Level Measurement - Aramco

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
DETERMINING APPROPRIATE
LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICES
FOR SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATIONS
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Process Instrumentation For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: PCI-101.03 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Basic Process Measurement
Determining Appropriate Level
Measurement Devices for Saudi Aramco Applications
Section Page
LEVEL MEASUREMENT: PURPOSE, TERMINOLOGY AND SYMBOLOGY,

AND CATEGORIES OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICES...................................... 11
Purpose of Level Measurement .............................................................................. 11
Point Level Process Measurements .................................................................. 15
Continuous Level Process Measurements ........................................................ 16
Level Measurements in Automatic Tank Gauging Applications ......................... 17
Typical Level Control Loops .............................................................................. 18
Terminology and Symbology................................................................................... 21
Units of Measure ............................................................................................... 21
Typical Examples of Symbols and Terms.......................................................... 22
Drawing Symbols............................................................................................... 23
Influences of Vessel Characteristics.................................................................. 24
Example of Calculating Vessel Characteristics.................................................. 25
General Categories of Level Devices...................................................................... 28
Sight .................................................................................................................. 29
Float Type.......................................................................................................... 34
Displacement Type............................................................................................ 36
Force Type ........................................................................................................ 40
Pressure Type ................................................................................................... 41
Electrical Type ................................................................................................... 47
Ultrasonic Type.................................................................................................. 53
Other Types....................................................................................................... 59
Nuclear Type ..................................................................................................... 60
SELECTION CRITERIA FOR LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICES ............................. 63
An Initial Selection Approach .................................................................................. 63
Application Characteristics...................................................................................... 64
Type of Application Measurements ................................................................... 65
Type of Vessel................................................................................................... 67
Point Versus Continuous Measurement ............................................................ 68
Accuracy and Span Requirements ................................................................... 69
Contacting or Non-Contacting Technology Requirements................................. 69
Temperature and Pressure Conditions.............................................................. 70
Maximum and Minimum Safe Heights of Process Material ............................... 70
Process Operating Conditions ................................................................................ 71
Process Material Characteristics ....................................................................... 71
Vessel Operating Conditions ............................................................................. 72
Safety Considerations............................................................................................. 73
Explosion Hazard .............................................................................................. 74
Lethal Material Measurement ............................................................................ 74
Regulatory Rrequirements................................................................................. 74
Metallurgy ............................................................................................................... 74
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Installation Considerations ...................................................................................... 75

Internal Vessel Mounting ................................................................................... 75
External Cage Mounting to Vessel or Standpipe ............................................... 76
Connection to Process Taps.............................................................................. 78
Maintenance and Calibration .................................................................................. 79
Compatibility With Existing Process Instrumentation .............................................. 79
Economic Considerations ....................................................................................... 80
Purchase Price .................................................................................................. 81
Installation Costs ............................................................................................... 81
Calibration Costs ............................................................................................... 81
Training Costs ................................................................................................... 81
Maintenance Costs............................................................................................ 81
Spares Inventory ............................................................................................... 82
Technical Direction ................................................................................................. 82
Advances in Hardware and Software ................................................................ 82
Point Level Switch Trends ................................................................................. 82
RF Admittance Versatility .................................................................................. 83
Growing Acceptance of HTG ............................................................................. 83
Increasing Usage of Microwave Radar.............................................................. 83
Potential Usage of Time Domain Reflectometry ................................................ 83
DETERMINING WHETHER PROCESS LEVEL MEASURING DEVICES
MEET APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS..................................................................... 84
Sights...................................................................................................................... 84
Dipstick .............................................................................................................. 84
Tubular .............................................................................................................. 85
Reflex Flat Glass ............................................................................................... 87
Transparent Flat Gauge Glass .......................................................................... 93
Float and Tape Devices .......................................................................................... 97
Float Switch ....................................................................................................... 97
Chain or Tape Float Gauge Devices ............................................................... 102
Magnetic Type ................................................................................................. 106
Displacement Devices .......................................................................................... 107
Simple Displacement Device ........................................................................... 108
Torque Tube Displacers .................................................................................. 114
Hydrostatic Head Devices..................................................................................... 116
Inferring level measurement from pressure measurement .............................. 116
Bubbler Tubes ................................................................................................. 121
Pressure Transmitters ..................................................................................... 124
Differential Head Devices ................................................................................ 129
Transmitter Range Calculations ...................................................................... 139
Open Tank Range Calculation......................................................................... 142
Open Tank With Wet Leg Transmitter Range Calculation ............................... 144
Closed Tank with Dry Leg Transmitter Range Calculation ............................. 148
Closed Tank with Wet Leg Transmitter Range Calculation............................. 151
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Electrical Type ...................................................................................................... 156

Capacitance Type Devices .............................................................................. 156
Radio Frequency (RF) Admittance .................................................................. 164
Impedance Probes (Resistance Probes) ......................................................... 167
Conductivity Type Devices .............................................................................. 170
Resistance Tape Device.................................................................................. 172
Ultrasonic Type Devices ....................................................................................... 175
Principles ......................................................................................................... 175
Design ............................................................................................................. 176
Performance .................................................................................................... 177
Installation ....................................................................................................... 177
Applications ..................................................................................................... 178
Nuclear Radiation Devices.................................................................................... 180
Forced Type.......................................................................................................... 182
Load Cells........................................................................................................ 182
Microwave Radar Devices .................................................................................... 184
Principles ......................................................................................................... 184
Design ............................................................................................................. 187
Performance .................................................................................................... 189
Installation ....................................................................................................... 191
Applications ..................................................................................................... 194
Level Switch.......................................................................................................... 195
Optical Level Devices ...................................................................................... 196
DETERMINING THE APPROPRIATE INTERFACE MEASURING DEVICE
FOR A SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION ................................................................... 198
Definition of Interface ............................................................................................ 198
Purpose of Interface Measurement....................................................................... 198
Role of Interface Measurement in Field Separation......................................... 199
Role of Interface Measurement in Crude Oil Desalters ................................... 200
Units, Terminology, Symbols ................................................................................ 201
General Categories of Interface Measuring Devices............................................. 201
Displacement Devices ..................................................................................... 201
Capacitive........................................................................................................ 205
Hydrostatic Head Devices ............................................................................... 210
Other Types of Interface Devices .................................................................... 212
Selecting an Interface Device When Emulsions Present ................................. 213
DETERMINING WHETHER LEVEL MEASURING DEVICES MEET
AUTOMATIC TANK GAUGING APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS ........................... 215
Purposes of Automatic Tank Gauging .................................................................. 216
Account for Inventory and/or Ownership Transfer ........................................... 216
Provide Effective Process Operations ............................................................. 217
Differences Between Automatic Tank Gauging and Process Level
Measurement ........................................................................................................ 217
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

Accuracy Requirements .................................................................................. 218

Data Access Intervals...................................................................................... 218
Communication Path ....................................................................................... 218
Types of Data Required................................................................................... 218
Tank Gauging Techniques .................................................................................... 219
Level Based Techniques ................................................................................. 219
Pressure Based Techniques............................................................................ 220
Combined (Hybrid) Techniques ....................................................................... 220
Tank Structure Considerations When Selecting Level Measuring Devices........... 222
Imperfections of Tanks .................................................................................... 222
Fixed Versus Floating Roof Tanks................................................................... 223
Importance of Reference Point to Level Measurement.................................... 224
Float and Tape Devices ........................................................................................ 225
Principles and Design ...................................................................................... 225
Performance .................................................................................................... 227
Installation ....................................................................................................... 228
Applications ..................................................................................................... 229
Servo Driven Displacers ....................................................................................... 230
Performance .................................................................................................... 232
Installation ....................................................................................................... 232
Applications ..................................................................................................... 233
Radar Devices ...................................................................................................... 234
Installation ....................................................................................................... 235
Performance and Applications......................................................................... 236
Ultrasonic Devices ................................................................................................ 237
Installation ....................................................................................................... 237
Performance .................................................................................................... 237
Hydrostatic Tank Gauging .................................................................................... 238
Performance .................................................................................................... 241
Installation ....................................................................................................... 242
Applications ..................................................................................................... 244
Closing Commentary on Automatic Tank Gauging.......................................... 244
WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE WHETHER LEVEL
MEASUREMENT DEVICES MEET APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS ..................... 245
Work Aid 1A: Vendor Data Sheets ....................................................................... 245
Work Aid 1B: Saudi Aramco Instrument Specification Sheets ............................. 245
Work Aid 1C: SADP-J-300 (See Course Handout 1.) .......................................... 245
Work Aid 1D: SAES-J-300 (See Course Handout 2.) .......................................... 245
Work Aid 1E: SADP-J-300 Supplements — Procedures for Calculating
Transmitter Calibration and Range ....................................................................... 245
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iv

WORK AID 2: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE THE APPROPRIATE

INTERFACE MEASURING DEVICE FOR A SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION ......... 246
Work Aid 2A: Vendor Data Sheets ....................................................................... 246
Work Aid 2E: SADP-J-300 Supplements — Procedures for Calculating
Transmitter Calibration and Range ....................................................................... 246
WORK AID 3: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE WHETHER LEVEL
MEASUREMENT DEVICES MEET TANK GAUGING APPLICATION
REQUIREMENTS ...................................................................................................... 247
Work Aid 3A: Vendor Data Sheets....................................................................... 247
Work Aid 3E: 34-SAMMS-318 ............................................................................. 247
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................... 248
ADDENDUM .............................................................................................................. 250
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards v

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Level Measurement Definition...................................................................... 11

Figure 2. Oil Separation Example................................................................................ 13
Figure 3. Oil Storage Example .................................................................................... 14
Figure 4. Point Level Control Loop Example ............................................................... 19
Figure 5. Continuous Level Control Example .............................................................. 20
Figure 6. Example of Level Symbols and Terms in a P&ID......................................... 22
Figure 7. Drawing Symbols and Legends.................................................................... 23
Figure 8. Same Level, Different Volume...................................................................... 24
Figure 9. Calculating Vessel Characteristics ............................................................... 25
Figure 10. Calculating Volume .................................................................................... 26
Figure 11. Dipstick Example........................................................................................ 29
Figure 12. Tubular Gauge Glass Example .................................................................. 30
Figure 13. Reflex Flat Gauge Glass Example ............................................................. 31
Figure 14. Transparent Flat Gauge Glass Example .................................................... 32
Figure 15. Magnetic Sight Gauge Example................................................................. 33
Figure 16. Magnetic Float Example............................................................................. 34
Figure 17. Float Example ............................................................................................ 35
Figure 18. Float Switch Example................................................................................. 36
Figure 19. Torque Tube Displacer............................................................................... 37
Figure 20. Servo Type Displacer ................................................................................. 38
Figure 21. Displacer Switch......................................................................................... 39
Figure 22. Compression Type Load Cell Example ...................................................... 40
Figure 23. Suspension System Example..................................................................... 41
Figure 24. Diaphragm Box and Continuous Diaphragm .............................................. 42
Figure 25. Bubbler Tube Example............................................................................... 43
Figure 26. Hydrostatic Head Example......................................................................... 44
Figure 27. Differential Pressure Example.................................................................... 45
Figure 28. Hydrostatic Tank Gauging.......................................................................... 46
Figure 29. Capacitance Concept ................................................................................. 47
Figure 30. Bare Capacitance Probe ............................................................................ 48
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards vi

Figure 31. Insulated Capacitance................................................................................ 49

Figure 32. RF Admittance ........................................................................................... 50
Figure 33. Conductivity Example................................................................................. 51
Figure 34. Resistance Sensor Example ...................................................................... 52
Figure 35. Non-contacting Pulse Type ........................................................................ 54
Figure 36. Non-invasive Pulse Type............................................................................ 55
Figure 37. Contacting Continuous Signal .................................................................... 56
Figure 38. Contacting Pulse Wave Signal Type .......................................................... 57
Figure 39. Microwave Radar Example ........................................................................ 58
Figure 40. Laser Example ........................................................................................... 59
Figure 41. Nuclear Level Measurement ...................................................................... 60
Figure 42. Thermal Level Measurement...................................................................... 61
Figure 43. Frequency of Level Measurement Usage................................................... 62
Figure 44. Standpipe Example .................................................................................... 76
Figure 45. Stillpipe Example........................................................................................ 77
Figure 46. Installation References............................................................................... 78
Figure 47. Dipstick Example........................................................................................ 84
Figure 48. Tubular Gauge Glass ................................................................................. 85
Figure 49. Tubular Gauge Glass Application............................................................... 86
Figure 50. Reflex Gauge Glass ................................................................................... 87
Figure 51. Reflex Gauge Glass Prisms ....................................................................... 88
Figure 52. Reflex Gauge Glass Design ....................................................................... 89
Figure 53. References for Gauge Glass Selection ...................................................... 91
Figure 54. Reflex Gauge Glass Application................................................................. 92
Figure 55. Transparent Flat Gauge Glass ................................................................... 93
Figure 56. Transparent Flat Gauge Glass Design ....................................................... 94
Figure 57. Transparent Flat Gauge Glass Concept..................................................... 94
Figure 58. Separation Example ................................................................................... 96
Figure 59. Float Switch Example................................................................................. 97
Figure 60. Float Switch Design ................................................................................... 98
Figure 61. References for Float Selection ................................................................. 100
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards vii

Figure 62. Float Switch Application ........................................................................... 101

Figure 63. Chain Float Gauge ................................................................................... 102
Figure 64. Float Example .......................................................................................... 103
Figure 65. Float Mounting ......................................................................................... 104
Figure 66. Float Application....................................................................................... 105
Figure 67. Magnetic Float Example........................................................................... 106
Figure 68. Displacement Principles ........................................................................... 108
Figure 69. Displacement Design ............................................................................... 109
Figure 70. Displacer Switch Application: Pump Control ............................................ 112
Figure 71. References for Displacer Selection .......................................................... 113
Figure 72. Torque Tube Design ................................................................................ 114
Figure 73. Torque Tube Application: Bottoms Level Measurement........................... 115
Figure 74. Example Pressure to Level Measurement................................................ 118
Figure 75. Level in Terms of Pressure ...................................................................... 120
Figure 76. Bubbler Tube Principles ........................................................................... 122
Figure 77. Bubbler Tube Application ......................................................................... 123
Figure 78. Diaphragm Options .................................................................................. 125
Figure 79. Datum Line............................................................................................... 127
Figure 80. Application: Level Measurement in Storage Vessel ................................. 128
Figure 81. High Side to Tank Bottom ........................................................................ 130
Figure 82. Connection for Closed Tank..................................................................... 131
Figure 83. Application Example: Butane Product ...................................................... 137
Figure 84. References for Hydrostatic Head Selection.............................................. 138
Figure 85. Open Tank Range Calculation ................................................................. 142
Figure 86. Open Tank Wet Leg Range Calculation ................................................... 145
Figure 87. Closed Tank Dry Leg Range Calculation ................................................. 149
Figure 88. Closed Tank Wet Leg Range Calculation................................................. 152
Figure 89. Capacitance Probe Types ........................................................................ 158
Figure 90. Installation References............................................................................. 160
Figure 91. Example Probe Gain Graph ..................................................................... 162
Figure 92. Application Example: De-watering Tank................................................... 163
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards viii

Figure 93. References for Electrical Type Device Selection...................................... 164

Figure 94. RF Admittance Vectors ............................................................................ 165
Figure 95. Application: Automatic Well Testing ......................................................... 167
Figure 96. Impedance Probe Design......................................................................... 168
Figure 97. Application: De-watering Tank Level Switch ............................................ 169
Figure 98. Conductivity Device Design...................................................................... 170
Figure 99. Application: Water Collection Pot for Crude Stabilizer ............................. 172
Figure 100. Resistance Tape Design ........................................................................ 173
Figure 101. Resistance Tape in Water Well .............................................................. 174
Figure 102. Ultrasonic Principles............................................................................... 175
Figure 103. Application: Oily Water Sewer Sump ..................................................... 179
Figure 104. Nuclear Devices ..................................................................................... 180
Figure 105. Load Cell Usage..................................................................................... 182
Figure 106. FMCW Method ....................................................................................... 185
Figure 107. Radar System Design ............................................................................ 187
Figure 108. Radar Antennas ..................................................................................... 188
Figure 109. Floating Roof Tank Installation............................................................... 192
Figure 110. Fixed Roof Tank Installation................................................................... 192
Figure 111. Fully Isolated Mounting .......................................................................... 193
Figure 112. LPG Application ..................................................................................... 194
Figure 113. Optical Device Design ............................................................................ 197
Figure 114. Interface in Oil Separation Example ....................................................... 199
Figure 115. Crude Oil Desalting Example ................................................................. 200
Figure 116. External Displacer Configurations .......................................................... 202
Figure 117. Interface Measurement in Settling Tank................................................. 204
Figure 118. Probe Installation ................................................................................... 207
Figure 119. Application: Crude Oil Desalter .............................................................. 208
Figure 120. References for Level Measuring Device Selection for an
Interface Application ............................................................................. 209
Figure 121. Hydrostatic Method for Interface Detection ............................................ 210
Figure 122. Multiple D/Ps for Interface Detection...................................................... 211
Figure 123. Emulsions Presence in Interface............................................................ 213
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ix

Figure 124. References for Level Measuring Device Selection for Automatic
Tank Gauging ....................................................................................... 221
Figure 125. Tank Imperfections That Affect Level Measurement .............................. 223
Figure 126. Float in Fixed (Cone) Roof Tank ............................................................ 226
Figure 127. References for Float and Tape Device Installation................................. 229
Figure 128. Servo Driven Displacer........................................................................... 230
Figure 129. Servo Driven Displacer Design .............................................................. 231
Figure 130. References for Servo Driven Displacer .................................................. 232
Figure 131. Tank Radar Operations .......................................................................... 234
Figure 132. References for Radar Device Installation ............................................... 235
Figure 133. HTG System........................................................................................... 238
Figure 134. HTG Calculations ................................................................................... 240
Figure 135. HTG Measurements............................................................................... 240
Figure 136. Performance References ....................................................................... 242
Figure 137. References for HTG Installation ............................................................. 242
Figure 138. HTG Measurement when Vessel is Spherical ........................................ 243
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards x

LEVEL MEASUREMENT: PURPOSE, TERMINOLOGY AND

SYMBOLOGY, AND CATEGORIES OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT
DEVICES
This course module discusses the selection of level

measurement devices used to measure process material levels
encountered in Saudi Aramco operations. Process materials
requiring level measurements include liquids, nonmixing
(immiscible) liquids, gases, and solids.
The following discussion provides an introductory overview of

level measurement in terms of
• the purpose of level measurement,

• terminology and symbology, and
• general categories of level devices.
Purpose of Level Measurement
Level measurement, as used in this course material, is defined

as the measurement of an interface with respect to a reference
or datum point (Figure 1). The level measurement occurs
between the two reference points. In Figure 1, the reference
points are shown as an upper level reference and lower level
reference.
Upper Reference Point
Level: The Measurement Of

An Interface With Respect
To A Reference Point
Lower Reference Point
Figure 1. Level Measurement Definition
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

The purpose of level measurement is to provide a measured

variable representing the height or material presence within a
vessel. The measured variable is then used in one or more of
the following ways, where the measured variable becomes:
• a local level indication,
• a detection of material presence,
• an input signal to a level control scheme,
• or a measured quantity in hydrocarbon inventory

management.
The purpose and importance of level measurement is best

illustrated in the following plant operations, where the level
measurement variable is used to:
• control a vessel’s process material level in order to provide

satisfactory process performance, or
• accurately measure a crude oil storage tank’s level in order

to calculate hydrocarbon inventories.
Level measurement is essential to the effective control of

a vessel’s process material level. The level control scheme for
a vessel requires a level measurement value. The level
measurement value provides the level control scheme either a
quantity, such as a representation of height, or a logical value,
such as the on/off condition of a limit switch that represents the
detection of process material presence.
As an example of the general importance of controlling a

vessel’s level for satisfactory process performance, consider the
effects of inadequate level control in a vessel. If the level is too
low, damage to a vessel’s discharge centrifugal pump from
cavitation and excessive wear occurs. If the level is too high,
then additional storage capacity will not be available in the
vessel to store unplanned increases in process inlet quantities.

As a more specific example of the role of level measurement in

level control, consider the role of level measurement in a typical
spherical three phase oil/gas/water separator (Figure 2). For
separation to occur, a liquid seal must occur in the lower portion
of the vessel. The liquid seal prevents the loss of the gas within
the oil. The liquid seal is accomplished through level control,
which in turn is dependent upon a level measurement value.
Off Gas
Crude Notch
Oil Off Gas
Crude Oil Water Level HH
LT Weir ~ 2" Below Bottom
Water Of Weir Notch
LC
Crude
Oil
Water Crude
Oil
LT = Level Transmitter
LC = Level Controller
LCV = Level Control Value
Figure 2. Oil Separation Example

Accurate level measurement is also necessary when measuring

storage tank levels (Figure 3). Consider the role of level
measurement when calculating the hydrocarbon inventory for a
45.7 meter (150 foot) diameter storage tank. The inventory
calculation requires accurate level measurement values. A level
measurement error of 3.2 mm (1/8”) represents 5680 liters
(1500 gallons) of a hydrocarbon product. Assuming that the
product is crude oil, this represents 35.7 barrels of crude. If the
cost of the product is 80 Riyals per barrel, then this could
represent over 2800 Riyals worth of inventory that is not
properly accounted for.
LI
Level
Indication
Floating Roof Tank
Figure 3. Oil Storage Example

The broad variety of level measurement devices available to

accomplish level measurement makes the level measurement
device selection process challenging. Additionally, more than
one level measurement device can be required in a level
measurement application, forming a level measurement system.
The intended use for the level measured variable, such as
process control and/or inventory accounting, has a major
influence upon the selection of a level measurement device.
Because the selection of a level measurement device or system

is dependent upon the intended use of the level measurement
variable, the selection process becomes application dependent.
The application itself may require one or more types of level
measurements. The level measurement selection process
begins with identifying the type of level measurement that is
required in the application. The types of level measurement
encountered in applications can be broadly categorized as the
following:
• Point level process measurements

• Continuous level process measurements
• Level measurements in automatic tank gauging
applications
Point Level
Process
Measurements
Point level process measurements are a type of level
measurement used when the level measurement device or
system provides a logical (true or false, on-off) representation of
material presence at some predetermined point(s) within the
vessel. Point level process measurements are also referred to
as “point level detections,” or “level set point” measurements.
Point level process measurements often are accomplished
through the use of level switches. Each level switch is installed
at a predetermined height or “point level” within the vessel.
Uses for point level measurements include one or both of the
following:
• Point level process indication
• Point level process control

Point Level Process Indication provides an indication of

process material level at a point within a vessel. A single point
level alarm, such as a vessel level high alarm limit, is an
example of point level process indication.
Point Level Process Control provides the control of a material

level between two points in a vessel. To accomplish point level
process control, more than one level switch senses a liquid
presence at two (or more) measured “point levels” in a tank.
For example, in a vessel the conditions controlling level can be
dependent upon the level measurement device, such as a
switch, sensing material presence. When the high level switch
is on, a discharge pump is turned on, which lowers the level.
When the level drops and activates the lower level limit switch,
the pump is turned off.
An application could require both point level indication and

control, hence the phrase “point level process indication and
control.”
Continuous Level
Process
Measurements
In continuous level process measurements, a level
measurement system can provide a numeric representation of
the current position (height) of the process material’s surface.
The numeric value, sometimes expressed in meters or feet, is
based upon a proportion of material currently sensed by the
level measurement system. The level is measured continuously
between a lower reference level and an upper reference level.
Uses for continuous level measurements include one or both of
the following:
• Continuous level process indication
• Continuous level process control

Continuous Level Process Indication provides a continuous

numeric indication of level within a vessel. A numeric indication
of level height, such as the liquid level in a non-critical water
storage vessel, is an example of continuous level process
indication. In this example, only an indication of the level is
provided because automatic control is not necessary. If it is
necessary to adjust the level, an operator could manually open
or close the fill or drain valves.
Continuous Level Process Control provides the control of

process material level between two points in a vessel. For
example, in a distillation tower, level control is accomplished by
adjusting the flow through a bottoms valve. A level sensor
measures the level between the two reference points. The level
sensor’s signal is sent to a level transmitter, which generates an
output signal. The output signal of the level transmitter is
connected as an input signal to a level controller. The level
controller’s output is connected to a bottoms flow valve, which
controls the bottoms flow based on the difference between a
known set point and the current process level signal.
An application could require both continuous level indication and

control; hence the phrase “continuous level process indication
and control.”
Level
Measurements in
Automatic Tank
Gauging
Applications
Although one could argue that level measurements within an
automatic tank gauging application are indeed continuous or
point level measurements, an exception to that categorization is
made here. An automatic tank gauging application does not
necessarily have as its primary objective the use of a level
measurement quantity as part of a process control scheme.
While an objective of level measurement in automatic tank
gauging applications is to measure, as accurately as possible,
the material level within the tank, the level measurement
quantity is used calculate inventory quantities.

Automatic tank gauging systems may also provide temperature

and density measurements, which are necessary for calculating
inventories at standard conditions. Therefore, automatic tank
gauging is regarded as not just another form of process level
measurement, but as a separate discipline involving several
process measurements. The level measurement aspect of an
automatic tank gauging application, however, does have a
major influence on which level measurement device an engineer
selects.
Typical Level
Control Loops
Typical level control loops can use, as implied in the previous
discussion, a measured variable from either a point level
measurement or continuous level measurement. Thus, the
examples that follow describe a
• Typical point level control loop, and a
• Typical continuous level control loop.
Typical Point Level Control Loop - Point level control is

possible using on-off level switches for controlling the interface
level control in an oil and water separator. The oil and water
mixture is separated with the oil removed from the top of the
vessel and water drained from the vessel’s bottom. In this
example, the control of level does not require continuous level
measurement and level control. A lower level switch and upper
level switch can be used to provide point level measurements
(Figure 4). The two level switches provide input, in the form of
on/off values, to the level control logic in a programmable
controller. The level control logic could represent the condition -
“If the lower level switch is on, then the level measurement
indicates oil, so close the valve. If the upper level switch is on,
then the level measurement indicates water, so open the valve.”

The level control logic starts with the interface level between the
level switches. When water reaches the upper level switch, the
valve opens. The valve remains open until the lower level
switch indicates oil, then closes. The interface level can then
fluctuate between the two level switches. Because the water is
often pumped to a holding tank and recovery system, the level
control logic could also be connected to a pump to turn it on and
off when needed.
Oil
High Level
Detection
LS
Control
Interface
Logic
LS
Low Level Water

Detection
Pump
Figure 4. Point Level Control Loop Example

Typical Continuous Level Control Loop - A crude oil desalter

(Figure 5) illustrates how a continuous level measurement is
used in continuous level control. Before raw crude is refined, it
is washed in a desalter to reduce the crude oil’s salt content.
The desalter itself is a long horizontal vessel containing crude oil
and water. The position of where water and crude oil meet is
called the “interface.” The level measurement device used here
consists of a level sensing device and a level transmitter. The
position of the interface is measured with a level sensing device.
The level sensing device is able to provide its level transmitter a
physical variable, such as a voltage or displacement, to
represent the interface position. The level transmitter sends its
signal representing the position of the interface to the level
controller. The interface position must be closely controlled by
the level controller in order for the vessel to have a constant
throughput of crude oil. Because water and oil densities
change, the position of the interface changes. The need to
control the interface’s changing position requires a level
measurement device that can accurately and consistently locate
the interface.
Level Desalted Crude
Transmitter Discharge Pump
LT
Level LC
Control
Crude
Gas/Oil Desalter
Desalter Water Exchanger
Sour Water Stripper
Foul Water Disposal
Figure 5. Continuous Level Control Example
To select a level measurement device, an engineer must first

have a familiarity with level measurement terminology.

Terminology and Symbology
This section discusses terminology and symbology topics

applicable to level measurement and level measurement device
selection, which include:
• Units of measure
• Examples of terms and symbols
• Drawing symbols
• Influences of vessel characteristics.
Units of Measure
Depending upon the level measurement application, the units of
measure are either in distance, weight, or volume. In
continuous level indication and control, the level distance is
typically measured in units of meters (feet), while for smaller
tanks the level distance can be measured in centimeters
(inches). The term “head” is also used to represent the
measurement of the height of a process material. When level is
inferred from a pressure measurement, the units of measure are
often in either millimeters or inches of water column.
When volume is measured, the units may be in cubic feet,

gallons, million gallons, cubic meters, liters, million liters, and
petroleum barrels. In tank gauging and custody transfer
operations, where the concern is accurate measurement of
inventory, the units can include weight, such as kilograms
(pounds).
Level measurements, while representing as a height of a liquid

surface from a reference (datum) line, are also used for the
following:
• Volume determination
• Weight determination
Volume determination can be calculated from a measurement of

level height (distance). For example, a volume for a cylindrical
tank can be determined from a direct measurement of height,
based on the calculation:
Vvolume = Avessel area x L height of process materials

Weight determination can be calculated using a direct

measurement of level height (distance). For example, a weight
measurement, using a process material’s density, may be
determined from a direct level measurement of height, based on
the calculation:
Wweight = Avessel area x L height of process materials x Ddensity
Typical Examples
of Symbols and
Terms
The most common terms and abbreviations for level
measurement devices are “LT” for the level transmitter, and “LS”
for the level switch. An example of how level symbols could
appear in a Process Instrument and Drawing (P&ID) is shown in
Figure 6. Refer to Figure 7, which excerpts level instrument
symbols from Saudi Aramco Drawing AC-036950 and an
instrument legend from a typical Saudi Aramco Process
Instrument and Drawing (P&ID).
LS
HH HH
LA
100 100
HH
LS
100
HHLL Water 900mm
LE LIT
100 110
Where:
HH = High High
HHLL = High High Liquid Level
LS = Level Switch
Crude Inlet Separator Sphere LA = Level Alarm
LE = Level Element
LIT = Level Indicating Transmitter
Figure 6. Example of Level Symbols and Terms in a P&ID

Drawing Symbols
Drawing symbols representing level instruments are shown
in Figure 7. The symbols conform to Saudi Aramco
requirements specified in SAES-J-004 (Instrument Symbols and
Identification).
Instrument Symbols Instrument Line Symbols

Process Line
Connections to Process or
Mechanical Link or
LG Instrument Supply
Instrument Air Header

Level Gauge Glass Instrument Signal Line
(Pneumatic)
Instrument Signal Line

(Electrical/Electronic)
LT
Instrument Capillary Tube
Level Transmitter
Diff. Pressue Type Electromagnetic or Sonic
Signal (Without Wiring or Tubing)
Instrument Legend
LT LA Level Alarm
LC Level Control
Level Transmitter LE Level Element
Ext. Float/Displ Type
LG Level Gauge Glass
LIC Level Indicating Controller
LS LI Level Indicator
LIT Level Indicating Transmitter
Level Switch LR Level Recorder
Externally Mounted LS Level Switch
001066
LS LT Level Transmitter
LTd Level Transducer
x = Miscellaneous Designations
Multi-Position Level Switch H High
Internally Mounted HH High High
HHH High High High
Abbreviations Outside Of L Low
Instrument Symbol LL Low Low
LL Liquid Level LLL Low Low Low
Figure 7. Drawing Symbols and Legends
Note that the piping symbols for electrical and pneumatic

signals as used at Saudi Aramco are the reverse of instrument
society and industry symbol usage.

Having seen that level measurements may be expressed in

terms of distance, weight, or volume would lead you to believe
that level measurement device selection should be fairly easy.
However, you must also consider the physical characteristics of
a vessel when selecting a level measurement device.
Influences of
Vessel
Characteristics
The vessel’s characteristics do affect level measurements. Not
all vessels are perfect geometric shapes with easy to calculate
volumes. The physical characteristics that can be relevant in
level measurement device selection are:
• Vessel deformations
• Vessel geometries
Vessel Deformations can occur during level measurement.

Deformations may occur when the vessel is filled. For example,
wall stretching occurs in a crude oil storage tank because of the
increasing hydrostatic pressure on the walls as the vessel fills.
While vessel deformations are beyond the scope of this course
module, they must be taken into account when performing a
level measurement. Some level measurement systems provide
means for compensating deformation effects through the use of
tank correction tables.
Vessel Geometries can include horizontal flat, horizontal

elliptical, horizontal spherical, vertical flat, vertical conical,
spherical, and other irregularly shaped vessels. Vessel shape
becomes important when a level measurement is used to infer a
volume or mass of process material. This consideration can be
seen in Figure 8 where 3 vessel shapes - each with the same
level reading - nevertheless contain different volumes of liquid.
Same Level, Different Volume
Figure 8. Same Level, Different Volume

Example of
Calculating Vessel
Characteristics
As an example of how a vessel’s shape relates to level
measurement and the subsequently derived volume, consider
the calculation for the volume of a storage vessel. Often volume
data as well as level data is required by various departments. If
the storage vessel (Figure 9) is a cylindrically shaped vessel,
such as skimmed oil drum, then the volume calculation can be
complex.
For example, assume the following for the calculation:
• A flat end cylindrical tank
• Tank diameter = 5 feet
• Tank length = 15 feet
• Tank level is currently at 1.5 feet.
The challenge is to calculate the volume of skimmed oil

currently in the vessel.
15 ft Length
5 ft
Diameter
Skimmed Oil
Drum Level
At 1.5 ft
Figure 9. Calculating Vessel Characteristics

To begin the volume calculation, you must first know the area of
BCDE:
Area BCD = Area ABCD - Area ABD.
Area ABCD’s calculation is based upon:
Area ABCD = (2 ∠DAEº/360º) x area of circle
15 ft Length
5 ft
Diameter
AC = AD = AB = 2.5 ft
EC = Level = 1.5 ft
AE = 1.0 ft
A DAE = cos 1.0 = 66.4Þ
2.5
2.5
1.0 E
D B
1.5
Figure 10. Calculating Volume

The calculation for the volume follows.
Determine the area ABD:
Area ABD = 1.0 x 1.5 x sin –DAEº
where sin –DAEº requires knowing –DAEº.
Since –DAEº = cos (1.0/2.5),
then –DAEº = 66.42º
Calculate area ABD:
Area ABD = 1.0 x 2.5 x sin 66.42º
Area ABD = 1.0 x 2.5 x .916
Area ABD = 2.3 ft2
Calculate area ABCD:
Area ABCD = (2 ∠DAEº/360º) x area of circle
Area ABCD = (2 x 66.42º/360º) x π x (2.5)2
Area ABCD = 7.3 ft2
Calculate the volume:
Area BCD = Area ABCD - Area ABD.
Area BCD = 7.3 ft2 - 2.3 ft2
Area BCD = 5.0 ft2
Volume = Area BCD x 1gal/.1337 ft3 (conversion) x

vessel length
Volume = 5.0 ft2 x 1gal/.1337 ft3 x 15 feet
Volume = 560.9 gallons

The volume calculation can become more complex if the vessel

is a “bullet” shape with spherical ends.
Note that if the vessel’s length doubled, one can easily see that
the volume doubles. An important conclusion, then, is that
depending upon the vessel’s shape and length, a small level
change can represent a large change in volume. From this
example one can observe that a vessel’s shape can influence
level measurement device selection.
General Categories of Level Devices
Of the process measurement devices discussed in the

PCI 101 course (flow, temperature, pressure, and level), level
measurement applications use the most extensive variety of
devices. The following discussion provides the Saudi Aramco
engineer an overview of that extensive variety. Typical level
measurement devices include the following:
• Sight
• Float type
• Displacement type
• Force type
• Pressure type
• Electrical type
• Ultrasonic type
• Microwave radar
• Other types

Sight
Sight level measurement devices primarily are used to give the
operator a local visual indication of the process material’s level.
Sight level measurement devices include:
• dip stick
• tubular gauge glass
• reflex flat gauge glass
• transparent flat gauge glass
Dip Stick - The simplest example of a level measurement

device is the dip stick. The dip stick (Figure 11) is a long rod
with a graduated scale. The dip stick’s wetted portion of the
scale indicates the height of liquid in the vessel.
Dipstick
Underground
Vessel
Figure 11. Dipstick Example

Tubular Gauge Glass - One of the simplest and earliest

devices for an above-ground vessel is a sight glass. One type
of sight glass is the tubular gauge glass (Figure 12). A tubular
gauge glass is so named because a tubular glass columnar
enclosure is externally connected to a vessel. Because the
tubular glass enclosure acts as a bypass for a liquid, the
vessel’s liquid seeks the same position as the liquid within the
glass enclosure. The tubular gauge glass is marked with the
measurement units in either meters or inches.
Liquid
Level
Tubular Gauge
Glass
Figure 12. Tubular Gauge Glass Example

Reflex Flat Gauge Glass - Like the tubular gauge glass, a

reflex flat gauge glass (Figure 13) also uses an enclosure
to allow parallel passage of vessel fluids. The enclosure,
however, is a metal chamber with a flat piece of glass clamped
on one side of the chamber. The flat piece of glass contains
reflecting prisms to indicate material level. The reflecting prisms
make a liquid material appear dark when it contacts the glass.
When liquid material does not make contact with the reflecting
prisms, the glass appears silvery white. Level is then observed
as a boundary between black and white colors.
Reflex
Metal Glass
Chamber
Light
Liquid
Light
Liquid
Level
Reflex Flat
Gauge Glass
Figure 13. Reflex Flat Gauge Glass Example

Transparent Flat Gauge Glass - Like the reflex gauge glass, a

transparent flat gauge (Figure 14) glass uses a metal chamber
to allow parallel passage of vessel fluids. On each side of metal
chamber, a plain flat glass is clamped. Because light passes
through both glasses on each side of the chamber, the gauge is
called a “transparent flat gauge glass.” The transparent flat
gauge glass provides visual indication at one side of the
chamber when light is available on the other side of the
chamber. The transparent flat gauge permits observation of
liquid color, condition, or a liquid/gas interface position.
Transparent
Glasses
Liquid
Light
Liquid
Level
Transparent Flat
Gauge Glass
Figure 14. Transparent Flat Gauge Glass Example

Magnetic Sight Gauge - In certain applications, where the

process fluid is very corrosive or at a high pressure, a gauge
glass would not be acceptable. The risk from glass breakage
would have harmful consequences. In those applications, a
magnetic sight gauge (Figure 15) is acceptable. A magnetic
gauge uses brightly colored wafers to indicate the level position.
As the magnetic float within the gauge travels with the liquid, the
magnetically coupled float flips over the wafers to provide an
indication of the level.
Level
Vessel
Indicating
Standpipe
Wafers
Magnet
Float
Figure 15. Magnetic Sight Gauge Example

Float Type
Float type devices consist of an element called a float, which
contacts and follows the surface of a liquid. An external readout
device can be connected to the float to provide local indication
of the level within the vessel. Types of float type devices
include:
• magnetic float,
• float and tape, and
• float switches.
Magnetic Float - A magnetic float device (Figure 16) contains a

magnet within the float. As the liquid surface position changes,
a corresponding change in float position occurs. The float itself
is magnetically coupled to a tape within a internal pipe. The
tape senses the float changes in level. Because the tape has a
connection to a level indicator, the tape’s movement is
converted to a level indication.
Magnets Process
Level
Figure 16. Magnetic Float Example

Float and Tape - Generally, float and tape devices use a float
resting on the surface of a liquid (Figure 17). The float is
restricted by guide wires or rods so that the float can only move
in an up or down direction. A cable is attached to the float. The
cable is also routed through pulley assemblies and attached to
an external readout device. The external readout device, called
a gauge head assembly, provides local level indication.
Float
Gauge Head
Assembly
Float (External
Guide Readout)
Wires
Figure 17. Float Example

Float Switch - Float switches (Figure 18), like float and tape
devices, employ a float element that rests on the liquid surface.
As the float element reaches a predetermined point level, a
switch actuating element causes a relay to actuate (that is, open
or close). The switch mechanism itself is used to provide high
or low level alarm conditions or point level detection.
Float Switch
Float
High Level
Low Level
Figure 18. Float Switch Example
Displacement Type
Displacement type devices differ from float type devices in that
they do not float on the surface, but are partially immersed in
the vessel’s liquid. Displacer type devices are usually contained
within a chamber that is external to the vessel. Inside the
external chamber is a float-like element called the displacer.
The displacer remains in a relatively fixed position and
experiences very little observable movement. Although the
displacer remains in a relatively fixed position, the buoyancy
forces acting upon the displacer are measurable. The buoyancy
forces displace or change the apparent weight of the displacer.
The changing buoyancy forces of a changing level are thus
converted to a level measurement. Types of displacers used in
Saudi Aramco level measurements include the following:
• torque tube displacer,
• servo type displacer, and
• displacer switches.

Torque Tube - A torque tube displacer (Figure 19) is so named

because torque due to buoyancy forces acting upon the
displacement element are used to infer a level measurement.
At the top of the torque tube chamber, the displacer’s buoyancy
force is measured by a torque arm assembly. As the level in the
tank changes, the level in the external chamber changes. As
the level changes, the buoyant forces placed upon the displacer
changes. Although the small movement on the displacer
appears insignificant to an observer, the small movement
produces a torque that can be measured and converted to a
level measurement.
Torque
External
Tube
Displacer
Chamber
Local
Indication
Device
Displacer
Liquid
Level
Figure 19. Torque Tube Displacer

Servo Type Displacer is so named because a displacer element

continually follows the liquid level through the use of level
sensing technology that includes servo motors and precision
balancing mechanisms. The servo type displacer uses
precision transducers and microprocessor technology to provide
highly accurate level measurements. The servo type displacer
is mounted at the top of the tank. The servo type displacer is
also referred to as a “servo gauge” or “servo driven displacer.”
Servo type displacers are usually intended for automatic tank
gauging applications.
Servo Motor
Inside Enclosure
Servo
Type
Displacer
Displacer
Level
Figure 20. Servo Type Displacer

Displacer Switch - A displacer switch (Figure 21) employs one

or more displacer float-like elements, which are typically held in
place by a spring. As the level changes, the changing buoyancy
forces act upon the float-like elements. As the buoyancy forces
are sensed by the displacer switch’s sensors, the switches
actuate. Like the float switch, the switch actuation is used to
provide high or low level alarm conditions or point level
measurement and control.
A displacer switch can be used in complex process level

detections, such as a foaming or an agitated liquid level
application that otherwise would not suitable for a float switch.
Because one or more float-like elements can be employed in
one displacer switch device, the displacer switch also provides a
way to start and stop a series of pumps based upon the
detected level.
Displacer Switch
Displacers
High Level
Low Level
Figure 21. Displacer Switch

Force Type
Level measurement devices that can detect pressure exerted
against a sensor are called force type devices. Force type
devices are more frequently called “load cell” weighing devices.
Load cells are on occasion used in level measurements of dry,
dusty solids or hazardous, toxic liquids. The purpose of level
measurement devices is to determine the amount of material in
the vessel. Load cells are the direct measurement of the mass
of the material. When reverting from mass measurement to
level, the specific gravity of the material must be known. If the
size varies, the mass will not change but the level of the
assumed material can be in error. Load cell weighing devices
are often found in two varieties:
• compression type load cells, and
• suspension systems.
Compression type load cells are installed in the supports at the

bottom of the tank (Figure 22). As material is added to the tank,
the compression on the load cells increases. Compression is
converted to weight, which can then be converted to a level
measurement.
Level
Force
Load
Cells
Figure 22. Compression Type Load Cell Example

Suspension System - Above the top of a small suspended

vessel, a load cell is installed (Figure 23). As the vessel is filled
with dry, dusty solids, the solids compress under their own
weight. The load cell measures the force representing the
weight. The force can then be used to infer the process
material’s level within the suspended vessel.
Load
Cell
Process Suspension
Material Cables Or
Chains
Suspended
Vessel
Level
Figure 23. Suspension System Example
Pressure Type
Level measurement devices that use hydrostatic pressure to
infer a level measurement are called pressure type or
hydrostatic head devices, which include:
• diaphragm box systems
• continuous diaphragm systems
• bubbler tubes
• pressure transmitters
• differential pressure transmitters
• hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG) systems.

Diaphragm Box Systems, when installed inside of a vessel,

consist of a stationary enclosure consisting of a diaphragm and
captive air. As the level increases, the pressure increases. The
enclosed diaphragm box (Figure 24) senses the increasing
pressure. The enclosed diaphragm box is connected with
tubing to a pressure detector, which provides the level
indication.
Continuous Diaphragm Systems provide a continuous level

indication (Figure 24). A continuous air supply, which is fed to
one side of the diaphragm, acts as a force against the force of
static pressure from the liquid on the other side of the
diaphragm.
Vent
Level
Air
Indicator (LI)
Supply
Diaphragm
Box
Diaphragm Vent
Air LI
Continuous Diaphragm
Figure 24. Diaphragm Box and Continuous Diaphragm

Bubbler Tubes are inserted from the top of an open vessel to

just above the bottom of the vessel. The bubbler tube (Figure
25) is connected to an air or gas supply. The air supply valve
regulates a constant flow of air or gas that is enough to form a
flow of bubbles out the end of the tube. A level indicating
transmitter, installed at the top of the bubbler tube, measures
the pressure. The level indicating transmitter is actually a
pressure transmitter. The pressure is used to infer a level
measurement.
Pressure Transmitter
LIT Provides Level
Indication
Air
Supply
Bubbler
Tube
Level
Figure 25. Bubbler Tube Example

Hydrostatic Head measurement is accomplished through the

use of a pressure transmitter (Figure 26). For example,
assuming that the liquid density is constant, level measurement
in an open or vented tank requires only one pressure transmitter
installed at the bottom of the tank. Like the bubbler tube, the
measurement of pressure is used to infer a level measurement.
Vent
Liquid
Storage
Vessel
Hydrostatic
Head
PIT
Pressure Indicating Transmitter
Figure 26. Hydrostatic Head Example

Differential Pressure measurements are often accomplished

through the use of a differential pressure transmitter (Figure 27).
The differential pressure transmitter measures the difference
between pressure applied to the surface of the liquid and the
hydrostatic head due to the liquid. In a pressurized tank, two
process connections (taps) are required for the differential
pressure transmitter. The upper process connection is above
the liquid level so that the vessel’s internal vapor pressure can
be measured. The process material level is then inferred from
the differential pressure measured by the level indicating
transmitter.
Hydrostatic Liquid
Head Measured Product
Across dPIT
Sphere
This Span
Where:
d/p = "delta P" or
Differential Pressure H.P. L.P.
H.P. = High Side Of d/p
L.P. = Low Side Of d/p Differential
Pressure
Transmitter
Figure 27. Differential Pressure Example

Hydrostatic Tank Gauging (HTG) refers to a multi-transmitter

application that uses microprocessor based instrumentation to
provide accurate level, volume and inventory measurements, as
well as mass calculations. HTG approaches are found in both
process level measurements and in automatic tank gauging
applications. Because pressure based measurements are
employed, the approach is called “hydrostatic tank gauging.”
The HTG method (Figure 28) itself is not new - what is new is
the use of microprocessor based instruments to accomplish the
accuracies HTG requires. While HTG applications vary, several
pressure transmitters (labeled P1, P2, P3) can be employed.
The pressure transmitters perform the following:
• The pressure transmitter P1 is used to infer level, L, from

hydrostatic head.
• The pressure transmitter P2 is used to determine density,

D, based on the height from P1 to P2.
• The pressure transmitter P3 is used to account for internal

vapor pressure if the vessel is closed.
• The RTD temperature transmitter is used to account for

temperature variations which affect density.
P3
Crude Oil
P2
L D T
RTD
P1
Cone Roof Tank
Figure 28. Hydrostatic Tank Gauging

Electrical Type
Electrical type devices measure a process material’s level
through the use an electrical effect, such as capacitance or
resistance, and convert the measured electrical property to a
level measurement. Electrical type devices use properties such
as:
• capacitance
• conductance
• resistance
A brief discussion of capacitance as it applies to level
measurement is necessary before mentioning any particular
capacitance probe. A capacitance probe (Figure 29), when
installed in a vessel, serves as one plate of a capacitor while the
tank walls act as the other plate. The liquid within a vessel acts
as the dielectric barrier between the two capacitive plates.
Because two capacitive plates are present, a capacitance probe
is able to use a liquid’s dielectric constant to determine a
vessel’s level. The liquid’s dielectric constant is expressed as
“KL.” The liquid’s dielectric constant, KL, is always higher than
the dielectric constant of air, expressed as “KA.” As the level
rises, and as liquid replaces air, the higher dielectric constant of
a liquid, KL, is sensed by the probe because KA decreases. The
increasing capacitance that occurs as the level rises is used to
infer a level measurement.
A Capacitance
Is Measured
Insulator
Capacitance Probe
KA KA = Dielectric
Constant Of Air
KL KL = Dielectric
Constant Of
Liquid
KL > KA
Figure 29. Capacitance Concept

The term “capacitance probe” often causes confusion among

engineers because vendors give the capacitance devices
different names such as capacitance/RF, RF admittance, RF
impedance. The different names given to a capacitance probe
are intended to describe the type of capacitance measurement
technology employed. Several common capacitance probe
technologies are briefly described in the following discussion.
Bare Capacitance - Bare capacitance probes (Figure 30)

represent probe configurations that are not insulated from a
vessel’s fluid, but insulated from the vessel walls. If the fluid
does not conduct electricity, then it is possible to create and
measure the capacitance between the tank walls and the probe.
Bare
Capacitance
Probe (+)
Vessel
Wall (-)
+ -
Capacitance Forms
Between Bare Probe
And Tank Walls
Figure 30. Bare Capacitance Probe

Insulated Capacitance - When the liquid is conductive, then a

coated or insulated probe is installed. An insulated probe
(Figure 31) prevents the flow of electric current between the two
capacitor plates, which are the tank walls and the probe. If the
probe were not insulated, a capacitance measurement would
not be possible because current flow would occur between the
two capacitor plates.
Capacitance
Probe (+)
Probe
Insulation
Conductive
Process
Media (-)
Capacitance Forms
In Probe Insulation
Figure 31. Insulated Capacitance

Radio Frequency (RF) Admittance - While capacitance probes

measure the capacitance of the material, if the probe becomes
coated with process material, false level measurements can
occur when the process material falls below the probe. RF
admittance systems provide anti-coating technology to avoid the
false level measurement readings that would occur under these
conditions (Figure 32).
RF
Admittance
System
Coatings Cause
Additional
Capacitance
Level
Figure 32. RF Admittance

Conductance - Conductivity devices operate by creating an

electrical path between a probe electrode and the vessel wall.
A low level AC or DC voltage is applied to the probe electrode.
When a liquid level rises and touches the probe, the electrode
conducts electricity to the vessel wall. Because a short to
ground occurs, the conductivity device activates a relay to
indicate material presence. Conductivity devices (Figure 33)
provide point level measurements in non-critical applications.
The process material within the vessel is often an aqueous
liquid.
Applied
Voltage Conductivity
Device
At This Level,
Relay Energized
Below This Level,

Relay De-Energized
Figure 33. Conductivity Example

Resistance Sensors consist of a wire-wound conductive tape

and resistance sensor enclosed in a sheath-like tubing. The
level measurement device is often called a “resistance tape.”
When suspended into a vessel, the resistance tape (Figure 34)
depends on liquid pressure to change the resistance of the tape.
When liquid surrounds the tape and resistor assembly, the
conductive tape and resistor contact each other. As liquid level
rises, more of the tape and resistor make contact. The
resistance decreases proportionally as the level rises. The
decrease in resistance is used to represent an increase in level
height. Resistance tapes are suitable for inventory control
applications, where the process material can be crude oil or fuel
oil stored in an ocean-going tanker or large underground vessel.
Resistance
Resistance
Is Open
When Above
Surface
Level
Resistance
Assembly
And Tape
Contact
Below Surface
Figure 34. Resistance Sensor Example

Ultrasonic Type
High frequency sound is used in level measurement to measure
distance in the same way as sonar measures distance on an
oceangoing ship’s navigation system. Ultrasonic type devices
consist of a measuring element transmitting either sound waves
to the liquid level surface to be measured, or transmitting sound
waves through a liquid to detect liquid presence.
Ultrasonic type devices are available for both point or

continuous level measurement. Ultrasonic devices are available
in options that may or may not contact the liquid in vessel, or
may be installed outside the vessel (non-invasive). Ultrasonic
devices transmit either a continuous wave signal or a pulsed
signal. Thus, the categorization of ultrasonic devices is based
upon some combination of the type of measurement (point or
continuous level), application (contact or non-contact, invasive
or non-invasive), and transmitted signal (continuous or pulsed).
The categories are the following:
• non-contacting pulse signal type for continuous level

measurement
• non-invasive pulse signal type for point level measurement
• contacting continuous wave signal type for point level

measurement
• contacting pulse signal type for point level measurement

Non-contacting Pulse Signal Type for Continuous Level

Measurement sends an ultrasonic pulse to the liquid level
surface (Figure 35). The return echo signal is detected and its
time of flight measured. The time for the return signal is then
converted to a level measurement.
Ultrasonic
Device
Pulse
Transmission
Return
Echo Signal
Process
Material
Figure 35. Non-contacting Pulse Type

Non-invasive Pulse Signal Type for Point Level

Measurement sends an ultrasonic pulse through a pipe or
vessel wall. When process material is present in the pipe or
vessel, a signal is bounced off the opposite wall and returned to
the ultrasonic device (Figure 36). If process material is not
present, then a return signal does not occur.
Pulse
Transmission
Ultrasonic
Device
Process
Material
Return
Echo
Figure 36. Non-invasive Pulse Type

Contacting Continuous Signal Type for Point Level

Measurement use two piezoelectric crystals mounted opposite
of each other in a transducer (Figure 37). A gap separates the
crystals. When liquid is present in the gap, the continuous wave
signal is sensed by the receiving crystal. When liquid is not
present in the gap, a continuous wave signal cannot be sensed
by the receiving crystal.
Piezoelectric
Crystal
Continuous
Wave
Signal
Process
Material
Figure 37. Contacting Continuous Signal

Contacting Pulse Wave Signal Type for Point Level

Measurement is similar to the previously described continuous
wave technology, but uses more powerful ultrasonic pulsed
signals across a gap in the transducer (Figure 38). When liquid
is present in the gap, the pulsed signal is sensed by the
receiving crystal. This technology is useful for more difficult to
measure process media, such as liquids with suspended solids.
Piezoelectric
Crystal
Pulsed
Process Signal
Material
Figure 38. Contacting Pulse Wave Signal Type

Microwave Radar - The terms “radar” and “microwave” are

often used to represent the same level measurement
technology. In fact, the level measurement system is
sometimes called a “microwave radar” system (Figure 39). In a
microwave radar level measurement system, electromagnetic
signals are transmitted from a radar antenna to the liquid
surface in a very high frequency range, about 10 GHz, and then
reflected back to the source. The time of flight of the return
signal becomes the theoretical basis for determining level.
Microwave radar devices perform well in hostile tank

atmospheres that would eliminate most level measurement
devices from usage. Microwave radar devices, because of their
accuracy, are also used in automatic tank gauging systems.
Transmitted
Signal Radar
Tank
Antenna
Atmosphere
Return
Signal
Level
Figure 39. Microwave Radar Example

Other Types
Other types of level measurement devices include the following:
• laser,
• nuclear, and
• thermal.
Laser - For a laser level measurement (Figure 40), the process

material level is calculated from the time a focused beam
travels from the infrared laser diode source to the surface and
back to the source. The focused light beam allows for level
measurement in unusually shaped vessels.
Laser
Device
Send
Return
Signal
Signal
Figure 40. Laser Example

Nuclear Type
Nuclear type devices (Figure 41) operate on the principle that
process materials absorb (attenuate) radiation. The walls of the
vessel have a nuclear source and detector installed on opposite
vessel walls. The source and detectors are typically in a “strip
type” assembly. One wall of the vessel has the nuclear source
that emits radiation. The detector is installed on the other side
of the wall. As the liquid level rises, the radiation detected
decreases, because the liquid absorbs more of the radiation
than the gas or air above the liquid.
Strip-Form
Nuclear
Detector
Nuclear Senses
Source Unabsorbed
Radiation
Process
Material
Absorbs
Radiation
Figure 41. Nuclear Level Measurement

Thermal - Thermal devices are enclosed within a concentric

tube that is then installed inside of the vessel. Thermal devices
(Figure 42) use an RTD (resistance temperature detector) as
part of their level measurement technology. When current is
applied to the wire, the RTD is heated. The temperature of the
RTD is going to be hotter when it is exposed to air than when it
is exposed to liquids. As the liquid level rises and falls, the
portion of the sensor cooled by the liquid changes. As a result,
the resistance of the RTD changes. The changing resistance is
converted to a level measurement.
Thermal devices provide continuous level measurements for

liquid, foam, and slurry applications that involve high
temperatures, changing densities, or changing dielectric
constants.
R Total = R Wire + R Heat
Air
R Total = R Wire
As Liquid Levels Increases,

R Total Decreases
Liquid
Figure 42. Thermal Level Measurement

Figure 43 references usage of level measurement devices at

Saudi Aramco.
Type of device Frequency of use Comment

Sights
• Dipstick • low
• Tubular • low
• Reflex flat glass • high
• Transparent flat glass • high
Float devices Float device usage in process level
• Float switch • low measurements is primarily that of the
float switch.
• Simple float • low
Float and tape devices high Float device usage in tank gauging.
Usage expected to decrease as more
advanced technologies (radar, HTG,
servo displacers) replace floats.
Displacement devices Simple displacement devices have low
• Simple displacement • low usage, but their usage is important.
The device has versatile application
• Torque tube • high
arrangements.
Pressure type devices Device usage in process level
• Bubbler tube • medium measurements
• Hydrostatic head • medium
• Differential pressure • high
Differential pressure medium Device usage in tank gauging method
called “hydrostatic tank gauging.”
Electrical type
• Capacitance • low
• RF Admittance • low
• Conductivity • low
• Resistance tape • low
Ultrasonic low Usage in process level measurement
and tank gauging
Radar low Important because of increasing usage
in process level and tank gauging
Figure 43. Frequency of Level Measurement Usage

SELECTION CRITERIA FOR LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICES

The selection of level measurement devices may first appear to
be one of the easier process measuring instrument selections to
make, but that can be a mistaken assumption. One reason that
level measurement device selection is so challenging is that, as
you have seen from the previous discussion, there are a wide
variety of devices available to accomplish level measurement.
More than one type of level measurement technology could be
acceptable for a particular level measurement application.
However, no single level measurement device is suitable for all
level measurement applications. Therefore, the engineer must
become familiar with the advantages and disadvantages of
several level measurement devices.
The selection criteria that follows is considered common to most

level measurement applications. The common criteria at best
represents a starting point for the selection process. Once an
engineer has considered the common criteria, the specific level
measurement application may also have unique factors that
influence level measurement device selection. An engineer -
knowledgeable in the specific application - must then add these
special considerations to the selection process. In the final
analysis, an engineer’s understanding of the intended
application becomes the basis for the selection of the level
measurement device. This section provides an overview of the
selection criteria for level measurement devices used in level
measurement applications.
An Initial Selection Approach

Given the widespread choices available for level measurement
technology, an engineer would benefit from an approach that
narrows the selection choice to several technologies. As SADP-
J-300 states, “[Saudi] Aramco applies the general philosophy of
the petroleum industry which is to select a device best suited to
the process in which it is to be used.” An approach that assists
the engineer to begin selecting the device best suited for the
process is referred to in SADP-J-300, and is outlined in the
Instrument Engineer’s Handbook, Third Edition, Process
Measurement and Analysis, Chapter 3, Level Measurement, by
Bela G. Liptak, Chilton Book Company, 1995. The instrument
engineer is encouraged to review the selection criteria listed in
the Instrument Engineer’s Handbook when faced with level
measurement device selection.

After reviewing the initial selection approach, the selection

criteria for level measurement devices also includes:
• Application characteristics
• Process conditions affecting measurement
• Safety considerations
• Metallurgy
• Installation considerations
• Maintenance and calibration
• Compatibility with existing process instrumentation
• Economic considerations
• Technical direction
Application Characteristics
The engineer narrows the selection choice by identifying the

following application data:
• type of application measurements
• type of vessel
• point versus continuous measurement
• accuracy requirements
• contacting or non-contacting technology requirements
• temperature and pressure ranges
• maximum and minimum height of process material

Type of
Application
Measurements
The type of application often narrows the available number of
level measurement devices. Each application may have its own
requirements and restrictions that influence the selection of the
level measuring device. The type of application measurements
that influence level measuring device selection are the following:
• process level
• interface
• specific gravity or density
• automatic tank gauging
Process Level measurements are used either to provide a
measured quantity to a level controller or simply an on/off
indication of current level for monitoring purposes. The
definition of level measurement given in this course module -
the measurement of an interface with respect to a reference or
datum line - can be applied to all process level measurements.
For example, measuring the water level in an open air tank can
be defined as the measurement of the liquid (water) interface
(position ) with a gas (air). Describing the previous example in
abstract terms helps you regard all process level measurements
as interface measurements. However, the term “interface” is
more commonly understood to represent the position where two
nonmixing fluids meet.
Interface level measurements identify the position or location

where two non-mixing (immiscible) liquids meet. Interface
measurements can take several forms -- liquid/gas, liquid/liquid,
or liquid/liquid/gas. Process vessels such as separators permit
immiscible liquids (ie, liquids that are incapable of mixing) of
different specific gravities to separate for further processing.
The boundary between the immiscible liquids is called an
“interface.” Providing an accurate interface measurement is
important because movement of the interface position or even
reversal of one of the phase positions to the top or bottom of a
vessel can cause lost production, increased operating costs,
and even safety hazards.

Specific Gravity or Density measurements, as performed

by level measurement devices, frequently use hydrostatic
approaches to help determine the weight of materials or volume
of materials in a vessel. The terms “specific gravity” and
“density” are used often by instrument engineers to represent
the same type of measurement. Common usage of the terms
specific gravity and density have led even experienced
personnel to think of the terms as being synonymous. However,
“specific gravity” and “density” are not the same. The following
brief discussion clarifies what is meant by the terms specific
gravity and density.
Specific gravity represents the ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of a reference fluid at specified
conditions. Because specific gravity represents a ratio of
densities, specific gravity is also referred to as “relative density.”
The most frequently given specific gravity reference for a liquid
is the density of water at standard conditions of 15.6º C (60ºF).
Specific gravity for a liquid, for example, can be expressed as
having the following relationship:
Specific gravity = Density liquid/Density water at standard conditions
While density measurements are often made at Saudi Aramco

using special analytical instruments, a requirement can exist for
a density measurement within an automatic tank gauging
system. The density measurement is necessary in order to
calculate mass and volumes at standard reference conditions.
Frequently, the density measurement is made in hydrostatic
tank gauging (HTG) systems, using pressure transmitters to
measure density.
Another example of measuring density or specific gravity to infer

level is the use of a differential pressure transmitters to identify
an interface. The span of the differential pressure transmitter is
configured to locate the interface level. The span is based on
the difference between the liquid’s specific gravities and the
distance between the maximum and minimum interface levels.
This type of approach requires the more accurate
microprocessor pressure transmitters.
(For an extended background discussion of the term “specific

gravity” refer to Addendum A in this course module called
“Specific Gravity: Terminology, Purpose, Examples.”)

Automatic Tank Gauging refers to a measurement system that

employs level measuring devices, and possibly temperature and
density measurements. Inventory accounting and custody
transfer is often the goal of tank gauging. Note that process
level control is also critical to tank gauging since personnel use
level measurements to perform safe tank operations.
Type of Vessel
The type of tank or vessel often narrows the available number of
level measurement devices. Each vessel has its own
requirements and restrictions. The type of tanks or vessels that
influences level measuring device selection are:
• buried tanks
• vented or atmospheric tanks
• pressurized tanks
• elevated tanks
• cryogenic tanks
• boilers
• chlorine tanks
• accounting grade tanks
Buried Tanks usually contain oil or gas at atmospheric
pressure. Suitable level measuring devices include devices
ranging from the simple dipstick to hydrostatic head devices.
Because the access to a buried tank is through the top of the
tank, level measuring devices with probes (capacitance,
ultrasonic) are also a possible selection choice.
Vented or Atmospheric Tanks generally can be

accommodated with any of the level measuring devices.
Pressurized Tanks have a pressure range of operations

that determines which level measuring device is suitable.
Displacers, differential pressure, capacitance, and ultrasonic
type devices are examples of suitable level measuring devices.
Each device would have an acceptable working pressure
identified on its vendor data sheets.

Elevated Tanks typically use hydrostatic or differential pressure

devices to accomplish level measurements.
Cryogenic Tanks include tanks used for liquid natural gas

(LNG) and carbon dioxide level measurements. A differential
pressure device is often used to measure the fluid’s level.
Boilers contain both high pressures and high temperatures that

place demands upon the level measuring device. A differential
pressure device is often used to measure the level.
Chlorine Tanks represent a hard to handle liquid level

measurement because of the pressures involved, safety
hazards, and corrosiveness. A differential pressure device is
often used to measure the level.
Accounting Grade Tanks refer to vessels used for inventory

management or custody transfer purposes. The level
measuring devices used include floats, displacers, differential
head, ultrasonic, and microwave radar devices. When
employed in an accounting grade tank, the level measuring
devices become part of an automatic tank gauging system.
Point Versus
Continuous
Measurement
The types of level measurements that influence device selection
are whether the measurement is a point level measurement
or continuous level measurement. Recall that point level
measurements provide an on/off, true/false type of
representation of level presence, while continuous level
measurement provides a numeric representation of the level.
Quite frequently, a level measurement application requires both
point and continuous level measurement devices. For example,
a level controller may rely on a continuous level measurement.
The same application may have, as an added safeguard, point
level measurements in the form of level switches to provide
alarms or shutdowns.

Accuracy
and Span
Requirements
The application’s accuracy and span of level change
requirement has an influence on which level measurement
device is selected. In tank gauging systems, accuracy is very
important, because the engineer is concerned with proper
inventory reporting. In process level measurement applications
(point level and continuous), accuracy is important, but
repeatability is considered more important than accuracy. The
reason that repeatability is important is that the engineer is
concerned about controlling a process more than how
accurately the level is measured.
The engineer also considers the span of level change

requirements when selecting a device. A typical industry
procedure for level measurement selection is to use differential
pressure transmitters for measuring large span levels, and
select displacers for smaller ranges.
Contacting or
Non-Contacting
Technology
Requirements
Hard-to-handle fluids are best measured with devices that do
not come in contact with the process material, through the use
of devices that are called “non-contacting” technologies.
Examples of non-contacting technologies are radar, ultrasonics,
and laser devices. For example, measuring the level of hot
asphalt, which must be constantly mixed, is accomplished with
microwave radar devices that can best withstand this type of
hostile environment. The radar device is mounted on top of the
vessel. Although the radar device is exposed to internal tank
atmospheres, the device is still considered “non-contacting”
technology.
When non-contacting technology is installed outside a vessel
without making an opening or tap in the vessel, the technology
is called “non-invasive.” For example, non-invasive technology
is fastened or clamped externally to the pipe or vessel itself in
difficult to measure applications. Determining level presence
in a pipe is one use for non-invasive technology. What
determines whether non-invasive technology is selected is the
practicality of measuring the process material level.

Temperature and
Pressure
Conditions
Temperature and pressure conditions may determine whether
a level measuring device is able to operate within that
environment. