PHYSICAL REVIEW B 90, 104515 (2014)

Detecting magnetic flux distributions in superconductors with polarized x rays

Claudia Stahl,* Patrick Audehm, Joachim Gräfe, Stephen Ruoß, Markus Weigand, Mathias Schmidt, Sebastian Treiber,
Michael Bechtel, Eberhard Goering, and Gisela Schütz
Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstraße 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany

Joachim Albrecht
Institute for Innovative Surfaces, FINO, Aalen University, Beethovenstraße 1, 73430 Aalen, Germany
(Received 5 June 2014; revised manuscript received 3 September 2014; published 19 September 2014)
The magnetic flux distribution arising from a high-Tc superconductor is detected and visualized using polarized
x rays. Therefore, we introduce a sensor layer, namely, an amorphous, soft-magnetic Co40 Fe40 B20 cover layer,
providing a large x-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD). Temperature-dependent XMCD spectroscopy on
the magnetic layer has been performed. Exploiting the temperature dependence of the critical current density
of the superconductor we find a quantitative correlation between the XMCD signal and the in-plane stray field
of the superconductor. Magneto-optical Kerr effect experiments on the sensor layer can simulate the stray
field of the superconductor and hence verify the correlation. We show that the XMCD contrast in the sensor layer
corresponds to the in-plane magnetic flux distribution of the superconductor and can hence be used to image
magnetic structures in superconductors.

DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevB.90.104515 PACS number(s): 74.25.Ha, 74.78.Fk, 75.60.−d

I. INTRODUCTION limited by the wavelength of the used visible light. Several

The determination of magnetic flux and current density
distributions in superconductors is a complex problem both
theoretically and experimentally since the underlying physics
is related to nonlocal equations. Electric current transport
is always related to finite magnetic fields. Inside a type-II
superconductor this magnetic field leads to an inhomogeneous
distribution of magnetic vortices that are surrounded by eddy
currents. All eddy currents finally sum up to the transport
current. Since all magnetic vortices have to penetrate into the
superconductor from the edge of the material the macroscopic
geometry of the superconductor strongly influences the current
pattern in a nonlocal way [1,2]. This holds in particular when
the current flow is disturbed by obstacles such as damages,
defects, or large-angle grain boundaries. The critical current
in high-Tc superconductors behaves like an incompressible
medium, thus obstacles cannot be compensated locally. This
usually leads to large-area changes in the supercurrent pattern
and the magnetic stray field pattern [3–6].
A successful method to determine a current density distri-
bution is offered by a mathematical reconstruction from the
corresponding magnetic field pattern. For two-dimensional
cases this can be done uniquely [7]. Therefore it is highly
desirable to map the magnetic field distribution of a super-
conductor in the critical state quantitatively. An easy and
reliable way for a spatially resolved analysis of magnetic field
distributions is offered by magneto-optical imaging based on
the Faraday effect (MOFE) [6,8,9]. A magneto-optically active
iron garnet film which is put onto a superconductor allows the
measurement of local magnetic fields when illuminated with
polarized light [10]. In the case of a thin-film superconductor
with two-dimensional currents the field distribution allows the
reconstruction of the supercurrents with high accuracy [5,11].
However, the spatial resolution of this method is significantly
*
stahl@is.mpg.de
other techniques to visualize the field distribution within a
superconductor exist with advantages and disadvantages re-
garding the spatial resolution and the magnetic sensitivity [12].
We present a method which transfers the principle of
magneto-optical imaging into the soft-x-ray regime. The
spatial resolution of several tens of nanometers in a scanning
x-ray microscope [13,14] and the high magnetic sensitivity of
the x-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD) effect [15–20]
open the path to images of great detail, maybe even of single
flux lines. Imaging of the flux line density via x rays is possible,
first, by detecting the change in the density of states between
the normal conducting core of a flux line and the surrounding
superconducting state. Secondly, the magnetic field of flux
lines could be detected directly via XMCD. Calculations show
that the first possibility provides a very small contrast, in
particular when considering the limited energy resolution of
appropriate x-ray sources [21]. Direct XMCD measurements
cannot be used for most superconductors themselves due to
the usual absence of paramagnetic ions.
Consequently, our method is based on an indirect mea-
surement via the introduction of an additional sensor layer
deposited directly on top of the superconductor. We use
soft-magnetic amorphous Co40 Fe40 B20 (CoFeB), which will
be magnetized by the stray field of the supercurrents. This
transfers the field distribution of the superconductor into a
local distribution of the magnetization of the sensor layer.
The magnetization of the sensor layer is then investigated via
magnetic x-ray spectroscopy at the Co and Fe L2,3 -edges,
which usually provide a strong XMCD contrast [22–24].
In this work double layers of 100 nm optimally doped
YBa2 Cu3 O7−δ (YBCO) and 30 nm Co40 Fe40 B20 are inves-
tigated via temperature-dependent x-ray spectroscopy. For
a sketch of the sample see Fig. 2(b). We show that the
XMCD signal and the flux density of the superconductor
correlate. Consequently, the contrast mechanism can be used
to investigate the flux density of a superconductor. The results
are also in accordance with room temperature measurements

