that
might rationalize the
anything has happened.
situation by saying
2. Repression
they were not
➔ Instead of facing those thoughts,
attracted to the other
people may unconsciously choose to
hide them in hopes of forgetting them person anyway
entirely. ◆ Sweet Lemonade - thinks that
➔ Putting it on your unconscious mind / whatever happens is for one's
Hide and forget good
➔ Ex:
 ● When you don't get
accepted into a job
but you rationalize it
by saying that it’s not
that bad.
7. Sublimation
➔ Negative thoughts are being
redirected to something beneficial
➔ Ex:
◆ You have anger management
issues but you redirected it to
something like boxing.
8. Reaction Formation
➔ Recognize how they feel, but they
choose to behave in the opposite
manner of their instincts.
➔ Ex:
◆ Your teacher tells you that
you failed the exam and you
said that it’s fine even if
you’re already crying inside.
9. Compartmentalization
➔ Separating life into different sectors -
Blocking or isolating the negative
thoughts for a while.
➔ Ex:
◆ You tried to shrug the
problem off by not talking
about it.
10. Intellectualization
➔ You may choose to remove all
emotion from your responses and
instead focus on quantitative facts.
➔ You try to explain and understand
negative events.
➔ You use reason and logic to avoid
uncomfortable or anxiety-provoking
emotions
➔ Ex:
◆ If person A is rude to person
B, person B may think about
the possible reasons for
person A's behavior.
11. Identification
➔ Identification involves a person
adopting the thoughts and behaviors
of a person who has power over
them.
➔ Ex:
◆ People who have Stockholm
Syndrome. In such cases,
they form an emotional bond
with their captor or abuser
and adapt their negative traits
and behaviors.
IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES IN PSYCHOLOGY
1. Ivan Pavlov – Famous Russian scientist that
discovered that a behavior can be conditioned.
2. Albert Ellis - Albert Ellis is an American
cognitive behavioral therapist who developed
Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT).
3. Solomon Asch - He became famous in the
1950s, following experiments which showed that
social pressure (Conformity) can make a person say
something that is obviously incorrect.
4. John B. Watson - Established the psychological
school of behaviorism, after doing research on
animal behavior. He also conducted the
controversial "Little Albert" experiment.
5. Carl Rogers - Instrumental in the development of
non-directive psychotherapy, which he initially
termed Client-centered therapy and he is known as
the father of client-centered therapy.
6. Burrhus Frederic Skinner – one of the most
influential of American psychologists. A behaviorist,
he developed the theory of operant conditioning
7. Sigmund Freud - Father of psychoanalysis, and
is generally recognized as one of the most
influential and authoritative thinkers of the twentieth
century.
• Unconscious Mind
• Free Association
• Fixation
• Transference
• Dreams
• Hypnosis
8. Abraham Maslow - One of the founders of
humanistic psychology and is often best recognized
for developing the theory of human motivation now
known as Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
9. Alfred Adler - Among Adler’s chief contributions
are the importance of birth order in the formation of
personality, the impact of neglect or pampering on
child development
• Inferiority Complex
10. Albert Bandura - observational learning or
modeling
11. Karen Horney - NeoFreudian that believed that
there was an inner conflict but did not agree with the
penis envy and women having less of an ability to
suppress their urges.
12. Lawrence Kohlberg - The theory holds that
moral reasoning, the basis for ethical behavior,
has six identifiable developmental stages, each
more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas
than its predecessor.
13. Gordon Allport - Gordon Allport's theory of
personality development is one of the first
humanistic theories. Allport is known as a "trait"
psychologist. One of his early projects was to go
through the dictionary and locate every term that he
thought could describe a person.
14. Wilhelm Wundt - Founding father of
psychology. Established the experimental branch of
psychology.
15. Jean Piaget - Studied children, watching
children and in the area of developmental
psychology.
16. Erik Erikson - Developmental psychologist and
psychoanalyst known for his theory on social
development of human beings, and for coining the
phrase identity crisis.
17. Carl Jung - Believed that the personality formed
from a collective unconscious involving archetypes
that all humans have.
PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH
& DEVELOPMENT (40%)
THE NATURE OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
TOPICS
➔ Biological, Cognitive and Socioemotional
Processes
➔ Periods of Development
➔ Conceptions of Age
➔ Developmental Issues
DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY
➔ refers to the study of an individual’s
biological, emotional, cognitive, personal
and social development across the lifespan,
from infancy through late adulthood.
➔ all aspects of human development starting
from infancy to late adulthood, from the
moment a coitus/sexual intercourse
happened to how a child develops.
◆ Chromosome aberrations include
changes in chromosome number
(gains and losses) and changes in
structure (deletions, inversions, and
exchanges)
Growth
➢ refers to a progressive series of changes of
an orderly and coherent type towards the
goal of maturity.
➢ Upward direction.
○ Ex: Height, Weight
Development
➢ is the pattern of change that begins at
conception and continues through life span.
○ Talks about social or emotional
development
Learning
➢ is the result of activities or day to day
experience.
○ When you’re exposed to a lot of
experience, whether it is good or
bad, you mature. Your level of
thinking changes as you learn.
THE LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVES
Life-Span Development
➔ A pattern of change involving growth and
decline, beginning at conception and lasting
until death.
Life phases
Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence, Young
Adulthood, Middle Adulthood, and Late Adulthood
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
INFANCY
➔ At conception the genetic material from each
parent is fused.
➔ A living cell called the zygote is formed
within hours.
➔ The Zygote will become transformed through
a process of three stages:
 ◆ Germinal period– The first two
weeks after conception
◆ Embryonic period- The 3rd to the
8th week after conception
◆ Fetal period- The ninth week after
conception to birth
CHILDHOOD
➔ During which children start to explore and
develop a sense of independence.
Eventually, children learn to make their own
decisions and they discover that their
actions have consequences. As they learn
and grow, they develop a sense of self.
Children need to be nurtured so that they
develop self-confidence instead of
self-esteem issues.
ADOLESCENCE
➔ During adolescence, young men and women
are primarily concerned with finding their
identity and expressing who they are in the
world. Puberty causes many physical
changes to take place, and adolescents
must adapt to their changing bodies. All of
these changes can make adolescence a
confusing and stressful period. As
adolescents try to find their place, they may
experiment with different roles and make
attempts to separate from authority figures.
They are getting used to their bodies and
trying to find out where they belong. They
may try out different hairstyles and hobbies
in an attempt to create an image of
themselves that they’re comfortable with.
ADULTHOOD
➔ Adulthood brings on even more new
challenges and major decisions about
school, career, and home life. Early
adulthood involves few physical changes,
but it’s a time of important emotional
development, as young adults decide where
they want to live, who they want to live with,
and what type of work they want to do.
LATE ADULTHOOD
➔ Late adulthood is the stage of life from the
60s onward; it constitutes the last stage of
physical change.
Life-span development is
linked following areas of psychology:
Cognitive
➔ The way a person thinks and processes
information. As we grow older, our
knowledge is expanding therefore we
become wiser, in terms of decisions and
facts that we’ve learned.
◆ Unless our brain accumulated brain
damage.
Abnormal
➔ It has something to do with abnormal
psychology, which talks about pathological
disorders.
Social
➔ It has something to do with social
interactions.
The importance of studying life span development
➢ Examine the life span from the point of
conception until the time when life ends.
➢ See yourself as an infant, as a child, as an
adolescent and be stimulated to think about
how those years influenced the kind of
individual you are today.
➢ See yourself as a young adult, as a middle
aged adult, as an adult in old age and be
motivated to think about how your
experiences today will influence your
development through the remainder of your
adult years.
THE HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
On Child Development
➔ Ideas about children vary. In the West,3
influential philosophical views are based on
the ideas of original sin, tabula rasa, and
innate goodness.
Original Sin
➢ based on Christian doctrine, the view that
children are born into the world corrupted
with an inclination toward evil.
Tabula Rasa
➢ John Locke’s view that children are born as
“blank slates” and acquire their
characteristics through experience.
Innate goodness
➢ Jean – Jacques Rousseau’s view that
children are born inherently good.
 On Adult Development
Life Expectancy
➔ The number of years that a person is
expected to live on average when born in a
particular year.
◆ Some research says that male die
earlier than females because they
don’t have much support system and
they are not as expressive.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFESPAN
PERSPECTIVES
➔ Development is lifelong
◆ No age period dominates
development. It continues up until
death.
◆ Biological, cognitive, and
socioeconomic dimensions of
experiences and psychological
orientation are very important to
study
➔ Development is multidirectional
◆ some aspects of dimensions shrink
and some expand
● An infant’s reflex is sucking
but as the time goes by, it
shrinks and slows down.
➔ Development is plastic
◆ It has the capacity for change
➔ Development is multidisciplinary
◆ It involves the dynamic interaction of
factors like physical, emotional, and
psychosocial development.
◆ Human behavior, society,
characteristics, or how a person’s
behavior depends on social norms.
➔ Development is contextual
◆ a person acts on and responds to
contexts such as:
● Biological processes
● Sociocultural and
environmental experiences
● Historical circumstances
● Life events or unusual
circumstances impacting on
The specific individual
➔ Development involves growth, maintenance,
and regulation.
◆ A person has the capacity to
progress into an upward direction if
your brain or intelligence improves,
by simply using it.
Nature VS. Nurture
If both of your parents have high
intelligence, then most likely you’ll also be intelligent
but you have to be exposed with different
knowledge so that your potential would come out.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH
& DEVELOPMENT
➔ Growth and development is a continuous
process.
➔ All humans follow the same pattern of
growth and development.
◆ It is because we have developmental
norms, which refers to specific
characteristics where we can refer to
a specific developmental stage.
➔ The sequence of each stage is predictable
although the time of onset , the length of the
stage and the effects of each stage vary with
the person.
◆ We have developmental norms but it
is not the same with everyone. Some
have developed earlier and some are
not, but it is normal as long as it
follows the stages.
➔ Cephalocaudal principle
◆ Cephalo: Head Caudal: Tail
● It means that when a human
being is developed, it starts
from head to toe.
➔ Proximodistal principle
◆ It is the point of origin
◆ Proximo: nearer Distal: farther
● Development starts from
nearer/point of origin, which is
the brain and spinal cord,
going to other parts of the
body.
● Development starts from
gross motor skills to fine
motor skills.
➔ Development depends on maturation and
learning
◆ Exposure and influence of social
interaction is needed to acquire
knowledge.
➔ Development proceeds from through simple
(concrete to the more complex)
➔ Certain stages of growth and development
are more critical than others.
 ◆ Adolescence is critical because it
undergoes many changes, hormones
are raging. It is where many conflicts
or problems about ourselves arise.
➔ The pace of growth and development is
uneven.
◆ It is very evident in infants. When a
baby is born their head is bigger than
their body, but as the time goes by it
becomes even.
THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT
Processes in Development
➢ Development is the product of the interaction
of Biological, Cognitive and Socioemotional
processes
➢ Biological, Cognitive and Socioemotional
processes are overlapping/intertwined,
because when you go through changes,
your weight, your height, intelligence, how
you interact with other people and how you
manage emotions also change, therefore it
will develop you into having your own
distinct personality/characteristics.
PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal Period Conception to Birth
Infancy Birth to 18-24 months
Early Childhood 2-5 years
Middle and Late Childhood 6-11 years
Adolescence 10-12 to 18-21 years
Early Adulthood 20s - 30s
Middle Adulthood 35-45 to 60s
Late Adulthood 60s-70s to death
CONCEPTIONS OF AGE
Chronological Age
➔ Number of years since birth
Biological Age
➔ Age in terms of physical health
Psychological Age
➔ Adaptive capacity compared with others of
the same chronological age (emotions)
Social Age
➔ Social roles and expectations relative to
chronological age (expected behavior at an
expected age)
4 STAGES OF COITUS /
SEXUAL INTERCOURSE
1. Excitement
❖ A person may arouse sexually by
thoughts, fantasy, kissing, touching,
or masturbation that leads to
excitement and body gets ready for
sexual intercourse (warm up)
❖ Physiologically all are increasing:
➢ Increase in muscle tension
➢ Increase in heart rate and
breathing
➢ Flushing of skin
2. Plateau
❖ This is a stage of more intense
excitement, which extends to the
brink of orgasm that may not always
occur.
➢ There is an erection
➢ The changes that occurred in
phase 1 gets more intensified
➢ The woman’s clitoris
becomes highly sensitive
(even become painful to
touch) and retracts under the
clitoral hood to avoid direct
stimulation from the men’s
penis
➢ Men’s testicles tighten
❖ Breathing, heart rate, and blood
pressure increases in both partners
❖ Muscle tension and spasm increases
in the feet, face, and hands
❖ In this stage, foreplay is very
important.
3. Orgasm
❖ It is the climax or peak or apex of the
sexual response.
❖ In this phase, the tension that builds
during the sexual activity is released
in a series of muscle spasms,
especially in the groin area in rhythm,
and it sends a wave of pleasurable
feeling through the body.
 ❖ This is the shortest phase of all and
generally, lasts only for a few PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT & THE NEWBORN
seconds.
4. Resolution
❖ In this phase, body functions slowly
return to a normal level of
functioning, and swelled and erected
body parts return to their previous
state and color.

PRENATAL PERIOD
Fetal Stage
➢ Begins 9-38 weeks
➔ Conception to birth and last about 266 days ○ Placenta – is an organ that connects
(9 months) the blood supply of the mother to that
➔ It consist of three successive phases: of the fetus. It acts like a filter
◆ Germinal stage allowing oxygen and nutrients to
◆ Embryonic stage pass through while keeping out some
◆ Fetal stage toxic or harmful substances.
■ Teratogens
Germinal Stage ● agents, such as
➢ 1-2 weeks
chemicals and
➢ Ovulation – is the release of an ovum or egg
viruses, that can
cell from a woman’s ovaries.
reach the embryo or
➢ Conception or fertilization occurs if one of
fetus during prenatal
the millions of sperm penetrates the ovum’s
development and
outer membrane
cause harm
➢ Zygote
■ Fetal Alcohol Syndrome(FAS)
○ the fertilized egg
● physical and cognitive
○ enters a 2 week period of rapid cell
abnormalities in
division
children caused by a
○ develops into an embryo
pregnant woman’s
➢ Embryo
heavy drinking
○ the developing human organism from
● symptoms include
2 weeks through 2nd month.
misproportioned head
Embryonic Stage
➢ Is the second stage and spans the 3-8 Birth Defects and Amniocentesis
weeks ➢ Amniocentesis – is a medical test between
➢ Embryo weeks 14 and 20 of pregnancy, involving
○ Layers: inserting a long needle through the mother’s
■ Ectoderm (outer layer) hair abdominal muscles into the amniotic fluid
and skin surrounding the fetus.
■ Mesoderm (middle layer)
muscles and bones
■ Endoderm (inner layer)
digestive system and lungs
➢ This is the most critical stage because this is
where it starts to develop. That's why a
pregnant woman should always be careful at
this stage.
 INFANCY ➢ babble with monosyllabic sounds like
Birth to 18-24 Months da-ba-ka

