i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 3 2 5 2 1 e3 2 5 3 3

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

Effect of hydrogen enrichment in the intake air of

diesel engine fuelled with honge biodiesel blend
and diesel

Surya Kanth a, Sumita Debbarma a, Biplab Das a,b,*

a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Silchar, Assam, 788010, India
b
School of the Built Environment, Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Ulster University, N Ireland, BT37 0QB, UK

highlights

Locally available non-edible honge oil is used to produce biodiesel.

Performance of hydrogen enriched biodiesel and diesel fuel is presented.

Enrichment of hydrogen enhance BTE and BSFC of the engine by almost 2e6%.

Presence of hydrogen reduce the emission of CO, HC, and smoke by 7e35%.

Higher in-cylinder pressure and advancement of combustion is observed.

article info abstract

Article history: In the current investigation, the enrichment of hydrogen with the honge biodiesel blend
Received 22 February 2020 and diesel is used in a compression ignition engine. The biodiesel is derived from the honge
Received in revised form oil and mixed with diesel fuel by 20% (v/v). Thereafter, hydrogen at different volume flow
2 August 2020 rates (10 and 13 lpm) is introduced into the intake manifold. The outcomes by enrichment
Accepted 18 August 2020 of hydrogen on the performance, combustion and emission characteristics are investigated
Available online 7 September 2020 by examining the brake thermal efficiency, fuel consumption, HC, CO, CO2, NOₓ emissions,
in-cylinder pressure, combustion duration, and rate of heat release. The engine fuelled
Keywords: with honge biodiesel blend is found to enhance the thermal efficiency, combustion char-
Hydrogen acteristics. Compare to diesel, the BTE increased by 2.2% and 6% less fuel consumption for
Honge biodiesel the HB20 þ 13H2 blend. Further, reduction in the emission of exhausts gases like CO and HC
Brake thermal performance by 21% and 24%, respectively, are obtained. This is due to carbon-free structure in
Combustion hydrogen. Moreover, due to high pressure in the cylinder, there is a slight increase in ox-
Emissions ides of nitrogen emission compare to diesel. The combustion characteristics such as rate of
heat release, combustion duration, and maximum 2rate of pressure rise and in-cylinder
pressure are high due to hydrogen.
© 2020 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

* Corresponding author. Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Silchar, Assam, 788010, India.
E-mail addresses: b.das@ulster.ac.uk, biplab.2kmech@gmail.com (B. Das).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.08.152
0360-3199/© 2020 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
32522 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 3 2 5 2 1 e3 2 5 3 3
Introduction
The fast depletion of fossil fuels, rise in fuel price, increase in
the demand for petroleum reserves and strict emission norms
worldwide encourage the researchers to find suitable alter-
native fuel [1]. In recent decades, biodiesel considers as an
immediate substitute option for an IC engine, which is ob-
tained by an acid-base reaction called transesterification by
means of vegetable oils or animal fats. The biodiesel is
renewable, biodegradable, non-toxic and aromatic, sulfur
free. In addition to that biodiesel can emit fewer pollutants
and considered as alternative fuel which is derived from
renewable sources like plants and animal fats etc. The main
advantage is biodiesel can be blend in petroleum fuel with the
maximum extent and it is utilized in conventional CI engine
with no much alteration.
The biodiesel can be produced by using edible and
nonedible oils. The non-edible oils can grow with less
requirement of water, high-temperature condition and sandy
soils. The best sources of nonedible oils for the production of
biodiesel were Jatropha, Neem, Honge [2,3]. Honge rarely
cultivated in equatorial and temperate Asia having parts of
India, Australia, Malaysia and Japan. The tree tolerating
temperatures 0e50  C with annual rain drop 500 mm up to
nearly 2500 mm and cultivates in a sticky and subtropical
climate. The excess of feedstock in local area encourages the
worldwide production of biodiesel, due to short of edible oil in
India promotes the usage of non-edible vegetable oils. Honge
seeds consist of 30e40% oil (w/w) and average seeds yield
4e9 ton/ha which is a unique advantage compared to other
non-edible seeds. Honge biodiesel having high thermal effi-
ciency, fuel consumption and fewer emission characteristics
in comparisons with non-edible biodiesel concluded by Ash-
raful et al. [4e6].
The engine fuelled with vegetable oil cause problem in
mixture formation, spray penetration, and atomization due to
the properties such as low volatility, high viscosity which in-
fluence lower the efficiency and rise in smoke [7]. Karabektas
et al. [8] conducted the investigation of preheating of biodiesel
to decrease its kinematic viscosity and specific gravity values
which is nearer to diesel fuel. The authors reported that
higher BTE due to its lower heating value and decrease in CO
emissions, while NOx emissions were increased. In this
context, the conventional engine introducing the dual-fuel
technique helps to raise the efficiency and minimization in
exhaust emission. Subsequently, enrichment of gaseous fuel
in intake manifold with diesel as main fuel to ignite the
combustion process [9]. The hydrogen is one of the promising
gaseous fuel among them because of their vast flammability
limit, low ignition energy small quenching and high flame
velocity. Those properties will result in smooth combustion
and emit favourable exhaust emissions for vegetable oils. Due
to remarkably high burning value (858  C) hydrogen as a pri-
mary fuel is inadequate in conventional unmodified diesel
engine. Therefore, a modest percentage of hydrogen inducted
in intake manifold to form proper premix because of high
diffusivity. The diesel fuel act as igniting fuel which enhances
the complete combustion [10,11].
Hamdan et al. [12] presented the enrichment of hydrogen
volume flow rate in 4 strokes, single cylinder, naturally
aspired diesel engine. Correlating with diesel fuel, the recor-
ded values shows 2.5% higher efficiency and 3.2% lower spe-
cific fuel consumption. The emission parameters like opacity
and oxides of nitrogen increase by 12.6% and 7.4%, respec-
tively, at higher load condition. Hosseini et al. [13] studied the
excess induction of hydrogen exhibits to lower exhaust gases
like HC, CO, and CO2 by 69%, 17%, 8%, respectively, expect
oxide of nitrogen emission. Uludamar et al. [14] conducted the
experiment to identify the noise, engine vibration, and emis-
sion by inducting hydrogen fuel with the biodiesel blend. The
results enhance the reduction in engine vibration, emission
and noise depend on the type of biodiesel. Zhou et al. [15]
described the use of ultra-low sulfur in the CI engine which
reports increases thermal efficiency and emission parame-
ters. Comparing with diesel fuel, the oxides of nitrogen and
thermal efficiency superior by 28.4% and 12.5%, respectively.
However, utilized fuel quantity and outflow gases like CO,
CO2, and HC lower by 35.5%, 26.7%, 17.2%, respectively, at
higher load condition. Saravanan et al. [16] analysed the re-
sults by injecting the fuel in two different methods of port
injection and manifold injection. Those results exhibit in-
crease in efficiency and nitrogen oxides by 3% and 1.2% for
port injection system in comparison with manifold injection.
The two injection systems emit the carbon dioxide and smoke
with marginal change. The RoHR and ICP of port injection
were higher by 18.17% and 1.43% as compared to the manifold
injection system. Deb et al. [17] investigated by addition of
different hydrogen energy content in intake manifold inject-
ing by using an LPG-CNG injector. The results indicate that the
BTE increased by 15.8% and specific energy consumption
18.6% lowered with addition of hydrogen energy content.
However, the CO2 emission and smoke were lower by 39.7%
and 66.2% and the appropriate fuel-air ratio helps to the
smooth combustion process. Ko € se et al. [18] studied four cyl-
inders, four-stroke, turbocharger, CI engine in addition to that
the advancement of different hydrogen volume flowrates and
diesel as injecting fuel to enhance efficiency and emission
effects of the engine. Compare to diesel fuel, the engine
emitted less exhaust gases like HC, CO2, expect oxides of
nitrogen.
Rath et al. [19] have carried out an addition of a different
percentage of hydrogen with honge biodiesel blends to esti-
mate the overall performance, combustion and pollutant
gases. Correlating with diesel fuel, the 20% and 40% blend
ratio the efficiency found to higher. The exhaust gases like
hydrocarbon, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and oxides of
nitrogen were lowered by 27%, 14%, 30%, and 12%, respec-
tively, in comparisons with diesel at full engine load. Agarwal
et al. [20] described diesel fuel dominates the performance
such as BTE and SFC values other than biodiesel blends. The
hydrocarbon emission and smoke found to be inferior and
carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide were marginally high for
diesel-biodiesel blends. The small concentration of karanja oil
blend reduces ignition delay leads to slower combustion en-
hances the higher combustion duration in a cylinder. How-
ever, addition of higher concentration, karanja oil not suitable
for conventional diesel engine thus diesel fuel replaces 20% (v/
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 3 2 5 2 1 e3 2 5 3 3
v) in a conventional engine. Thus the progress in the brake
thermal efficiency, combustion and emits less pollutant gases
unable to reach the demand alone with a biodiesel blend.
Tuccar et al. [21] conducted experiment by enrichment of
hydrogen with injecting fuel as a mixture of pomegranate
blend (B20). The results exhibit enrichment of hydrogen
improvement in power output, fuel consumptions and carbon
monoxide emission. Debbarma et al. [22] described the
replacement of diesel by 20% of Jatropha biodiesel blend by
the usage of the ANN method. The best blend was selected
based on the increased performance parameters and mini-
mized the pollutant gases. Chiriac et al. [23] showed the effect
of rapeseed methyl esters blend (20%) on conventional tractor
diesel engines with various speed and load variations. In
reference to diesel fuel, at various speeds the smoke opacity
and CO were lower and the combustion characteristics are
slightly higher for 20% blend (B20). Jegadheesan et al. [24] had
described induction of hydrogen resulted in the improvement
in BTE by 0.33% and reduction in emission parameters like
hydrocarbon by 13 ppm, carbon monoxide by 0.02% and car-
bon dioxide by 3.8% at 80% engine load. Kumar et al. [25]
presented the concept of dual-fuel method to enhance the
power output, combustion, and pollutants at higher loads. In
the intake manifold enrichment of hydrogen in small pro-
portion with air helps to improve the cylinder pressure by
2.6%, burning velocity and flammable limits of the engine. The
usage of vegetable oil exhibits 8.1% improvement in efficiency.
Pertinent literature reveals that number of research works
are conducted on the engine running with pure honge bio-
diesel and a combination of diesel-biodiesel blends. Further
enrichment of hydrogen in the diesel engine is found to meet
the necessary requirements of the emission characteristics
and also tend to improve the performance characteristics
[26e29]. However, much attention has not been paid to use
hydrogen along with honge oil. Honge oil is one of the most
commonly available non-edible oil in the north eastern part of
India. The honge oil (C6.33H11.51O0.775) constitutes of carbon 76
(wt.%), hydrogen 11.6 (wt.%), and oxygen 12.4 (wt.%). Thus, an
attempt is made in the present study to reveal a comprehen-
sive performance, combustion, and emission characteristics
of diesel engine running on both biodiesel blend (80% diesel
and 20% honge oil biodiesel) named as ‘HB20’ and diesel, with
and without enrichment of hydrogen.
Materials and methods
Fig. 1(a) represents the experiment conducted using a single
cylinder, 4 strokes, water cooled diesel engine run at 1500 rpm
constant speed. The technical specification of the experi-
mental setup details is shown in Table 1 in order to investigate
the performance, combustion and emission characteristics.
The dynamometer coupled with engine to measure its output.
The emissions test was conducted with AVL DI TEST MDS 350
Exhaust Gas Analyser. The measurement of fuel can be seen
in the fuel tank. The fuel quantity consumption measurement
controlled by burette type fuel levelling. To measure the
combustion pressure piezoelectric type sensor fixed in the
32523
cylinder head. To identify the cylinder pressure and crank
angle sensor coupled with the engine indicator which is sit-
uated in the control panel in order to trace the readings by
means of the computer. On the other hand, set the direction
for the flow motion of hydrogen gas. To obtained satisfied
results adjust the hydrogen volume flow rate. Hydrogen tank
(150 bar gas pressure) contains the pure hydrogen. The engine
temperature can be controlled by passing the water by means
of a pump to a dynamometer and calorimeter. In the closed
tube flow rate of liquid or gas can be identified by means of the
rotameter. The rotameters are framed in the panel board to
the calibre flow rate of water to calorimeter and diesel engine.
The system is consolidating with the diesel engine to
accommodate engine readings with the help of engine soft
software.
Method
The honge oil is heated up till reaches to 70  C and then 300 ml
of methanol and 5 gms. of NaOH are added to honge oil. In the
transesterification process methanol removes the proton
from acid-base reaction which makes strong chemical
bonding and NaOH catalyst enhance the reaction rate and
yield, respectively. The mixture is stirred repeatedly for about
1.5 h keeping the temperature fixed in the range 65e70  C. The
obtained quantity is then shifted to separating funnel to settle
for about 30 min. That results in the top layer biodiesel and
bottom layer as a glycerin. The top layer i.e. biodiesel is
separated and pre-washed repeatedly several times with hot
water at 50  C and dried by heating the oil up to 110  C. A
mixture of neat biodiesel and diesel is being made at 20:80
volumetric ratios. Fig. 1(a and b) presents the engine setup.
The engine is fuelled with different test samples with
hydrogen enrichment. The high-pressure hydrogen cylinder
provides the enrichment of hydrogen via the intake manifold.
The pressure regulator helps to reduce the pressure
150 bare2 bar. The needle valve operates to maintain the
volume flowrate of hydrogen with a maximum limit of 30 lpm.
In the cylinder to overcome the backflow of hydrogen gas non-
return valve is situated at various locations. To prevent the
direct meet of flame with hydrogen enrichment the flame trap
is arranged and suppresses the fire in the intake manifold. The
quenching of hydrogen gas in water helps to suppress backfire
by means of the flame arrester. Initially the engine fueled with
diesel is run for about 20 min in order to accomplish the
steady-state condition. The engine fueled with different test
samples properties recorded in Table 2.
The experiments are performed in the engine running at a
constant speed of 1500 rpm by varying the load such as 30%,
50%, 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100%, respectively. The output pa-
rameters obtained with diesel fuel are used as the baseline for
comparisons with the rest of the test fuel samples. Similarly,
experimental investigations are carried out for the honge
biodiesel blend (HB20) with the same operating condition.
Then the tests are performed with diesel as pilot fuel and
hydrogen is enriched at a flow rate of 10 lpm and 13 lpm and
named as ‘Dþ10H2’, and ‘Dþ13H2’ operating with the same
engine loading condition. Similarly, tests are conducted with
32524 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 3 2 5 2 1 e3 2 5 3 3

Fig. 1 e (a) Schematic diagram of experimental setup. (b) Photographic view of experimental setup.

biodiesel blend as the pilot fuel and enriched with hydrogen

10e13 lpm (HB20 þ 10H2, HB20 þ 13H2). The pressure of the
cylinder can be sensed through the pressure sensor. The pa-
Table 1 e Technical specification of the Kirloskar oil rameters is stored on the computer, attached through a
engine. datalogger and software ‘engine soft’.
Kirloskar oil Technical specification The uncertainties involved with the different measured
engines ltd., India values like BTE, SFC, BP, etc. are listed in Table 3. Following
Model TV SR II, naturally aspirated Debbarma et al. (2020) the overall uncertainty calculated from
Engine Single cylinder, direct injection Eq. (1), and found out to be ±2.55%.
diesel engine
Cylinder Bore 87.5 mm
Stroke 110 mm
compression Ratio 17.5:1 Table 2 e Properties of different test fuels.
Rated power 5.2 KW
Property Diesel HB20 Hydrogen
Speed 1500 rpm, constant
3
Injection pressure 200bar Density (kg/m ) 840 835 0.0838
Injection advance 24 before TD C Sp. gravity 0.830 0.835 0.091
Dynamometer E defy current Kinematic viscosity 3.5 4.12 e
Cooling system Water cooling mm2/s at 40  c
Fuel flow measurement Burette with digital stopwatch Flash point  c 56 104 Very low
Governor Mechanical governing (Centrifugal Calorific value 43 42.123 120
type) (MJ/kg) Cetane number 45e55 e e
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 3 2 5 2 1 e3 2 5 3 3 32525

Engine performance characteristics

Table 3 e Measurement and calculated uncertainty
parameters.
Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)
Measurements Accuracy Uncertainty Measuring
The BTE is an analytical performance characteristic i.e. the
(%) Instruments
ratio of engine power output to heat energy content. Fig. 2
Measured values depicts the variation of BTE with engine load for diesel,
Speed ±1 rpm ±1.42 Magnetic pickup
Dþ10H2, Dþ13H2, HB20, HB20 þ 10H2 and HB20 þ 13H2 test
principle
EGT ±1  C ±0.15 K-type thermocouple
samples. In general, BTE increases with the increase in load up
HC ±30 ppm ±1 AVL DITEST MDS450 to 90% thereafter it tends to decrease. Initial increase in BTE
CO ±0.2 ±0.01 AVL DITEST MDS450 with the increase in load may be due to the improvement of
CO, ±1 ±0.1 AVL DITEST MDS450 combustion with the increase in temperature of the residual
NOx ±10 ppm ±1 AVL DITEST MDS450 gas and engine cylinder, that finally helps to increase the in-
Smoke ±0.2 ±0.1
jection temperature and reduce the ignition delay. This will be
Calculated values
clearer from the results of in-cylinder pressure and rate of
Brake power e ±1.0871
BTE e ±1.138 heat release curve. However, at full load the combustion be-
BSFC e ±0.25 comes too fast resulting in a reduction of BTE. Further,
compared to diesel fuel, it indicates that BTE is lower for the
biodiesel blend (HB20), especially at higher loads. This may be

Overall uncertainty ¼ square root of [uncertainty of (speed)2 þ (EGT)2 þ (HC)2 þ (CO)2 þ (CO2)2 þ (NOₓ)2 þ (Smoke)2
þ (Brake power)2 þ (BTE)2 þ (BSFC)2] (1)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 
¼ ð±1:42Þ2 þ ð±0:15Þ2 þ ð±1Þ2 þ ð±0:01Þ2 þ ð±0:1Þ2 þ ð±1Þ2 þ ð±1:087Þ2 þ ð±1:138Þ2 þ ð±0:25Þ2 ¼ ±2:55%

due to the higher viscosity value of biodiesel blend that results

in decreases in fuel vaporization and poor in atomization and
slows down the heat release rate. Further, on one hand pres-
Results and discussion
ence of oxygenated fuel (biodiesel) tends to improve the pre-
mixed combustion by reducing the ignition delay period but
In the present work, honge biodiesel blend (HB20) and diesel
on the other hand lower heating value of the biodiesel fuel
(D) are used as the main fuel. And hydrogen is enriched with
results in reduction of the amount of total heat release.
both the fuel at a volumetric flow rate of 10 lpm and 13 lpm
The enrichment of hydrogen impacts positively on BTE for
and named as Dþ10H2, Dþ13H2, HB20, HB20 þ 10H2 and
all the test samples. At 90% loading condition, BTE is
HB20 þ 13H2, respectively. Compared to diesel fuel, the per-
enhanced by 2.3% and 3.1% for blends Dþ10H2 and Dþ13H2
formance, combustion and emission characteristics are
than the diesel fuel. Similarly, compared to biodiesel blend
evaluated.

Fig. 2 e Variation of BTE with respect to engine load.

32526 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 3 2 5 2 1 e3 2 5 3 3
(HB20) BTE for hydrogen enriched blends HB20 þ 10H2 and
HB20 þ 13H2 are increased by 2.7% and 3.5%, respectively. This
is due to the higher and rapid heat release rate of the
hydrogeneair mixture that leads to increased brake thermal
efficiency [30,31]. Further a close look into the trend indicates
the BTE of the hydrogen enriched biodiesel blends are always
lower than that of the hydrogen enriched diesel fuel. Lower
heating value of biodiesel coupled with rapid rate of com-
bustion of the fuel blends in presence of hydrogen and
oxygenated biodiesel is the reason for lower thermal effi-
ciency especially at higher loads.
Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
The variation of BSFC value against engine load for all the
samples is shown in Fig. 3. In general, the trend is in line with
the trend of the BTE, the higher the efficiency lower will be the
fuel consumption. At higher load BSFC of the biodiesel blend is
higher than the rest of the test fuel samples. This may be due to
the properties of biodiesel such as high density, viscosity and
lower heating value. In addition to that the disposition of
plunger in the fuel injection pump leads to excessive dispatch
of fuel because of the higher density value of biodiesel blend
compared to diesel fuel. Further, in comparison with diesel
fuel, the enrichment of hydrogen in case of diesel and biodiesel
blend helps to reduce the BSFC value. It has been found that
compared to diesel fuel the BSFC value for blends Dþ10H2 and
Dþ13H2 are decreased by 14.7% and 17.6%, respectively, at 90%
load. Similarly, the BSFC is decreased by 5.7% and 8.6% for
blends HB20 þ 10H2 and HB20 þ 13H2 in comparison with bio-
diesel blends. This is due to the enrichment of hydrogen that
helps in proper mixing of fuel and air in the intake manifold
due to high diffusivity which enhances the combustion [32].
Exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
The unwanted heat goes out with the exhaust gases measured
in the form of EGT. The variation of EGT with the various
engine load for all the test samples depicts Fig. 4. In general,
the value of EGT increases monotonically with the increase in
load for all test fuel samples. Compared to diesel fuel, the EGT
Fig. 3 e Variation of BSFC with respect to engine load.
is found to decrease by 5.1% for HB20 at full load condition.
Lower calorific value of biodiesel coupled with poor combus-
tion due to poor atomization might be responsible for the
same. The enrichment of hydrogen with diesel fuel increases
EGT for Dþ13H2 by 3.6% as compared to Dþ10H2, at higher
loading condition. Similarly, in the case of biodiesel blend,
EGT of HB20 þ 13H2 blend is 4.5% higher than that of the
HB20 þ 10H2. The induction of hydrogen results in maximum
EGT which not only adds additional energy during combustion
but also burns fuel at a faster rate due to higher self-ignition
value of the hydrogen [32]. At higher load the EGT of
HB20 þ 10H2 and HB20 þ 13H2 are found to be 5.4% and 9.7%,
higher compared to diesel. The identified results follow the
similar trend as that investigated by Hamdan et al. [12].
Engine combustion characteristics
The variation of in-cylinder pressure (ICP) and rate of heat
release (RoHR) at different loading conditions is depicted in
Fig. 5(aed). The ICP relies upon the burned fuel portion during
the premixed combustion phase in the direct injection engine.
The ICP describes the capacity of the fuel to blend with air and
burn. The peak value of ICP is slightly higher for biodiesel
blend at part loads, but at maximum load, ICP value is lower
than the diesel fuel. At part load condition, the lower tem-
perature of the wall and residual gas results in the low tem-
perature at injection and exhibits the longer ignition delay.
Therefore, the ICP value shows a lower value and also tends to
move away from the top dead center. At higher loads, due to
higher residual/cylinder temperature, the physical ignition
delay period is shortened for both diesel and biodiesel blends
which leads to advances in combustion before top dead cen-
ter. This results in rapid increase of pressure during the pre-
mixed combustion [33,34]. In addition, for the biodiesel
blends, presence of additional oxygen of the biodiesel acts as a
reagent to boost the rate of premixed combustion. Thus, at
higher loads the position of the ICP values deviates roughly by
1e2 degree of crank angle for diesel fuel and biodiesel blend.
Advances of combustion and lower calorific value of the
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 3 2 5 2 1 e3 2 5 3 3 32527

Fig. 4 e Variation of EGT with respect to engine load.