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CLAUDIA STAHL et al.
based on the magneto-optical Kerr effect, in which the
superconductor is simulated by an external magnetic field.
Finally, one of our first x-ray microscopy images of the double
layer is presented. The image pictures the magnetic domains
of the superconductor which are mapped into the sensor layer
and visualized through the XMCD contrast of the Co L3 edge.
II. BASIC CONCEPT
In Fig. 1 the critical state of a YBCO thin film is
investigated by magneto-optical imaging with subsequent
numerical analysis. Figure 1(a) depicts the absolute value
of the critical current density and Fig. 1(b) the in-plane
component of the flux density distribution. The squared shape
of the superconducting film leads here to the formation of
four current domains each having a constant current density
jc [25]. The in-plane components Bx of the magnetic flux
distribution are constant in each domain of constant current.
This can also be calculated by Bx = μ0 jc (d/2), with d being
the thickness of the superconductor [26]. This shows that in
thin-film geometry the in-plane components of a magnetic
field generated by the critical current are proportional to the
currents themselves.
The method of magneto-optical imaging is sensitive to the
out-of-plane component of the magnetic flux distribution and
therefore a complex numerical inversion scheme is needed in
order to obtain the critical current density [5]. This inversion
scheme would be redundant if the in-plane component was
measured. This fact is exploited by the following novel
measurement technique: The in-plane field component of the
magnetic stray field of the superconductor magnetizes the
soft-magnetic sensor layer within the plane. A measurement
of this local magnetic signal in the sensor layer allows
the reconstruction of the in-plane field component of the
superconductor and with that of the critical current density.
Both Figs. 1 and 7 picture a sample with size 1 × 1 mm2 ,
whereas the spectra are measured on a sample with the same
geometry but a size of 5 × 5 mm2 . All three samples exhibit
the same square shape and have passed through the same
production process. Their characteristic properties have been
found to be very similar and hence comparable. The spot where
the x-ray spectroscopy measurements are taken is indicated in
Fig. 1(b) by an orange dot. The spectroscopy always takes
FIG. 1. (Color online) Magneto-optical images of the critical
state of a YBCO thin film. The gray scale represents (a) the
absolute value of the critical current density jc and (b) the magnetic
flux distribution in the plane Bx , which is proportional to jc . The
orange point marks the spot for the in-plane x-ray spectroscopy
measurements which are always performed in the critical state.
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PHYSICAL REVIEW B 90, 104515 (2014)
place in a homogeneously in-plane magnetized quadrant of
the square sample.
III. X-RAY SPECTROSCOPY EXPERIMENTS
The XMCD spectroscopy measurements were carried out
at the Helmholtz-Zentrum BESSY II in Berlin, Germany,
at the high photon flux Apple II type undulator beamline
UE56/2-PGM1, with variable photon energy and polarization
necessary for XMCD investigations. In order to measure in-
plane and out-of-plane magnetization components at various
orientations of the external magnetic field, it is necessary to
have a versatile experiment. We used a dedicated soft x-ray
magnetic reflectometry end station built at the MPI for Metals
Research, which allows nearly arbitrary field and sample
orientations with high angular precision [27].
Typically, the XMCD effect is defined as the difference
in absorption between two measurements with a flipped
relative orientation of external field or beam polarization. Here,
we extract the magnetic signal of the sensor layer CoFeB
which is induced by the local current of the critical state
of the superconductor. Therefore, we designed a setup and
measurement routine. We prepared two different critical states
in the superconductor with the supercurrent flowing clockwise
and counterclockwise, respectively. In both cases an external
magnetic field has been absent. Since the supercurrents create
a magnetic field, this field has opposite direction in these two
cases. These are labeled “north” and “south” in analogy to
the north and south poles of a magnet. Without an external
field during the measurements with circular polarized x rays
the obtained magnetization is predominantly created by the
critical state of the superconductor. With this measurement
sequence x-ray absorption spectra (XAS) of the Fe and Co
L2,3 edges at T = 38 K were obtained [Figs. 2(c) and 2(d)].
The setup has been chosen in order to apply an out-of-plane
external field to the superconductor and at the same time to
measure the in-plane projection of the magnetization of the
CoFeB layer. The angle of incident  between the photons
and the sample surface was chosen to be  = 70◦ . A sketch of
the measurement geometry is given in Fig. 2(b); the position of
the measurement is indicated by the orange spot in Fig. 1(b).
Note, the measurement configuration of  = 70◦ between
the beam axis and the sample surface still provides as a main
component the in-plane magnetization of the CoFeB layer.
This becomes clear when considering the hysteresis loops of
the sensor layer shown in Fig. 2(a), measured at T = 300 K
using a Quantum Design MPMS SQUID magnetometer and
a NanoMOKE3. The in-plane (light and dark blue) and the
out-of-plane (green) magnetic moment of a CoFeB layer with
a thickness of 30 nm sputtered on YBCO with a thickness
of 100 nm is depicted. We find a soft-magnetic behavior
with clear in-plane easy axis. The in-plane hysteresis curve
exhibits a coercivity of about μ0 Hc = (2 ± 0.4) mT; above
approximately μ0 H = 3.5 mT the curve is saturated. The
slight variations between the two curves result from the fact
that the NanoMOKE measurement is local compared to the
global magnetic moment of the superconducting quantum
interference device (SQUID) curve. The measurement in a
corresponding out-of-plane geometry reveals magnetization
values that are about a factor of 10 smaller. An extensive
DETECTING MAGNETIC FLUX DISTRIBUTIONS IN . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW B 90, 104515 (2014)