REFLEXES 7-8 months

➢ crawl on their knees
➔ Reflexes are the first forms of
➢ sit without support
communication of a baby.
➔ Crying is the first sign that a baby is alive. 8-9 months
➢ sit by themselves
1. Babinski reflex ➢ good grip with the thumb, index finger
➢ inner sole is stroked - will respond by ➢ babbly with two syllabic sounds “mama or
curling his toes dada”
➢ It checks the baby’s neurological ➢ clapping hands
function
2. Rooting Reflex 9 months
➢ an infant is stroked, responds by ➢ hard time sitting from standing
turning his or head in the direction of ➢ look and play simple games (waving,
touch and opening their mouth for peek-a-boo)
feeding ○ Connected with Jean Piaget’s
➢ sensation sensorimotor, wherein they explore
3. Moro Reflex the world through senses. If they
➢ responds to sudden sounds by can’t see something then it doesn’t
throwing their arms and legs out exist for them.
➢ hearing ➢ slam two blocks against each other
4. Sucking Reflex ➢ can imitate you if you start
➢ something touches the roof of an ➢ extends the arms and hands in front of the
infant’s mouth hand when falling.
➢ feeding
5. Grasping reflex 10-12 months
➢ grasp anything that is placed in their ➢ walk alone or walk with support
palm. ➢ sit on their own
➢ put things in the mouth
4 months ➢ can say individual words such as “daddy or
➢ grasp object with entire hand mommy”.
➢ support the body with arms and elbows
when they are lying on the tummy. Early Childhood
➔ beginning – language, symbolic thought,
4-5 months
sensorimotor coordination, and social
➢ Coordinate arms and head movements
learning.
➢ examine things with their mother
➔ Physical: doubles in height and quadruples
5-6 months in weight.
➢ can sit ➔ Gross motor skills: large muscles – arms
➢ grasp an object, move it from one hand to and legs (walking, running, balance and
another. coordination).
➢ responds to communication by monosyllabic ➔ Fine motor skills: smaller muscles – fingers
or coos. and toes, eyes and other areas (drawing,
➢ answers to sound like babbling writing, grasping objects, throwing, waving
and catching)
6-7 months ➔ infant directed speech (baby talk)
➢ crawl alternately using both legs to move ➔ vocabulary : 3 yrs old (300-1,000 words)
forward ➔ 5 yrs old (1,000 -1,500 words)
➢ stand on both hands and legs at the same ➔ emotional attachment
time
 MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD
6 -11 years old
➔ the “elementary school years.”
➔ The fundamental skills of reading, writing,
and arithmetic are mastered.
➔ Achievement becomes a more central theme
of the child’s world, and self-control
increases.
➔ Integration development within the individual
and of individuals within social context.
➔ slow and steady until the onset of puberty.
➔ A best friend is important.
ADOLESCENCE
➔ approximately 10 to 12 years of age and
ending at about 18 to 22 years of age.
➔ Puberty development period between ages
of 9 and 17.
◆ Prepubescent (developed breast /
hairs)
◆ Pubescent (menstruation)
◆ Post Pubescent (normal reproductive
system)
➔ Puberty age:
◆ Girls 10.5 years old (2 yrs earlier)
◆ Boys 12.5 years old
➔ Physical growth:
◆ Girls 9.6 yrs old (6-12 yrs old)
◆ Boys 13 -14 years old
➔ Female sexual maturity:
◆ Menarche (first menstruation)
◆ Estrogen
➔ Male sexual maturity:
◆ Growth genital organs and testes,
penis
➔ Genital growth: 11.5 yrs old (9-16 yrs old
and continues through 3 years)
➔ Production and release of sperm cells: 12-14
yrs old.
➔ Secondary sex characteristics:
◆ Female: 10.5 (9-18 yrs old and
continuous for about 4.5 years)
◆ Male: 12 -16 yrs old
EARLY ADULTHOOD
➔ 20s to 30s
-LATE ADULTHOOD
➔ 60s – 70s to death
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
TOPICS
➔ Psychoanalytic Theories (Freud and
Erikson)
➔ Cognitive Theories (Piaget)
➔ Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
➔ theories that hold that development depends
primarily on the unconscious mind and is
heavily couched in emotion, that behavior is
merely a surface characteristic, that is
important to analyze the symbolic meanings
of behavior, and that early experiences are
important in development.
➔ Early experiences play a huge role in
personality development.
Sigmund Freud’s theory
➢ Each stage is marked by conflicts that can
help build growth or stifle development,
depending upon how they are resolved.
➢ Fixation can occur when a conflict in a
psychosexual stage remains unresolved,
leaving the individual focused on this stage
and unable to move onto the next.
➢ Psychosexual stages by Sigmund Freud
○ Oral: focus on the mouth, choking
hazard stage
○ Anal: focus on elimination, potty
training stage
○ Phallic: discovery of boy/girl
○ Latency: cootie stage
○ Genital: post-puberty
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Stage Age Source of Result of Fixation
Pleasure
Oral 1
Birth - 1 2 yrs Mouth Excessive smoking,
overeating, or
dependence on others

Anal 1
1 2 yrs - 3 yrs Bowel Movement Overly controlling
(anal-retentive)
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD personality or an easily
➔ 35-45 to 60s angered
(anal-expulsive)
 personality 10-20 yrs I am in tune with myself, vs I am Relationships
confused, a nobody
Phallic 3 to 6 yrs Genitals Guilt or anxiety about
sex Early Adulthood Intimacy vs Isolation Relationships
20s-30s I share who I am with special others
Latency 6 to puberty Sexuality is No fixations vs I am alone and I have nothing to
dormant share

Genital Puberty Sexual No fixations Middle Generativity vs Stagnation Work and

onwards Maturation Adulthood I am making a contribution vs it only Parenthood
40s-50s matters if it matters to me

Possible Links Between Adult Personality, Characteristics and Late Adulthood Integrity vs Despair Reflection on
65 to death This was my life and I am okay with Life
Fixation at Oral, Anal, and Phallic Stages it, vs I am filled with regret, I failed

Stage Adult Extension Sublimations Reaction COGNITIVE THEORIES

(Fixations) Formations

Oral Smoking, eating, Seeking knowledge, Speech purist, ➔ Cognitive Theories emphasize thinking,
kissing, oral humor, wit, sarcasm, food faddist,
hygiene, drinking, being a food or wine prohibitionist, reasoning, language, and other cognitive
chewing gum expert dislike of milk processes.
Anal Notable interest in Interest in painting or Extreme
one’s bowel sculpture, being overly disgust with Jean Piaget’s theory
movements, love of giving, great interest feces, fear of
bathroom humor, in statistics dirt,
extreme messiness prudishness, ➢ The theory that children construct their
irritability
understanding of the world and go through
Phallic Heavy reliance on Interest in poetry, love Puritanical four stages of cognitive development
masturbation, of love, interest in attitude toward
flirtatiousness, acting, striving for sex, excessive ○ Sensorimotor
expression of virility success modesty ○ Preoperational
○ Concrete Operational
Erik Erikson’s theory ○ Formal Operations
➢ Changes from stage to stage may occur
➢ Based on the idea that development through abruptly and kids will differ in how long they
life is a series of stages which are each are in each stage.
defined by a crisis or challenge.
➢ If a child doesn’t resolve a crisis in a PIAGET’S 4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
particular stage, they will have problems in
later stages.

8 STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Stage Developmental Struggles Important
Events

Infancy Trust vs Mistrust Feeding

1
Birth - 1 2 yrs I can trust others and thus myself,
vs. I can’t trust, my needs are
unworthy

Toddlerhood Autonomy vs Shame Toilet Training

1
1 2 yrs - 3 yrs and Doubt
“I am,” and “I can,” and that’s good,
vs “I can’t,” and “I am bad”

Early Childhood Initiative vs Guilt Exploration

Preschooler I can control my business vs what I
3 to 5 yrs do is bad Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
Middle & Late Industry Competence vs School
Childhood Inferiority ● Equilibrium - a state of mental balance,
I can make friends and do things when a child is able to use existing schemas
Elementary well vs nobody likes me and I’m
6 yrs to puberty stupid to explain what they understand
(assimilation).
Adolescence Identity vs Role Confusion Social
 ○ Schema - a concept or framework
that organizes and interprets
information (our idea of how the
world is)
➢ Equilibration: We adjust our ideas to make
sense of reality.
■ Assimilation
- Process of matching
external reality to an existing
cognitive structure
- uses old methods to a
situation.
■ Accommodation
- If there’s an inconsistency
between the learner’s
cognitive structure and the
thing being learned, the child
will reorganize her thoughts.
- realizes that not all methods
can be applicable to any
situation.
● Disequilibrium - when a child is unable to
use an existing schema to understand new
information to make sense of objects and
concepts.
- Believed that we are
driven or motivated to
learn when we are in
disequilibrium.
★ Cognition - All the mental activities
associated with thinking, knowing,
remembering, and communicating
★ Object Permanence - the awareness that
things continue to exist even when not
perceived
★ Conservation - the principle that properties
such as mass, volume, and number remain
the same despite changes in the forms of
objects
★ Egocentrism - the inability of the
preoperational child to take another’s point
of view (no sense of empathy or personal
space; “It’s all about Me”
BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL
COGNITIVE THEORIES
➔ Theories that hold that development can be
best described in terms of the behaviors
learned through interactions with the
environment.
◆ Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
◆ B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
◆ Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Theory
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning in Animals
➔ In his experiment, Pavlov used a bell as his
neutral stimulus. Whenever he gave food to
his dogs, he also rang a bell. After a number
of repeats of this procedure, he tried the bell
on its own. As you might expect, the bell on
its own now caused an increase in
salivation.
John B. Watson’s Classical Conditioning in Human
The Little Albert experiment presents an example of
how classical conditioning can be used to condition
an emotional response.
➢ Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that does not
initially elicit a response (the white rat).
➢ Unconditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that
elicits a reflexive response (the loud noise).
➢ Unconditioned Response: A natural reaction
to a given stimulus (fear).
➢ Conditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that elicits
a response after repeatedly being paired
with an unconditioned stimulus (the white
rat).
➢ Conditioned Response: The response
caused by the conditioned stimulus (fear).
In addition to demonstrating that emotional
responses could be conditioned in humans, Watson
and Rayner also observed that stimulus
generalization had occurred. After conditioning,
Albert feared not just the white rat, but a wide
variety of similar white objects as well. His fear
included other furry objects including Raynor's fur
coat and Watson wearing a Santa Claus beard.
Sequence of Stimulus Presentations to Albert
on Fourth Day of Testing
1. Blocks - played with blocks as usual
2. Rat - fearful withdrawal but no crying
3. Rat + Noise - fear and crying
4. Rat - fear and crying
5. Rat - fear, crying, and crawling away
6. Rabbit - fear, but less intense
7. Blocks - played as usual
8. Rabbit - same as #6
9. Rabbit - same as #6
10. Rabbit - some fear, but wanted to touch
rabbit
11. Dog - fearful
12. Dog + Noise - fear and crawling away
13. Blocks - normal playing
OPERANT CONDITIONING
B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
➔ The fundamental principle of behaviorism is
that rewarded behavior is likely to be
repeated.
➔ This is known as reinforcement in operant
conditioning
◆ Positive reinforcers – strengthen a
response by presenting a positive
stimulus after a response
◆ Negative reinforcer – strengthens a
response by removing an aversive
stimulus after a response
Social Cognitive Theory
Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
➔ learning by observing and imitating the
behavior of others
◆ The others whom we observe and
imitate are called models.
➔ Social learning theory says that people learn
social behaviors mainly through observation
and cognitive processing of information,
rather than through direct experience.
★ Vicarious conditioning – Learning the
consequences of an action by observing its
consequences for someone else is known.
➔ Bandura believes children observe and learn
aggression through many avenues, but the
three principal ones are:
1. Families: where adults use violence
2. Communities: where aggression is
considered to be a sign of manhood,
especially among males
3. Media: principally television and
internet
➔ Live Modeling - Observing models that are
physically present
STAGES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
1. Attention - The individual needs to pay
attention to the behavior and its
consequences and form a mental
representation of the behavior. For a
behavior to be imitated, it has to grab our
attention.
2. Retention - How well the behavior is
remembered. The behavior may be noticed,
but it is not always remembered, which
obviously prevents imitation.
3. Reproduction - This is the ability to perform
the behavior that the model has just
demonstrated. We see much behavior daily
that we would like to be able to imitate, but
this is not always possible.
4. Motivation - The will to perform the behavior.
The rewards and punishments that follow a
behavior will be considered by the observer.
 If the perceived rewards outweigh the
perceived costs (if there are any), then the
observer will more likely imitate the behavior.