Fig. 5 e (a) Variation of ICP with crank angle at 30% engine load. (b) Variation of ICP with crank angle at 100% engine load. (c)
Variation of RoHR with crank angle at 30% engine load. (d) Variation of RoHR with crank angle at 100% engine load.

biodiesel results in lower value of ICP than that of the diesel enhances the rate of peak pressure due to improvement of the
fuel [35]. Subsequently, the diffusion combustion is followed combustion and advances of the position peak pressure is
for both diesel and biodiesel blends. Presence of hydrogen directly linked with the reduction of the ignition delay. A
32528 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 3 2 5 2 1 e3 2 5 3 3
comparison of Fig. 5a and b, it can be seen that the increase in
load from 30% to 100% results in an increase of the peak
pressure by almost 18%. Further, a close look into Fig. 5(a,b)
indicates that the presence of hydrogen (10e13 lpm) increases
the ICP by around 7e9% for both diesel & biodiesel.
At part load condition, the peak value of RoHR shows a
similar trend for both diesel and biodiesel samples, however
at maximum load diesel fuel exhibits slightly higher value of
RoHR than biodiesel blend (Fig. 5c and d). It is important to
mention here that RoHR not only varies with fuel accumulated
in the combustion chamber but also on the suitable quantity
of fuel that ready to burn during the ignition delay. Higher
volatility properties of diesel than biodiesel lead to a better
blend of fuel with air. In addition to that lengthening ignition
delay promotes to occupy a higher percentage of fuel in the
combustion chamber during premixed combustion phase [36].
A combination of these factors affect the RoHR apart from the
heating value of the biodiesel.
The enrichment of hydrogen for the dual fuel engine
operation exhibits higher premixed combustion phase for all
test fuel samples. A close comparison of the results indicates
that the presence of hydrogen increases the value of RoHR of
the engine fueled with diesel and biodiesel blends by 6e12%
and 10e14%, respectively. The drastic increase in RoHR for the
respective fuel samples may be due to the change in the
combustion phase both in premixed and diffusion stages. This
may be further attributed to the higher rate of flame propa-
gation and higher heating value of the hydrogen. This finally
leads to rapid ignition and the advancement of pressure rise,
which finally raises in peak ICP values during the combustion
[37].
The alteration of combustion duration with load for
different test samples is shown in Fig. 6. The curve indicates
for all the test samples the combustion duration decreases
with the increase in load. The combustion duration of bio-
diesel blend is higher by 9.3% in comparison with diesel fuel at
100% load. Because inadequate mixture formation leads
moderate combustion. Compared to diesel fuel and biodiesel
blend, the enrichment of hydrogen with both diesel and bio-
diesel blend assists the reduction in combustion duration. The
Fig. 6 e Variation of combustion duration with respect to engine load.
combustion duration for the blends HB20 þ 10H2, HB20 þ 13H2
are reduced by 2.4e5.2%, at full load and 4.1e6.2%, at 30% load,
respectively, in comparison with biodiesel blends. The
reduction in combustion duration is due to the gaseous form
of hydrogen helps in better mixing with air and reduces the
ignition delay [38].
The maximum rate of pressure rise (MRPR) values for
different test samples is shown in Fig. 7. The curve indicates
that the rate of pressure rise is slightly higher at higher load
for all the test samples. The biodiesel blend (HB20) results in a
decrease in the rate of pressure rise by almost 3.3% as
compared to diesel fuel. This may be due to lower calorific
value (lower heat releasing capacity) of the biodiesel samples
coupled with improper combustion of fuel samples due to
lower volatility and higher viscosity. At part load condition,
lean mixture of fuel sample, and lower quantity of fuel leads
to poor combustion phase and thus, result in lower rate of
pressure rise. Hydrogen enrichment for different flow rates, at
full load the rate of pressure rise for the blends HB20 þ 10H2
and HB20 þ 13H2 are raised by 5.6% and 11.8%, respectively.
Engine emission characteristics
Hydrocarbon (HC)emission
The HC emission exists in liquid and gaseous phase due to
unburnt and partially burnt HC which is unable to mix with
oxygen thus resulting in incomplete combustion. Fig. 8 depicts
variation of HC emission against the load for all test fuel
samples. In general, the rate of HC emission increases with
the increase in load. This may be due to the intake of a higher
quantity of fuel to meet the load requirement, that tends to
alter the fuel/air equivalence ratio. In presence of oxygenated
biodiesel fuel, the HC emission is found to be lower as
compared to diesel, especially at higher loading conditions.
This may be attributed to the advancement and improvement
of the premixed combustion which finally results in better
combustion. This improvement is in the range of 11e24% than
that of the diesel.
Enrichment of hydrogen with both diesel and biodiesel
blend tends to emit less HC as compared to the corresponding
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 3 2 5 2 1 e3 2 5 3 3 32529

Fig. 7 e Variation of MRPR with respect to engine load.

pilot fuel, and the rate of emission tends to decrease with the
increase in rate of enrichment. Enrichment of hydrogen leads
to higher combustion temperature that results in the hydro-
carbon post-flame oxidation. Results indicate that the blend
HB20 þ 13H2 emit 8.8% lower HC in comparison with
HB20 þ 10H2 test samples. And compared to diesel fuel, the
blends HB20 þ 10H2 and HB20 þ 13H2 emit low HC 17% and
24%, respectively, at higher loading conditions. At higher load
the blend Dþ13H2 emits 7.7% lower HC as compared to
Dþ10H2 test sample. The obtained results are identical as re-
ported by Saravanan et al. [11].
Carbon monoxide (CO) emission
The percentage of CO emission predicated by the fuel-air
equivalence ratio. However, carbon monoxide emission exits
during the combustion of fuel due to inadequate air supply
and time for post oxidation [42]. At higher loading conditions,
it has been found that HB20 emits 9% lower CO than the diesel
fuel. The biodiesel constitutes higher viscosity which in-
fluences the complexity in atomization during the air-fuel
mixing process. During the combustion process a rich
mixture of biodiesel emits the 0.09% more CO emission. At
part load and intermediate load, the CO emission effect
slightly biodiesel blends due to lean combustion with excess
air. However, at maximum load CO emission for biodiesel
blend 9% lower than diesel fuel [39]. Enrichment of hydrogen
emits lower CO as shown in Fig. 9. At higher load, it has been
found that compared to diesel fuel the CO for blends Dþ10H2
and Dþ13H2 are decreased by 19.2% and 24.2%, respectively.
Similarly, the emission of CO is decreased by 5.5% and 12.7%
for blends HB20 þ 10H2 and HB20 þ 13H2 in comparison with
biodiesel blends. The enrichment of hydrogen enhances the
combustion appreciably due to higher flame speed and high
diffusivity [38]. In addition to that hydrogen fuel constitutes
carbon free structure. Results also indicate that compared to
diesel fuel, B20 þ 10H2 and B20 þ 13H2 samples tend to reduce

Fig. 8 e Variation of HC with respect to engine load.