FIG. 2. (Color online) (a) SQUID and MOKE hysteresis loops of 30 nm CoFeB on YBCO, in plane (dark and light blue) and out of plane
(green). The coercivity is μ0 Hc = (2 ± 0.4) mT and when saturation of the in-plane component is reached the magnetization is a factor of 10
larger compared to the out-of-plane part. The inset displays a wider range of magnetic field. N.B. Kerr rotation can be converted into absolute
values of the magnetization by comparing the curves from the two measurement methods. (b) Sketch of the measurement configuration in the
reflectometry end station: The magnet is oriented along the sample’s normal; the incoming beam is under an angle of  = 70◦ towards the film
surface. The magnet is only used to induce current into the superconductor and is switched off during measurement. The magnetic fields for all
measurements originate from the superconductor. (c) and (d) Absorption spectra at the Fe and Co L2,3 edges at T = 38 K and Hext = 0. The
source of the magnetic field is the in-plane stray fields of the superconductor.

characterization of the samples used in this work can be found
in Stahl et al. [28].
The difference between measurements of the north and
south critical states is related only to the magnetization of
the element that has been measured. The XMCD obtained
from the measurement of the Fe L2,3 edges shown in Fig. 2(c)
is depicted in Fig. 3(a). The same routine has been used at
different temperatures up to T = 90 K and the temperature-
dependent XMCD at the Fe L3 edge is shown in Fig. 3(b).
Above the critical temperature of the superconductor of Tc =
85 K the XMCD signal gets smaller than our measurement
sensitivity, clearly showing that the observed XCMD signal is
related to the superconducting state and that the ferromagnetic
component itself does not significantly contribute to the
observed effect.
The strength of the L3 edge XMCD effect represents the
projected magnetization along the photon beam direction
averaged over the photon beam spot size. N.B. The 70◦ angle
of incident has been corrected for the XMCD curves in Fig. 3
but not for the XA spectra in Figs. 2(c) and 2(d). To extract
the absorption at the L3 edge the peak value of each XMCD
curve has been divided by its peak value of the XA spectrum.
Hence, the XMCD value in percentage of the XAS spectrum
is plotted as a function of temperature in Fig. 3(c). N.B. This
evaluation routine is equivalent to the analysis of the x-ray
microscopy images following in Sec. V and therefore was
chosen here. Measurements have been done for both Fe and Co
and their analysis has yielded equivalent results. The curves
for Fe (squares) and Co (triangles) follow the same shape.
A constant finite value is found for temperatures below T =
55 K. Above T = 55 K the signal decreases continuously until
it vanishes at 80 K < T < 90 K.
IV. CORRELATION BETWEEN SENSOR LAYER
AND SUPERCONDUCTOR
In order to use XMCD measurements on the CoFeB
layer on top of the YBCO as a sensor for the magnetic
flux density in the superconductor, a correlation between the
XMCD values and the signal of the superconductor is needed.
Figure 4(a) depicts the temperature-dependent measurement
of the critical state of the superconductor. At T = 6 K an
external out-of-plane field of μ0 H = 300 mT has been applied
and subsequently removed. Then the temperature has been
increased until the critical temperature has been reached.
The SQUID magnetization measurements yield the magnetic
moment m of the YBCO thin film. In the critical state of the
superconductor this can be converted into the critical current
density via m = 12 V j × r d 3 r. Since the in-plane component
of the magnetic flux density Bx is proportional to jc [26] this
has been plotted here directly.

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FIG. 3. (Color online) (a) XMCD signal from the Fe L2,3 edges
shown in Fig. 2(c). (b) XMCD signal of the Fe L3 edge at various
temperatures. (c) XMCD L3 edge of Co (red triangles) and Fe (black
squares) in percentage of the XAS value versus temperature. At T >
Tc both XMCD signals vanish, in region 2 (55 K < T < Tc ) there is
an increase with decreasing temperature, and at T < 55 K the signals
saturate (area 1).
The temperature dependence of the critical current density
in a YBCO thin film is described as follows [29,30]:
 
T s
jc (T ) ∝ Bx (T ) ∝ 1 − . (1)
Tc
This formula is fitted to the data in Fig. 4(a) at temperatures
38 K < T < Tc with Tc = (84.82 ± 0.04) K and s = (1.213 ±
0.003). The measured data points and the curve are in
accordance with each other within linewidth.
The temperature of the XMCD measurements can now be
converted into the flux density of the YBCO. The data shown
in Fig. 3(c) is plotted as a function of the in-plane flux density
in Fig. 4(b). The result is a direct and quantitative correlation
between the XMCD signal of the sensor layer and the flux
density of the superconductor.
In analogy to the calculations for magneto-optical sensor
layers [10,31] the measured XMCD signal ξ proportional to
the magnetization M as a function of the local magnetic field
H can be described by
     