Evaluating the Behavioral and

Socio Cognitive Theories
PHYSIOLOGICAL / BIOLOGICAL
➔ Here are some contributions of the BASES OF BEHAVIOR (10%)
behavioral and social cognitive theories:
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
◆ They emphasized the importance of
scientific research. ➔ The nervous system is a highly complex part
◆ They focus on the environmental of an animal that coordinates its actions and
determinants of behavior. sensory information by transmitting signals
◆ Bandura underscores the importance to and from different parts of its body.
of observational learning.
◆ Social cognitive theory emphasizes
person and cognitive factors.

➔ Here are criticisms of the behavioral and

social cognitive theories:

◆ Skinner’s theory places too little

emphasis on cognition
◆ The theories place too much
emphasis on environmental
determinants.
◆ They give inadequate attention to
developmental changes.
◆ Their consideration of human
spontaneity and creativity is too
mechanical and inadequate.
Divisions of the Nervous System
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) – is made
➢ Level 1: Self-Interest ➢ Preconventional up of the brain and spinal cord. It serves as
level the main processing center for the entire
➢ Level 2: Social Approval ➢ Conventional nervous system. The brain is the center of
level our thoughts, the interpreter of our external
➢ Level 3: Abstract Ideas ➢ Postconventional environment, and the origin of control over
level body movement.
 2. Peripheral Nervous System – is further
subdivided into the somatic division and
autonomic division:
➔ Somatic Nervous System –
activates/controls the voluntary
muscles
◆ has 31 pairs of spinal nerves
(nerves that carry motor and
sensory signals between the
spinal cord and the body).
◆ has 12 pairs of cranial nerves
(nerve fibers that carry
information into and out of the
brain stem).
➔ Autonomic Nervous System –
connects the glands, and organs
which are involuntary in nature.
The autonomic nervous system is further divided
into two:
1. Sympathetic Division
➢ Cluster of nerve cells or ganglia
which originates from the thoracic
and lumbar parts of the spinal cord.
➢ “Fight or Flight” response
➢ It assist the body during stressful and
threatening situation
➢ It speeds up the heart rate under
stressful condition
2. Parasympathetic Division
➢ Consists of nerve cells that originate
from the brain and sacral nerves of
the spinal cord
➢ controls the body's ability to relax. It's
sometimes called the "rest and
digest" state
➢ It slows down the heart rate or calms
and relaxes the person
NEURON
● The neuron is the basic building block of the
nervous system, which is the body’s primary
communication network.
● The nervous system gathers and processes
information from the environment and allows
you to act on the environment.
● The neuron’s basic task is to communicate
within and with other neurons.
● Neurons vary greatly in size and shape,
depending on their specialized function:
○ Human brain ≅ 100 billion neurons
○ brain tissue ≅ rice grain -10,000
neurons
● Neurons are simple “cheap” structures, but
highly specialized
FIVE BASIC COMPONENTS OF NEURON
1. Dendrites
➔ receive information from other
neurons
➔ In Greek, dendrites mean branches,
hence, they are like extensive tree
branches.
➔ The more branches, the more
information a neuron can receive.
2. Cell Body
➔ The soma, or more commonly
referred to as the cell body, sums
and subtracts the information it
receives from the dendrites.
➔ It also contains the nucleus, which
provides energy for neurons to carry
out their function
3. Axon
➔ The Axon sends messages to other
neurons and parts of body (ie.
glands, muscles).
➔ Unlike the dendrites, there is only
one axon, which varies in length (a
few thousandths of inch from base of
spine to big toe).
4. Myelin Sheath
➔ To help transmit the message or
action potential down the axon,
“myelin sheath” insulates the axon.
➔ Myelinated axons speed neuronal
transmission by about 15 times.
➔ Most neurons are myelinated,
however, not all.

5. Axon Terminals
➔ At the end of the axon are axon
terminals or terminal buttons.
➔ They contain neurotransmitters
Types of Neurons
➔ Sensory Neurons – picks up the stimuli
(nerve impulse) and carries it to the spinal
cord and brain.
➔ Interneurons- Found within the brain and
spinal cord. Relays the message between
the sensory neurons and the motor neurons.
➔ Motor Neurons – transfers impulses away
from the brain to the spinal cord
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
➔ Neurotransmitters are chemical
messengers that cross the small space
between two neurons called the synapse.
➔ Then the neurotransmitters attach to
receptor sites (on the dendrites) of the
surrounding neurons.
➔ These are the chemicals in the brain that
doctors often refer to people with mental
illnesses as having “chemical imbalances.”
➔ What they are essentially saying is that
there is either too much or too little of a
particular chemical or neurotransmitter
needed for optimal health.
TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
1. Inhibitory - effects on the neuron. This
means they decrease the likelihood that the
neuron will fire an action. Modulatory
➢ Examples: GABA, Glycine,
Serotonin, Dopamine
2. Excitatory - effects on the neuron. This
means they increase the likelihood that the
neuron will fire an action potential.
➢ Examples: Adrenaline, Glutamate
Different Neurotransmitters and their Functions
➢ Adrenaline
★ Adrenaline is primarily a hormone
released by the adrenal gland, but
some neurons may secrete it as a
neurotransmitter
★ It increases heart rate and blood
flow, leading to a physical boost and
heightened awareness
★ It is produced during stressful or
exciting situations
➢ Dopamine
★ It is primarily responsible for feelings
of pleasure, but is also involved in
movement and motivation
★ People tend to repeat behaviors that
lead to dopamine release, leading to
addictions
★ Abnormal dopamine secretion is
common in specific movement
disorders, like Parkinson’s disease
➢ Serotonin
★ Contributes to feelings of well-being
and happiness
★ Is affected by exercise and light
exposure, and plays a role in the
sleep cycle and digestive system
regulation
➢ GABA
★ Inhibits neuron firing in the CNS –
high levels improve focus whereas
low levels cause anxiety
★ Also contributes to motor control and
vision
➢ Acetylcholine
★ Involved in thought, learning and
memory within the brain
★ Activates muscle contraction in the
body and is also associated with
attention and awakening
➢ Glutamate
★ Most common brain neurotransmitter
★ Regulates development and creation
of new nerve pathways and hence is
involved in learning and memory
 ➢ Endorphins
BIOPSYCHOLOGY: ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN
★ Release is associated with feelings
of euphoria and a reduction in pain The Brain
(body’s natural ‘pain killers’) ➔ an organ located within the skull that
★ Released during exercise, functions as an organizer and distributor
excitement and happiness of information for the body.
➔ most complex organ of the body
➢ Norepinephrine ➔ Only weighs 1,300 grams
➔ Contains billions of neural networks that
★ Released as a hormone into the
interact to create human behavior
blood, where it causes blood vessels
to contract and heart rate to
increase.
★ Norepinephrine plays a role in mood
disorders such as manic depression.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

➔ The ductless gland that works with the

nervous system and controls the bodily
functions and behavior by maintaining the
biochemical balance in the body
Some Common Glands :
1. Pituitary Gland - The pituitary gland is a
small pea-sized gland that plays a major role
in regulating vital body functions and general
wellbeing. It is referred to as the body’s
‘master gland’ because it controls the activity
of most other hormone-secreting glands.
2. Thyroid Gland - The thyroid gland is an
endocrine gland in your neck. It makes two
hormones that are secreted into the blood:
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
These hormones are necessary for all the
cells in your body to work normally.
Three main sections:
1. Cerebrum
2. Cerebellum
3. Brainstem
The Cerebrum
➔ Controls conscious activities, intelligence,
memory, language, and muscles.
➔ Largest part and controls voluntary
actions, speech, senses, and thoughts.
➔ Wrinkled with countless folds and grooves
and covered with an outer layer of gray
matter called the cerebral cortex.
◆ Cerebral Cortex is only 8” thick and
carries out sophisticated processes
like thought and language. It is
divided into 4 sections called lobes

3. Adrenal Glands - Adrenal glands produce

hormones that help regulate your
metabolism, immune system, blood
pressure, response to stress, and other
essential functions. It is also the gland that
secretes adrenaline and epinephrine.