32530 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 3 2 5 2 1 e3 2 5 3 3

Fig. 9 e Variation of CO with respect to engine load.

CO pollution by about 14.2% and 21%, respectively, at higher
load.
Oxides of nitrogen (NOₓ) emission
The variation in oxide of nitrogen emission of diesel, biodiesel
blend, with and without hydrogen enrichment is depicted in
Fig. 10. It can be mentioned here that combustion temperature
and duration are main factors that affect the NOₓ emissions
[43]. Both diesel and biodiesel blend emit higher NOₓ at higher
loading condition. This may be attributed to the higher in-
cylinder temperature and pressure due to burning of a
higher amount of fuel. Further, at the initial stage of the
experiment at part load, part of the produced heat is absorbed
by the cylinder wall maintaining a lower temperature of the
cylinder, whereas at higher loads the wall temperature is
comparatively high making the system more efficient. This
finally results in formation of 180e228% higher NOₓ at full load
compared to that at lower load of 30%.
NOx emissions of biodiesel blend are slightly higher than
that of diesel fuel. The NOₓ emission mainly depends upon the
percentage of oxygen, combustion duration, and combustion
temperature. Oxygen content of the biodiesel leads to
improved combustion and high combustion temperature
leads to higher NOₓ emission [40e43]. Further, the rate of in-
crease of NOₓ emission with biodiesel fuel at part load is
comparatively higher. This may be due to lower retention time
of the high temperature gas within the cylinder, as can be seen
that increase in laid decreases the duration of the combustion.
Zheng et al. [41] have reported that lower ignition delay due to
higher cetane number results in weaker mixing of air and fuel
and that results in poor combustion and finally reduces the
NOₓ formation. Biodiesel produces up to 22% higher NOₓ at part

Fig. 10 e Variation of NOₓ with respect to engine load.

 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 3 2 5 2 1 e3 2 5 3 3 32531

Fig. 11 e Variation of CO2 with respect to engine load.

load while it produces around 5% higher at full load, than that
of diesel.
The enrichment of hydrogen with diesel and biodiesel fuel
blends emit more NOₓ compared to the corresponding fuel.
Results indicate that presence of hydrogen with diesel pro-
duces up to 38% higher NOₓ at lower loads, while at full load it
is around 16%, compared to diesel. Similarly, in the case of
biodiesel fuel blend, presence of hydrogen produces 43%
higher NOₓ at part load and up to 11% higher NOₓ at full load,
compared to diesel. This may be due to four times greater
calorific value of hydrogen than biodiesel that leads to higher
cylinder temperature and thus the formation of NOₓ emission.
Further, at lower loads comparatively a lower amount of fuel
is being supplied, and the dominance of hydrogen is more.
Whereas, in the case of biodiesel, at part loads, presence of
oxygen leads to improve the combustion and results in higher
NOₓ emissions [44]. However, at full loads lower heat release
rate due to lower calorific value of the pilot fuel plays a critical
role, resulting in slightly lower NOₓ emission than that of the
hydrogen enriched diesel fuel.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission
Fig. 11 depicts the CO2 emission of the various fuel samples.
The CO2 emissions for diesel and biodiesel blends are found to
increase with the increase in loading condition. This may be
due to better combustion. Results indicate that the blend HB20
emits 7.3% higher CO2 emissions than the diesel fuel at full
load. Additional oxygen present in biodiesel blends helps to
convert CO to CO2. The enrichment of hydrogen with diesel
and biodiesel blend results in slightly higher CO2 emissions,
better combustion of fuel might be the reason for the same. It
is evident from the results that CO2 emission is increased by
5e7% compared to the corresponding base fuel i.e., diesel and
biodiesel. It is important to mention here that on one side
better combustion of fuel in presence of hydrogen tends to
increase the CO2 emission, on the other side replacement of

Fig. 12 e Variation of smoke opacity with respect to engine load.

32532 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 3 2 5 2 1 e3 2 5 3 3
part of the air in the intake manifold with hydrogen also helps
to reduce CO2 emission. Depending on the dominance of the
either factors decide the total CO2 emission. The obtained
results follow the similar trend as studied by Saravanan et al.
[37].
Smoke opacity
The variation of soot content in the exhaust gases in the form
of smoke opacity is presented in Fig. 12. In general, the
magnitude of smoke opacity for diesel and biodiesel blends
increases with load, and the increase is as high as 100% for
lower load of 30% to full load. This may be attributed to the
higher consumption of fuel at higher load. At part load, the
smoke opacity for the biodiesel blend shows marginally (up to
6%) higher than diesel fuel. This may be attributed to the poor
combustion due to poor atomization due to higher viscosity of
the biodiesel. However, at full load the biodiesel blend emits
almost 4% lower smoke opacity than diesel fuel. This is
because of lower aromatics compounds and low C/H ratio of
biodiesel as compared to diesel fuel. The biodiesel blend
constitutes a lower percentage of carbon than diesel fuel, the
higher percentage of carbon content tends to promote more
soot formation [45].
Enrichment of hydrogen helps to reduce the carbon to
hydrogen ratio in the combustion chamber and thereby help
to reduce the formation of soot. Results indicate that induc-
tion of hydrogen at a flow rate of 10e13 lpm reduces the for-
mation of soot by almost 7e20% for diesel and 3e17% for
biodiesel, as compared to diesel. Further, the presence of
hydrogen aids the OH radicals production which suppress the
soot formation as reported by Frenklach [46].
Conclusion
The present work is to estimate the performance of diesel
engine fueled with diesel (D) and honge biodiesel blend (HB20)
with and without hydrogen enrichment. The enrichment of
hydrogen with fuel mixture is done at volumetric flow rate of
10 lpm and 13 lpm with diesel named as Dþ10H2 and Dþ13H2
and with biodiesel blend named as HB20 þ 10H2 and
HB20 þ 13H2. The following observations are made.