1 H − Hc Hc
ξ (H ) = ξs sin arctan + arctan .
2 Ha Ha
(2)
Here, the saturated XMCD signal is ξs = (6.99 ± 0.05)% of
the XAS, μ0 Hc = (1.90 ± 0.02) mT, and μ0 Ha = (0.67 ±
0.03) mT. Hc and Ha are fitting parameters that correspond
to the coercive field and the anisotropy field, respectively. In
our case the values might slightly deviate owing to the fact that
the magnetization reversal runs along minor hysteresis loops.
The introduction of Hc is necessary because Hc /H cannot be
neglected in contrast to the magneto-optical case.
FIG. 4. (Color online) (a) SQUID measurement of the magnetic
moment of YBCO (green circles) converted to the in-plane com-
ponent of the magnetic flux distribution. The fit curve obtained by
using the model for the temperature dependence of the critical current
density [Eq. (1)] is shown as a red line. (b) XMCD L3 edge of Co
(red triangles) and Fe (black squares) in percentage of the XAS
value versus the in-plane field component of the stray field of the
superconductor. With the correlation B(T ) obtained from Fig. 4(a)
temperature can be converted into the magnetic flux density which
the superconductor provides at this temperature. The graph shows
the correlation between the measured XMCD signal in the sensor
layer and the magnetic flux density of the superconductor. The data
is modeled by Eq. (2).
In order to verify the so obtained correlation between the
XMCD signal and the flux density of the superconductor
additional measurements have been performed: The same
sample has been measured at room temperature in an ex-
ternal in-plane field. In this setup the flux density of the
superconductor is simulated by the external magnetic field.
N.B. The sensor layer material CoFeB has been measured to
be nearly temperature independent in the region 30 K < T <
300 K. When simulating the magnetic flux density provided
by the superconductor the procedure of the spectroscopy
measurements has to be considered: The superconductor has
been prepared alternately in a positive and negative critical
state (called north and south). This means that the flux density
has been ±Bx .
This scenario is realized via magneto-optical Kerr effect
(MOKE) measurements with a laser-NanoMOKE3. The setup
provides an in-plane external magnetic field and an in-plane

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FIG. 6. (Color online) M extracted from the MOKE measure-