4. Gonads - They are the sex organs and
include the male testes and female ovaries.
Their main role is the production of steroid
hormones. The testes produce androgens,
which allow for the development of
secondary sex characteristics and the
production of sperm cells.
Four lobes of the Brain:
➔ Frontal lobe - Located at the front of both
cerebral hemispheres. Complex
Functioning personality, judgment, insight,
reasoning, problem-solving, abstract
thinking, and working memory/voluntary
movement
➔ Parietal Lobe - Located behind the frontal
lobe. Spatial orientation, perception, and
comprehension of language function
recognizing object by touch
➔ Occipital Lobe - Visual processing area
➔ Temporal lobe - Located at each side of
the brain. Involved in receiving and
processing auditory/hearing information,
higher-order visual information, complex
aspects of memory, and language.
◆ Corpus Callosum - a band of
fibers that connect the two
hemispheres of the cerebral
cortex, allowing them to exchange
information.
➢ 2 Hemispheres
○ Right Hemisphere - responsible for
the left side of the body, Performs
tasks that have to do with creativity
and arts.
○ Left Hemisphere - responsible for
the right side of the body, Performs
logical activity.
● Gyri/Gyrus - brain folds/ ridge on the
surface area of the cerebrum. The more
folds, the more space for the neurons to
contain information.
● Sulci/Sulcus - a shallow indention in the
cerebral cortex. It surrounds a gyrus (pl.
gyri), creating the characteristic folded
appearance of the brain
● Fissures - The larger sulci or the deep
indentations in the cerebral cortex
The Cerebellum
➔ Little brain
➔ Scrotum-like structure found in the brain
➔ Muscle movements, posture, and balance.
➔ Muscle coordination is developed here as
well as the memory of physical skills.
➔ If the cerebellum is injured, your
movements become jerky.
➔ When you see an amazing athlete
perform, you are watching a well-trained
cerebellum at work.
◆ Korsakoff’s syndrome - is a
memory disorder that results from
vitamin B1 deficiency and is
associated with alcoholism. It
damages the cerebellum by
shrinking it.
The Brainstem
➢ Sometimes called the reptilian brain,
because it resembles the entire brain of a
reptile.
➢ Made up of the medulla oblongata, pons,
and midbrain.
○ Medulla oblongata controls
involuntary activities such as heart
rate and breathing
○ Pons and midbrain act as
pathways connecting various parts
of the brain with each other.
❖ Pons - links the cortex with the
cerebellum. Neurons within the pons are
associated with facial expressions and eye
movements.
❖ Midbrain - forwards sensory impulses from
the spinal cord to other parts of the brain
and controls reflex responses to certain
stimuli.
The Limbic System
➔ The emotional center of the brain or the seat
of emotion.
➔ It is part of the brain that is involved in our
behavioral and emotional responses,
especially when it comes to behaviors we
need for survival: feeding, reproduction, and
caring for our young, and fight or flight
responses.
4 MAIN PARTS OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
1. Amygdala
➔ mediates and controls major affective
mood states such as friendship, love,
affection, fear, rage, and aggression.
➔ It’s working with the hippocampus, it
generates emotions from perceptions
and thoughts; it also plays a role in
the sense of smell.
2. Hippocampus
➔ Memory, particularly the ability to turn
short-term memory into long-term
memory. Alzheimer’s disease.
3. Thalamus
 ➔ filters sensory information, controls
mood states and body movement
associated with emotive states
➔ deals with all senses except smell.
4. Hypothalamus
➔ ‘Central control’ for the pituitary
gland. Regulates autonomic,
emotional, endocrine, and somatic
functions. Has a direct involvement in
stress and mood states.
The Hind Brain
★ Pons
○ Relay station between cerebrum and
cerebellum
★ Medulla oblongata
○ Conscious control of skeletal
muscles, balance, coordination
regulating sound impulses in the
inner ear, regulation of automatic
responses such as heart rate,
swallowing, vomiting, coughing and
sneezing
★ Reticular Formation
○ Important in arousal and maintaining
consciousness, alertness attention
and Reticular Activating System
which controls all cyclic functions i.e.
respiration, circadian rhythm.
SENSATION & PERCEPTION (5%)
SENSATION
➔ The process of accepting or receiving the
stimulus by the 5 senses
◆ Stimulus is any form of energy that
can cause awareness or change.
◆ Receptors are specialized cells of the
sense organs responsible for
detecting or responding to the
stimulus as a result of Transduction.
Five Sense Organs
1. EYES
2. NOSE
3. SKIN
4. TASTE BUDS
5. EARS
➢ Transduction
○ turning outside stimuli into neural
activity
➢ Sensory Thresholds JND
○ Just Noticeable Difference or the
difference threshold
○ the smallest difference b/w 2 stimuli
that are detectable 50% of the time
➢ Absolute Thresholds
○ the smallest amount of energy
needed for a person to consciously
detect a stimulus 50% of the time it is
present
○ Example of Absolute threshold
■ Sense: sight → Threshold: a
candle flame at 30 miles on a
clear dark night
■ Sense: taste → Threshold: 1
teaspoon of sugar in 2
gallons of water
■ Sense: touch → Threshold: a
bee's wing falling on the
cheek from 1 cm above
Subliminal Perception
➔ the process by which subliminal stimuli act
upon the unconscious mind.
Habituation
➔ the tendency of the brain to stop attending to
constant, unchanging info Sensory
Adaptation
➔ the tendency of sensory receptor cells to
become less responsive to an unchanging
stimulus
Microsaccades
➔ constant movement of eyes, tiny little
vibrations that people do not notice
consciously.
SIGHT
Light’s Path to Eye
1. light enters through the cornea and pupil
2. iris controls the size of the pupil
3. from the pupil, light passes through the lens
to → retina
4. here it is transformed into nerve impulses
 PARTS OF THE EYES 5 basic tastes
➢ Cornea ➔ Sweet
○ it clears the membrane that covers ➔ Sour
the surface of the eye. ➔ Salty
○ Functions as the protection of the ➔ Bitter
eye and focuses the light coming in ➔ Brothy or Unami
happening
➢ Aqueous Humor TOUCH/SKIN
○ visual layer below cornea that
supplies nourishment to the eye ➔ touch - pressure - temperature - pain
➢ Pupil ➔ Gate-control theory – pain signal must pass
○ a hole through which light from the through a gate located in spinal cord
visual image enters the interior of the
eye.
Perception
➢ Iris
○ around the muscle (colored part of
➔ Is the process of interpreting or giving
the eye) that contains the pupil. It
meaning to the stimulus received by the
changes the size of the pupil.
senses.
➢ Retina
○ final stop for light
The stimulus received by the receptors of the sense
organs depends upon 5 factors:
EARS/HEARING
I. Quality of the stimulus
The path of sound from the ear to brain II. Quantity or intensity of the stimulus
★ Pinna → auditory canal (tympanic III. Timing or Distinctiveness
membrane ) → eardrum(hammer, anvil, IV. Location of the stimulus source
stirrup) → cochlea → Organ of Corti (hair V. Difference in Perception
receptor cells) → Auditory Nerve
Size Constancy
○ Place Theory – states different ➔ tendency to interpret an object as always
pitches are experienced by being the same actual size. Distance doesn’t
stimulation of hair cells in diff. matter
locations of the organ of Corti.
○ Frequency Theory – states that
pitch is related to the speed of
vibrations in the basilar membrane

Nerve hearing impairment results

from damage of:

1. inner ear
2. auditory pathways
3. cortical areas of the brain

Conduction hearing impairment

results from damage of:

1. eardrum

LEARNING, MEMORY,
2. bones of the middle ear

TASTE/TONGUE & INTELLIGENCE (10%)

The ability to perform the selected tasks by complex
learning and thinking

LEARNING

➔ a relatively permanent change in behavior

that results from practice; behavior changes
that are due to maturation rather than
practice or to temporary states such as
(drug-induced states or fatigue are not
included)
B.F Skinner
➔ an American psychologist best known for his
Basic Kinds of Learning
influence on behaviorism. Skinner referred
to his own philosophy as ‘radical
1. Habituation behaviorism’ and suggested that the concept
➔ the simplest kind of learning in which of free will was simply an illusion. All human
the organism learns to ignore a action, he instead believed, was the direct
stimulus that has become familiar result of conditioning. Best known for
and has no serious consequences Operant Conditioning and Skinner Box
◆ Ex: Learning to ignore the Positive and Negative Reinforcements
ticking of the clock