Biodiesel blends (HB20) tend to reduce the BTE, especially
at higher load. Enrichment of hydrogen with biodiesel
blends, HB20 þ 10H2 and HB20 þ 13H2, result in an increase
in BTE by 1.5% and 2.2%, respectively, at higher load
conditions.

BSFC for the blends HB20 þ 10H2 and HB20 þ 13H2 are
found to reduce by 3% and 6%, respectively.

EGT for blend HB20 is decreased by 5.1% due to poor
combustion. Whereas EGT for HB20 þ 10H2 and
HB20 þ 13H2 are found to increase by 5.4% and 9.7%,
respectively.

The enrichment of hydrogen with biodiesel blends results
in higher heat releasing rate, higher peak ICP, and reduc-
tion in combustion duration as compared to diesel fuel.

Fuel sample HB20 results in lower CO emission and more
CO2 emission, especially at higher load. The enrichment of
hydrogen with biodiesel blends exhibits decrease in CO
emission by almost 21% due to better combustion. How-
ever, CO₂ emission is increased by around 7% in presence of
hydrogen.

Biodiesel blend emits lower HC emission and it further
reduces with hydrogen enrichment. Fuel samples
HB20 þ 10H2 and HB20 þ 13H2 emit 17% and 24% lower HC
compared to diesel.

Compare to diesel fuel, the blends HB20 þ 10H2 and
HB20 þ 13H2 emit 13.5% and 17.5% higher NOₓ emissions
under same operating condition.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge the research grant
received from the SERB (EEQ/2019/000386), and DST (DST/
TMD/HFC/2K18/96).
references
[1] Swain E, Shaheed A. An experimental study to evaluate the
use of coconut-based fuels as alternatives to diesel oil. J Inst
Energy 2000;73(495):100e5.
[2] Martı́nez G, Sa nchez N, Encinar JM, Gonza  lez JF. Fuel
properties of biodiesel from vegetable oils and oil mixtures.
Influence of methyl esters distribution. Biomass Bioenergy
2014 Apr 1;63:22e32.
[3] Agarwal AK. Biofuels (alcohols and biodiesel) applications as
fuels for internal combustion engines. Prog Energy Combust
Sci 2007 Jun 1;33(3):233e71.
[4] Khayoon MS, Hameed BH. Single-step esterification of crude
karanj (Pongamiapinnata) oil to fatty acid methyl esters over
mesostructured SBA-16 supported 12-molybdophosphoric
acid catalyst. Fuel Process Technol 2013 Oct 1;114:12e20.
[5] Obadiah A, Kannan R, Ramasubbu A, Kumar SV. Studies on
the effect of antioxidants on the long-term storage and
oxidation stability of Pongamiapinnata (L.) Pierre biodiesel.
Fuel Process Technol 2012 Jul 1;99:56e63.
[6] Ashraful AM, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Fattah IR, Imtenan S,
Shahir SA, Mobarak HM. Production and comparison of fuel
properties, engine performance, and emission characteristics
of biodiesel from various non-edible vegetable oils: a review.
Energy Convers Manag 2014 Apr 1;80:202e28.
[7] Ramadhas AS, Jayaraj S, Muraleedharan C. Characterization
and effect of using rubber seed oil as fuel in the compression
ignition engines. Renew Energy 2005 Apr 1;30(5):795e803.
[8] Karabektas M, Ergen G, Hosoz M. The effects of preheated
cottonseed oil methyl ester on the performance and exhaust
emissions of a diesel engine. Appl Therm Eng 2008 Dec
1;28(17e18):2136e43.
[9] Nwafor OM. Effect of choice of pilot fuel on the performance
of natural gas in diesel engines. Renew Energy 2000 Nov
1;21(3e4):495e504.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 3 2 5 2 1 e3 2 5 3 3
[10] Yi HS, Min K, Kim ES. The optimised mixture formation for
hydrogen fuelled engines. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2000 Jul
1;25(7):685e90.
[11] Saravanan N, Nagarajan G, Dhanasekaran C, Kalaiselvan KM.
Experimental investigation of hydrogen port fuel injection in
DI diesel engine. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2007 Nov
1;32(16):4071e80.
[12] Hamdan MO, Selim MY, Al-Omari SA, Elnajjar E. Hydrogen
supplement co-combustion with diesel in compression
ignition engine. Renew Energy 2015 Oct 1;82:54e60.
[13] Hosseini SM, Ahmadi R. Performance and emissions
characteristics in the combustion of co-fuel diesel-hydrogen
in a heavy duty engine. Appl Energy 2017 Nov 1;205:911e25.
€
[14] Uludamar E, Yıldızhan S‚, Aydın K, Ozcanlı M. Vibration,
noise and exhaust emissions analyses of an unmodified
compression ignition engine fuelled with low sulphur diesel
and biodiesel blends with hydrogen addition. Int J Hydrogen
Energy 2016 Jul 13;41(26):11481e90.
[15] Zhou JH, Cheung CS, Leung CW. Combustion, performance,
regulated and unregulated emissions of a diesel engine with
hydrogen addition. Appl Energy 2014 Aug 1;126:1e2.
[16] Saravanan N, Nagarajan G. Experimental investigation in
optimizing the hydrogen fuel on a hydrogen diesel dual-fuel
engine. Energy Fuels 2009 Apr 10;23(5):2646e57.
[17] Deb M, Sastry GR, Bose PK, Banerjee R. An experimental
study on combustion, performance and emission analysis of
a single cylinder, 4-stroke DI-diesel engine using hydrogen in
dual fuel mode of operation. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2015 Jul
20;40(27):8586e98.
[18] Ko€ se H, Ciniviz M. An experimental investigation of effect on
diesel engine performance and exhaust emissions of
addition at dual fuel mode of hydrogen. Fuel Process Technol
2013 Oct 1;114:26e34.
[19] Rath S, Kumar S, Singh RK. Performance and emission
analysis of blends of karanja methyl ester with diesel in a
compression ignition engine. Int J Ambient Energy 2011 Sep
1;32(3):161e6.
[20] Agarwal AK, Dhar A. Experimental investigations of
performance, emission and combustion characteristics of
Karanja oil blends fuelled DICI engine. Renew Energy 2013
Apr 1;52:283e91.
[21] Tüccar G, Uludamar E. Emission and engine performance
analysis of a diesel engine using hydrogen enriched
pomegranate seed oil biodiesel. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2018
Sep 20;43(38):18014e9.
[22] Debbarma S, Das B, Giri A, Majumder S, Bose PK. Back
propagation artificial neural network (BPANN) based
performance analysis of diesel engine using biodiesel. J
Renew Sustain Energy 2011;3:013101.
[23] Chiriac R, Apostolescu N. Emissions of a diesel engine using
B20 and effects of hydrogen addition. Int J Hydrogen Energy
2013 Oct 8;38(30):13453e62.
[24] Jegadheesan C, Somasundaram P, Meenakshipriya B,
UP Vignesh. Investigation effect of hydrogen addition on the
performance and exhaust emissions of Pongamiapinnata
biodiesel fueled compression ignition engine. Int J Green
Energy 2017 Dec 8;14(15):1256e68.
[25] Kumar MS, Ramesh A, Nagalingam B. Use of hydrogen to
enhance the performance of a vegetable oil fuelled
compression ignition engine. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2003 Oct
1;28(10):1143e54.
[26] Deepanraj B, Srinivas M, Arun N, Sankaranarayanan G,
Abdul Salam P. Comparison of jatropha and karanja biofuels
on their combustion characteristics. Int J Green Energy 2017
Dec 8;14(15):1231e7.
[27] Sureshkumar K, Velra R. Performance and characteristics
study of the use of environment friendly Pongamiapinnata
methyl ester in CI engines. J Energy Environ 2007 May;5:60e71.
32533
[28] Ranjan R, Tyagi RK. Emission characteristic of hydrogen and
gasoline blend in spark-ignited engine. Int J Ambient Energy
2017 Jan 2;38(1):14e8.
[29] Yang Z, Wang L, Zhang Q, Meng Y, Pei P. Research on
optimum method to eliminate backfire of hydrogen internal
combustion engines based on combining postponing ignition
timing with water injection of intake manifold. Int J
Hydrogen Energy 2012 Sep 1;37(17):12868e78.
[30] Jingding L, Yingqing L, Tianshen D. Backfire in hydrogen
fueled engine and its control. InHydrogen Systems 1986 Jan
1:115e27.
[31] Rocha HM, da Silva Pereira R, Nogueira MF, Belchior CR, de
Lima Tostes ME. Experimental investigation of hydrogen
addition in the intake air of compressed ignition engines
running on biodiesel blend. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2017 Feb
16;42(7):4530e9.
[32] Yilmaz IT, Gumus M. Effects of hydrogen addition to the
intake air on performance and emissions of common rail
diesel engine. Energy 2018 Jan 1;142:1104e13.
[33] Agarwal AK, Das LM. Biodiesel development and
characterization for use as a fuel in compression ignition
engines. J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2001 Apr 1;123(2):440e7.
[34] Szybist JP, Boehman AL, Taylor JD, McCormick RL. Evaluation
of formulation strategies to eliminate the biodiesel NOx
effect. Fuel Process Technol 2005 Jun 25;86(10):1109e26.
[35] Rao GL, Sampath S, Rajagopal K. Experimental studies on the
combustion and emission characteristics of a diesel engine
fuelled with used cooking oil methyl ester and its diesel
blends. Int J Eng Appl Sci 2008;4(1):64e70.
[36] Sahoo PK, Das LM. Combustion analysis of Jatropha, Karanja
and Polanga based biodiesel as fuel in a diesel engine. Fuel
2009 Jun 1;88(6):994e9.
[37] Saravanan N, Nagarajan G. Performance and emission
studies on port injection of hydrogen with varied flow rates
with Diesel as an ignition source. Appl Energy 2010 Jul
1;87(7):2218e29.
[38] Bika AS, Franklin LM, Kittelson DB. Emissions effects of
hydrogen as a supplemental fuel with diesel and biodiesel.
SAE Int J Fuels Lubr 2009 Jan 1;1(1):283e92.
[39] Nabi MN, Akhter MS, Shahadat MM. Improvement of engine
emissions with conventional diesel fuel and dieselebiodiesel
blends. Bioresour Technol 2006 Feb 1;97(3):372e8.
[40] Nabi MN, Rahman MM, Akhter MS. Biodiesel from cotton
seed oil and its effect on engine performance and exhaust
emissions. Appl Therm Eng 2009 Aug 1;29(11e12):2265e70.
[41] Zheng M, Mulenga MC, Reader GT, Wang M, Ting DS, Tjong J.
Biodiesel engine performance and emissions in low
temperature combustion. Fuel 2008 May 1;87(6):714e22.
[42] Kanth S, Debbarma S, Das B. Performance of a diesel engine
fuelled with nanoparticle blended biodiesel. Key Eng Mater
2019;821:189e94.
[43] Debbarma S, Misra RD, Das B. Performance of graphene-
added palm biodiesel in a diesel engine. Clean Technol
Environ Policy 2020;22(2):523e34.
[44] Akar MA, Kekilli E, Bas O, Yildizhan S, Serin H, Ozcanli M.
Hydrogen enriched waste oil biodiesel usage in compression
ignition engine. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2018 Sep
20;43(38):18046e52.
[45] Tree DR, Svensson KI. Soot processes in compression
ignition engines. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2007 Jun
1;33(3):272e309.
[46] Frenklach M. Kinetics and mechanism of soot formation in
hydrocarbon combustion. Final Technical report, 25 October
1985-28 February 1989. PA (USA): Pennsylvania State Univ.,
University Park; 1990 Jan 1. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?
R¼19900004989.