ments versus the external in-plane field and XMCD L3 edge of Co
(red triangles) and Fe (black squares) in percentage of the XAS value
versus the in-plane component of the magnetic stray field of the
superconductor. Since all three data sets collapse on one curve we
FIG. 5. (Color online) MOKE minor loops obtained by the conclude that the variable M is proportional to the XMCD results.
method of FORC [32]. The graph contains hysteresis loops each
starting at a different field Hstart . Consequently the minor loops
go from Hx = Hstart to Hx = Hend indicated by the red dots on
sensor layer the in-plane flux density of a superconductor can
each loop. The resulting magnetization M of the minor loops be probed and through that the critical current density.
is the difference between the magnetization at each end point
M = M(Hend ) − M(Hstart ). Measurements were taken on the same V. X-RAY MICROSCOPY
sample as the XMCD spectroscopy at T = 300 K in order to simulate
the in-plane magnetic stray field component of the superconductor The right image in Fig. 7 is taken based on the method
by an external in-plane field. presented above. We show an x-ray image obtained at our x-ray
microscope MAXYMUS located at the undulator beamline
UE46 at the synchrotron Bessy II in Berlin. It shows the XMCD
measurement of the Kerr rotation which is proportional to the contrast at the L3 edge of Co normalized to the white line
magnetization [see also Fig. 2(a)]. In order to simulate the flux signal of the XAS and was taken by scanning x-ray microscopy
density at various values of Bx minor hysteresis loops reaching in the total electron yield mode [33]. The image has been
from Bx to −B x have to be performed. This can be realized via
first-order reversal curve measurements (FORC) [32]. FORC
yields a set of hysteresis loops starting at the reversal field Hr
and ending at a field larger than the field needed for saturation.
The hysteresis loops shown in Fig. 5 are taken at the same
double layer YBCO/CoFeB as the XMCD spectra.
The extraction of the minor loops from a FORC data set
is illustrated in Fig. 5: The red points indicate the start and
end point of the loops at Hstart and Hend = −Hstart . When now
extracting the Kerr rotation at Hstart and Hend and building
the difference M = M(Hend ) − M(Hstart ) we get exactly the
height of the minor loops. M is plotted in Fig. 6 as a function
of the reversal field μ0 Hext = μ0 Hr .
Also plotted in Fig. 6 on the same x axis are the XMCD
FIG. 7. (Color online) Images of the horizontal in-plane mag-
data already shown in Fig. 4(b) as a function of the in-plane
netic flux distribution Bx of the critical state of a YBCO thin film
component Bx of the flux density of the superconductor. All
covered with a CoFeB sensor layer. The left image pictures the critical
three measurements collapse on the same curve. The XMCD state at T = 12 K taken by magneto-optical imaging (equivalent to
signal can now be correlated to the Kerr rotation and to the Fig. 1). The right image is taken by scanning x-ray microscopy. The
magnetization of the sensor layer via comparing the hysteresis magnetic contrast is provided by the XMCD effect of the L3 edge of
loops in Fig. 2(a). Co within the sensor layer CoFeB normalized to the XAS signal. The
In Fig. 6 the MOKE measurement has been performed image has been taken at room temperature in absence of an external
in a pure in-plane magnetic field whereas the XMCD signal magnetic field after having prepared the superconductor in the critical
originates from the three-dimensional flux density distribution state at T = 12 K as shown on the left. The magnetic domains of
of the superconductor. Since the curves are very similar in the superconductor are persistent within the sensor layer above the
shape, it can be concluded that the in-plane component of the critical temperature and closely represent the superconducting state
flux density is the main origin of the XMCD signal. Hence we at low temperatures. The image shows that qualitative mapping of the
prove that with this novel method of XMCD on a magnetic flux distribution is possible via the novel sensor layer.

104515-5
CLAUDIA STAHL et al.
taken at room temperature in zero external field after applying
and subsequently removing an external out-of-plane magnetic
field of μ0 Hext = 240 mT at T = 12 K. For comparison this
originally prepared critical state is pictured on the left obtained
by magneto-optical imaging at T = 12 K in zero external field.
The magnetic domains of the superconductor are persistent in
the sensor layer even above the critical temperature [28]. The
sample is comparable to the one shown in Fig. 1, but has
defects in order to show the abilities of the method.
When comparing both images of the same sample in
Fig. 7 the four domains of the flux density distribution of
YBCO are visible as well as the domains due to scratches
in the superconductor. The in-plane component of each of
the four domains points in a different direction. The 90◦
angle between the domains is visible in the form of one
dark and one bright domain as well as two gray domains.
The scratches are magnetized in the opposite direction as the
surrounding domain. This shows that XMCD microscopy of
a magnetic sensor layer can map the magnetic flux density of
a superconductor. Here, the measurement is not temperature
dependent but spatially varying, which reveals the spatial
distribution of the stray field of the superconductor. Since
Fig. 6 gives a monotonic and distinct correlation between
the XMCD signal and the flux density, qualitative mapping
is possible. Quantitative analysis will also be possible if a
calibration measurement is taken by MOFE or in analogy to
magneto-optical imaging via a calibrated external field.
The capabilities of the microscope promise a further
increase in spatial resolution beyond the limits of the methods
based on visible light when all parameters are fully optimized,
especially when low temperatures will be reached.
VI. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we present quantitative investigations of
the magnetic flux density in superconductors via XMCD.
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PHYSICAL REVIEW B 90, 104515 (2014)
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors appreciate the support by Iuliia Bykova, Birgitt
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of synchrotron radiation beamtime. We are deeply grateful
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for fabricating these outstanding samples and thank Christian
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