2. Classical Conditioning
➔ in which an organism learns that one
stimulus follows another
◆ Ex: A baby learns that the
sight of mother’s breast will
be followed by the taste of
milk
3. Operant Conditioning
➔ in which an organism learns that a
John B. Watson
particular response leads to a
➔ a pioneering psychologist who played an
particular consequence.
important role in developing behaviorism.
◆ Ex: a dog trainer gives his
Watson believed that psychology should
dog a treat every time the dog
primarily be scientific observable behavior.
raises its left paw
He is remembered for his research on the
conditioning process, as well as the Little
Ivan Pavlov
➔ A Russian physiologist best known in Albert experiment
psychology for his discovery of classical
conditioning. During his studies on the
digestive systems of dogs, Pavlov noted that
the animals salivated naturally upon the
presentation of food. However, he also noted
that the animals began to salivate whenever
they saw the white lab coat of an
experimental assistant. It was through this
observation that Pavlov discovered that by
associating the presentation of food with the
lab assistant, a conditioned response
occurred.
KINDS OF INTELLIGENCE TEST
 1. Stanford-Binet Test and the Measurement of
Intelligence
➔ Scales are designed to measure five
factors of cognitive ability. These five
factors include fluid reasoning,
knowledge, quantitative reasoning,
visual-spatial processing and working
memory.
2. The Wechsler Test
➔ a scale designed to test the
intelligence of adults. It has both
verbal and performance items.
INTELLIGENCE LEVELS
Gardner – Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Gardner proposes 7 different intelligences:
➢ Linguistic Intelligence
○ Involves sensitivity to spoken and
written language, the ability to learn
languages, and the capacity to use
language to accomplish certain
goals. This intelligence includes the
ability to effectively use language to
express oneself rhetorically or
poetically; and language as a means
to remember information. Writers,
poets, lawyers, and speakers are
among those that Howard Gardner
sees as having high linguistic
intelligence.
➢ Logical-mathematical Intelligence
○ Consists of the capacity to analyze
problems logically, carry out
mathematical operations and
investigate issues scientifically. In
Howard Gardner’s words, it entails
the ability to detect patterns, reason
deductively, and think logically. This
intelligence is most often associated
with scientific and mathematical
thinking.
➢ Musical Intelligence
○ Involves skill in the performance,
composition, and appreciation of
musical patterns. It encompasses the
capacity to recognize and compose
musical pitches, tones, and rhythms.
According to Howard Gardner,
musical intelligence runs in an almost
structural parallel to linguistic
intelligence.
➢ Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence
○ Entails the potential of using one’s
whole body or parts of the body to
solve problems. It is the ability to use
mental abilities to coordinate bodily
movements. Howard Gardner sees
mental and physical ability as
related.
➢ Spatial Intelligence
○ Involves the potential to recognize
and use the patterns of wide space
and more confined areas.
➢ Interpersonal Intelligence
○ Is concerned with the capacity to
understand the intentions,
motivations, and desires of other
people.
○ It allows people to work effectively
with each other.
○ Educators, salespeople, religious
and political leaders, and counselors
all need well-developed interpersonal
intelligence.
➢ Intrapersonal Intelligence
○ Entails the capacity to understand
oneself, to appreciate one’s feelings,
fears and motivations. In Howard
Gardner’s view it involves having an
 effective working model of ourselves,
➢ The Danish psychologist Carl Lange
and being able to use such
independently proposed the same idea, and
information to regulate our lives.
the theory therefore became known as the
James-Lange Theory of Emotions.
Other Intelligence:
➢ Experience of emotion is awareness of
physiological responses to emotion-arousing
➢ Spatial Intelligence
stimuli.
○ Most intelligence can be grouped into
1 or 3 clusters… abstract, concrete,
or social intelligence.
○ Social intelligence
(Thorndike): ability to understand and
relate to people.
○ Emotional intelligence has its roots in
social intelligence.
The Schachter-Singer two factor THEORY (1962)
Learning Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer
➔ is the process of acquiring new
understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, ➢ Theory Bodily Changes are not sufficient to
values, and preferences create the emotional experience, the
interpretation or appraisal of the
Types of Learning circumstances that accompanied the arousal
★ Habituation: repeated exposure to was also of paramount importance.
something reduces the response, e.g. ➢ It explains that emotion is formed from
nursing baby. physiological arousal and a cognitive label.
★ Classical conditioning This theory also explains that a person's
★ Operant Conditioning emotional response is formed
○ Positive reinforcement ➢ from an interpretation of their immediate
○ Negative Reinforcement environment.
○ Punishment

EMOTION AND MOTIVATION (5%)

EMOTION

➔ It comes from the Latin root e and movere

meaning “to move” or “to migrate”. This
etymology captures the subjective
experience of being moved, touched or
transported when one feels an emotion.
𝑡ℎ
James-Lange Theory (19 Century)
William James / Carl Lange
➢ When we experience an emotion, we may
tremble or perspire, our heart may thump in
our chest, we may laugh or weep helplessly.
This became a vital point in James’ theory of
emotion, that emotion is the perception of
changes in our body as we react to the object
of emotion.
Cannon-Bard theory (1920 - EARLY 1930 )
Walter B. Cannon and Philip Bard
➢ It is also known as the Thalamic theory of
emotion, that states that we feel emotions and
experience physiological reactions such as
sweating, trembling, and muscle tension
simultaneously.
➢ It is suggested that emotions result when the
thalamus sends a message to the brain in
response to a stimulus, resulting in a
physiological reaction.
➢ We react to a stimulus and experience the
associated emotion at the same time. The
physical reactions are not dependent upon
the emotional reaction, or vice versa.
APPRAISALS EMOTIONS

Loss of loved one Sorrow

Threat Fear

Obstacle Anger

Potential mate Joy

Group member Trust

Gruesome Object Disgust

New Territory Anticipation

Sudden events Surprise

eLEMENTS OF EMOTION

1. Subjective, Cognitive Experience

➔ Thinking of life events can produce emotions
2. Physiological changes
➔ Affects autonomic nervous system (glands
and muscles)
◆ Ex., fear may cause blood pressure
to rise, pupils to dilate, etc.
3. Behavioral changes
➔ Overt expressions such as clenched fists,
smiles, or frowns
➔ Body language can reveal emotions

Facial Expressions

➔ Paul Ekman (left) and Wallace Friesen

◆ Facial expressions can reveal a
variety of basic emotions

➔ Six fundamental emotions identified:

happiness, anger, sadness, surprise,
disgust, fear
➔ Estimated facial muscles can create more
than 7000 different expressions
➔ Cross-cultural comparisons revealed same
expressions common around world
◆ Concluded biological link exists
between emotion and facial
expression

Plutchik’s Eight Primary Emotions

and Their Associated Appraisals
 Areas of Emotion
Content versus Process Motivation Theories

The Limbic System ★ Content theories

➢ The emotional center of the brain or the
seat of emotion.
➢ It is part of the brain that is involved in our
behavioral and emotional responses,
especially when it comes to behaviors we
need for survival: feeding, reproduction,
and caring for our young, and fight or flight
responses.
4 MAIN PARTS OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
1. Amygdala
➔ mediates and controls major affective
mood states such as friendship, love,
affection, fear, rage, and aggression.
➔ It’s working with the hippocampus, it
generates emotions from perceptions and
thoughts; it also plays a role in the sense
of smell.
➔ Explain why people have different
needs at different times
➔ It is a subset of motivational theories
that try to define what motivates
people.
➔ It is often described as a system of
needs that motivate peoples' actions.
★ Process theories
➔ Describe the processes through
which needs are translated into
behavior
➔ It explains why behaviors are
initiated.
➔ These theories focus on the
mechanism by which we choose a
target, and the effort that we exert to
“hit” the target.

2. Hippocampus
➔ Memory, particularly the ability to turn
short-term memory into long-term
memory. Alzheimer’s disease.

3. thalamus
➔ filters sensory information, controls
mood states and body movement
associated with emotive states
➔ deals with all senses except smell.

4. Hypothalamus
➔ ‘Central control’ for the pituitary gland.
Regulates autonomic, emotional,
endocrine, and somatic functions. Has a Content Theories of Motivation
direct involvement in stress and mood
states. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Harold Maslow

➔ Each individual has needs, or feelings of

deficiency that drive their behavior
MOTIVATION
➔ Once a need is satisfied, then it is no
longer motivating
➔ Any influence that triggers, directs or ➔ Needs are in a hierarchy that an individual
maintains behavior moves up as they satisfy levels of needs
➔ It describes why a person does something. It
is the driving force behind human actions.
➔ It is the process that initiates, guides, and
maintains goal-oriented behaviors.

Level of Needs
1. Physiological/Survival needs
➔ Food, Clothing, Shelter, Air
2. Security
➔ Feel safe, absence of pain, threat,
or illness
3. Love and Belonging
➔ friendship, company, love,
belonging
➔ first clear step up from physical
needs
4. Esteem Needs
➔ self-respect, achievement,
recognition, prestige
➔ cues a person’s worth
5. Self-Actualization
➔ personal growth, self-fulfillment,
realization of full potential
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Clayton Paul Alderfer
➔ Consolidates Maslow into 3 categories
◆ Existence-physiological and
security
◆ Relatedness-affiliation
◆ Growth-esteem and
self-actualization
➔ It is built on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
and states that humans have three core
types of need: Existence, Relatedness
and Growth.
Mclelland’s learned Needs
David Clarence McClelland
➔ Needs are acquired through interaction
with the environment.
➔ Their motivations and behaviors are
shaped by the strength and blend of their
specific needs.
➔ It says that everyone is driven by one of
three needs — achievement, affiliation or
power.
➔ Not a higher hierarchy, but degrees of
each type of need or motive:
◆ Need for Achievement - motive to
meet some standard of excellence
or to compete
◆ Need for Affiliation - motive to
develop and maintain close and
meaningful relationships
◆ Need for Power - desire to
influence and control others and
the environment
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Frederick Herzberg
➔ It argues that there are separate sets of
mutually exclusive factors in the workplace
that either cause job satisfaction or
dissatisfaction.
➔ To Herzberg, motivators (satisfiers)
ensured job satisfaction, while a lack of
hygiene (dissatisfiers) factors spawned job
dissatisfaction.
➔ Herzberg believed that proper
management of hygiene factors could
prevent employee dissatisfaction, but that
these factors could not serve as a source
of satisfaction or motivation.

PERSONALITY (10%) AND
APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY (10%)
PERSONALITY
➔ The term personality has several definitions.
In everyday language, the word personality
refers to one's social skills, charisma, and
popularity.
➔ However, scientists use the term to mean
more than a person's persona, or public
image. To them, personality is a pattern of
relatively permanent traits or characteristics
that give some consistency to a person's
behavior.
Overview of Personality
Theory of Personality theorists (1) make
controlled observations of human behavior and
(2) speculate on the meaning of those
observations. Differences in theories are due to
more than differences in terminology; they stem
from differences among theorists on basic issues
concerning the nature of humanity.
Four Personality Perspectives
1. Psychoanalytic or Psychodynamic
Perspective
2. Trait Perspective
3. Humanistic Perspective
4. Social Cognitive/Cognition Perspective
Psychoanalytic Views on Personality
Sigmund Freud believed that personality is
made up of three components;
The id is our impulse energy. It is responsible for
all our needs (nourishment, appreciation) and
urges (sexual instinct, hate, love and envy).
According to Freud, the id seeks immediate
satisfaction of our needs without referring to logic
or morals. It is demanding, impulsive, blind,
irrational, antisocial, selfish and lust oriented –
our most primal instinct.
The superego, or conscience, represents
morality as well as the norms of society. It
contains all the ideals for which an individual
strives and makes us feel guilty if we fall short of
these standards. The superego essentially is our
standard of perfection – the person we want to
be. While the id strives for pleasure and the
superego for perfection.
The ego acts to moderate the two. It works on the
reality principle, mediating the competing
demands of the id and the superego and
choosing the most realistic solution for the long
term.
Suppose, for instance, that you had a desire
to splurge your paycheck on drinks and partying.
That's your id talking. The superego would be
yelling that your idea is foolish and immoral, and
you're a bad person for even thinking it. The ego
will balance your desire for instant gratification
and your desire for responsibility by figuring out a
sensible, rainy-day savings plan with enough left
over for some fun on the weekend.
Psychoanalysis and the Unconscious Mind
Freud also emphasized the importance of
early childhood experiences on the development
of personality. He believed that analyzing the
harms of the past could unlock a person's
development in the future. The harms, Freud
believed, were mostly caused by parents during
the person's childhood.
Freud's views do not meet with absolute
approval, and many critics have questioned the
scientific foundation of his work. However, it
remains a foundation of modern psychoanalysis,
where people regress or go deeper into their
unconscious personality to resolve the conflicts
they're facing.
Trait Theory of Personality
According to the trait theory, personality
is made up of a number of stable characteristics,
or traits, that cause a person to act in a certain
way. These traits are the blueprint for how we
behave.
Examples: Introversion, sociability,
aggressiveness, submissiveness, loyalty and
ambition.
Perhaps the most scientific of all the trait theories,
in the sense that an impressive body of research
supports it, is the five-factor model, more typically
known as the Big Five. According to this theory,
personality is made up of five broad areas or
factors:
1. Openness, or how open-minded you are
and how much you like to try new things.
2. Conscientiousness or how reliable,
organized and diligent you are.
3. Extraversion (this is spelled with an "a" in
personality psychology), or whether you
draw energy from interaction with others.
People who score low on extraversion
(introverts) gain energy from inside
themselves. Extraverts gain energy from
people. They tend to be assertive and
have the gift of the gab.
4. Agreeableness or how friendly, tolerant
and compassionate you are.
5. Neuroticism, which refers to emotional
instability and the level of negative
emotions a person has. People with high
levels of neuroticism tend to be moody
and tense.
According to the Big Five, we all have these traits
to a greater or lesser degree, and the dimensions
combine in different ways to form an individual's
unique personality. Similar trait-based theories
include Eysenck's Three Dimensions of
Personality, Cattell's 16PF Trait Theory (which
identifies 16 personality traits), the Myers Briggs
Type Indicator and the DiSC profile.
Humanistic Views on Personality
The key agent of the humanist movement is
Abraham Maslow. Maslow believed that
personality was not a matter of nature or nurture
but of personal choice. Specifically, he suggested
that people possess free will and are motivated to
pursue the things that will help them reach their
full potential as human beings.
Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs which
typically is displayed as a pyramid. The bottom
tier of the pyramid is made up of the most basic
needs: food, water, sleep and shelter. These
needs are so important that people act to meet
them before doing anything else. Once those
needs are met, people can move through the
other levels of the pyramid, meeting the needs of
safety, belonging and self-esteem until they reach
the final level: self-actualization. Self-actualization
is the process of developing and growing in order
to reach your true potential. This, said Maslow, is
a key motivator of human behavior
The humanistic perspective emphasized the
importance of using free will to become the best
human a person can possibly be. It is different
from the other theories in believing that people
are fundamentally good. People are always
looking for new ways to improve, learn and grow,
say the humanists, and it's these choices that
determine our personality and behavior.
Social Cognition/cognitive Theory
Social cognition theory views personality through
the lens of our social interactions, so instead of
developing in a black box, our personality traits
interact with our environment to influence
behavior. This gives a much clearer view of the
effect that other people have on our personalities.
The pioneer of social cognition theory is a
scientist named Albert Bandura. He argued that
when people see someone gaining benefit from a
certain behavior, they copy that behavior in order
to earn a similar reward. His famous experiment
saw a child being rewarded with a doll for
punching a doll. When other children were shown
the video, they acted in a similarly aggressive
way to earn a reward. Thus, personality traits (in
this case aggression) may be learned.
Sikolohiyang Pilipino / Being Filipino
Filipino Values and Traits
Tourists who have visited the Philippines
can never forget the big and bright smiles that
greeted them, the colorful and loud jeepneys, the
common Filipino phrases such as “Mabuhay!” and
“Salamat!” and habits such as “po” and “opo” to
the elders, leaving shoes or slippers at the front
door before entering a house, and the
importunate asking of “Kumain ka na ba?”
meaning “Have you eaten yet?”.
Positive Filipino Traits and Values
1. Filipino Hospitality - A Filipino trait that is
known everywhere is the Filipino’s brand
of hospitality.
2. Respect for Elders - Filipinos greet their
elders by kissing their hand while saying
“Mano po!” and constantly using “po” and
“opo” in conversations
3. Cheerful Filipino Personality - Filipinos
have a habit of smiling and laughing a lot.
They smile when they are happy, or
sometimes even when they are sad or
angry.
4. Close Family Ties - Filipinos maintain a
tight relationship with their families
regardless if the children are old enough
and already have families of their own.
5. Self-Sacrifice - Can be seen as an
extension of Filipino Hospitality. Filipinos
go out of their way to extend help to their
friends, families, and loved ones.
6. Bayanihan - Is the spirit of communal unity
and cooperation of Filipinos. It is also
giving without expecting something in
return.
Filipino Traits and Values
1. Bahala Na Attitude - The Filipino version
of the famous line “Hakuna
Matata”Meaning leaving everything into
God’s Hands.
2. Colonial Mentality - Regarded as the lack
of patriotism and the attitude where
Filipinos favor foreign products more than
their own.
3. Mañana Habit - Filipino term for
procrastination. Derived from a longer
Filipino phrase called “Mamaya Na”
meaning dawdling things, which could
have been done at an earlier time.
4. NingasKugon - Refers to the attitude of
eagerly startings but quickly losing
eagerness soon after experiencing
difficulty.
5. Crab Mentality - Just like crabs in a
container, they pull each other down and
ruin each other’s reputation rather than
bringing them up, resulting in no progress.
6. Filipino Time - Arriving late commitments,
dinner, or parties especially if they are
meeting someone close to them. They
tend not to observe punctuality.
Filipino Markers
1. Proverbs or Salawikain - are sayings that
convey lessons and reflections on Filipino
practices, beliefs and traditions.
2. Superstitions - Some of these may be
influenced by beliefs from other cultures.
but Filipinos have retold these
superstitions according to their own
experiences which is more interesting.
3. Myths and Legends - These stories are
aimed to explain the origin of things, at the
same time, teach a valuable lesson.
4. Heroes and Icons - Serves as a reminder
of true patriotism and nationalism as they
have sacrificed their lives for the sake of
their country’s freedom and progress.
Example: Manny Pacquiao & Lea Salonga
How to be a good Filipino
1. Be an active Filipino Citizen
2. Study the Philippine History
3. Support local products
4. Speak the Filipino language
5. Do not spread fake news and be
democratic in engaging with dissent
APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY
Guidance and Counseling
➢ According to the American Counseling
Association, it is defined as, "a professional
relationship that empowers diverse
individuals, families, and groups to
accomplish mental health, wellness,
education, and career goals."
➢ Counseling involves helping people make
needed changes in ways of thinking, feeling,
and behaving, and is a goal-based
collaborative process, involving a
non-judgmental, supportive counselor who
works with a client in telling his or her story,
setting viable goals, and developing
strategies and plans necessary to
accomplish these goals.
➢ The process of helping individuals discover
and develop their educational, vocational,
and psychological potentialities and thereby
to achieve an optimal level of personal
happiness and social usefulness.
Basis for Guidance Guidance Counseling
Comparison
Meaning It refers to an Counseling refers to
advice or a professional advice
relevant piece of given by a counselor
information to an individual to
 provided by a help him in
superior, to overcoming ➔ The chief responsibility for guidance
resolve a personal or rests upon the home and the school.
problem or psychological ➔ In the school every member of the
overcome from problems. staff is concerned with the guidance
difficulty of the students entrusted to him.
➔ Trained counselors are essential to
Nature Preventive Remedial and
Curative assist parents and other members of
the staff in their guidance
Approach Comprehensive In-depth and responsibilities and to deal directly
and Extroverted Introverted with special problems of youth.
What it It assists the It tends to change Functions of Guidance and Counseling
does? person in the perspective, to
choosing the help him get the
➢ LEAD
best alternative. solution.
➢ ASSIST
Deals with Education and Personal and socio ➢ COUNSEL
career related psychological issues ➢ GUIDE
issues. ➢ REGULATE
Provided Any person A person who
by superior or possesses a high Criticism of Guidance and Counseling
expert level of skill and
professional training.
➢ The word GUIDANCE is questionable. It
Privacy Open and less Confidential conveys direction and authoritarianism, the
private. very opposite of what practitioners claim
they practice.
Mode One to one or One to one
➢ Guidance and Counseling have lost their
one to many.
identity to Psychology.
Decision By guide. By the client. ➢ Counselors are inadequately trained.
Making ➢ Counselors focus on college-bound
students, neglecting those entering the labor
market.
Basic Principles of Guidance
1. Guidance is the assistance given to Different Laws related to
individuals in making intelligent choices and Guidance Counseling
adjustments in their lives
➢ CHED Memorandum no. 9 Series of 2013.
➔ Like other abilities, Decision-Making Article 7 Section 14-17
Skill is not innate, it needs to be
developed. ➢ Republic Act 9258 Guidance and
➔ The fundamental purpose of Counseling Act of 2004
Guidance is to develop in each ○ An act professionalizing the practice
individual the ability to solve his own of guidance and counseling and
problems and to make his own creating for this purpose a
adjustments. professional regulatory board of
➔ Guidance applies to different types of guidance and counseling,
situations: personal, social, religious, appropriating funds therefor and for
occupational. other purposes

2. Guidance is the integral part of an ➢ Republic Act 11206 - Secondary School

educational process Career Guidance and Counseling Act
 (a) To institutionalize a career
guidance and counseling program for
students in all public and private secondary
schools nationwide in order to provide them
proper direction in pursuing subsequent
tertiary education;
(b) To equip secondary education
students with the capability to make
educated career decisions and expose them
to relevant labor markets; and
(c) To ensure graduates of tertiary
education meet the requirements of the
government, industry, and the economy.
Personal, Social, Health and Safety
Guidance and Counseling
➔ Incorporation of wellness practices into daily
living
➔ Demonstration of resilience and positive
coping skills
➔ Possession of assertiveness skills
necessary for personal protection
Educational Guidance & Counseling
➔ Provides support at key moments during
your time in school. The Guidance
Counselor is involved in helping with the
transition from primary to secondary school
and with helping with subject choices in first
year and fifth year. The Guidance Counselor
also works with students on developing their
study skills and future prospects.
Career Counseling
➔ Also known as career guidance, is
counseling designed to help with choosing,
changing, or leaving a career and is
available at any stage in life. One's career is
often one of the most important aspects of
adulthood, and embarking on a new career,
whether for the first time, the second time, or
any time thereafter, can be a stressful event,
especially when economic difficulties such
as recession are a factor.
➔ A career counselor can help by outlining and
discussing one's potential career options.
Community Involvement
➔ It is a generic term for any kind of
professional counseling that treats
dysfunction occurring within a group of
related people.This term describes a
preventive system of counseling that works
to combat psychological impairment through
the improvement and development of
community support. A community is defined
as a group of interacting individuals who
share a commonality. This commonality can
be anything from location of residence to
career interest, but a community counselor
will use this common characteristic to
council groups of people.
Psychological Testing
➔ Pre-admission tests are given for new
students
➔ Aptitude tests are also given such as interest
inventory, personality tests
Marriage Counseling
➔ Marriage counseling, also called couples
therapy, is a type of psychotherapy.
Marriage counseling helps couples of all
types recognize and resolve conflicts and
improve their relationships. Through
marriage counseling, you can make
thoughtful decisions about rebuilding and
strengthening your relationship or going your
separate ways.
Guidance Personnel
1. Guidance Director
★ He/she has the overall authority for
leading the personnel under his/her
administration. He reviews the
guidance and counseling program
they offer each year. To be a
guidance director, one should
possess the following: strong work
ethic, excellent organizational skills,
flexibility, ease and experience with
computers and willingness to
coordinate efforts with others
2. Guidance Counselor
★ A guidance counselor assists people
with personal, family, educational,
mental health and career decisions
and problems. He provides options
that will help the client to resolve
his/her problems. Its overall function
is to talk to students, provide options,
listen to problems, help the students
to develop coping skills and learn to
solve problems and become a good
decision maker on their own.
3. Psychometrician
★ The one who develops a test is
called psychometrician, while the one
that conducts testing services is
called a psychometrist. A
psychometrician has the following
responsibilities;
➢ Identifies and selects tests
➢ Sets the schedule of testing services
➢ Administers, collects and interprets
test results
➢ Provides counselors with test results
➢ Encodes and makes summaries of
test results
➢ Prepares testing materials
➢ Keeps test materials and test results
4. Clinical Psychologist
★ Aims to reduce psychological
distress and enhance and promote
psychological well-being
5. Counseling Psychologist
★ Assess and evaluate individuals’
problems, through the use of case
history, interview, and observation
and provide individual or group
counseling services to assist
individuals in achieving more
effective personal, social,
educational and vocational
development and adjustment.
6. School Psychologist
★ Provide a broad range of skills to
address students’ needs in a variety
of areas.
★ Expert in special education and have
a large role in the eligibility process
for special education
7. Social Worker
★ Works with people who have socially
excluded or who are experiencing
crisis and their role is to provide
support to enable service users to
help themselves.
Procedures in initiating a Guidance Program
The Program Development Cycle
1. ORGANIZING
A. Commit to action
B. Identify leadership for the program
improvement efforts
2. PLANNING
A. Adopt the developmental guidance
and counseling program model and
the program development process to
be used
B. Assess the current program
3. DESIGNING
A. Establish the desired program design
B. Publish the program framework
C. Plan the transition to the desired
program
D. Develop and implement a master
plan for changed implementation
4. IMPLEMENTING
A. Make program improvements
B. Make appropriate use of the school
counselors’ competencies
5. EVALUATING
A. Evaluate the developmental
guidance and counseling program
Industrial/Organizational Psychology
★ The scientific study of human behavior in
organizations and the workplace, the
specialty focuses on deriving principles of
individual, group and organizational behavior
and applying this knowledge to the solution
of problems at work.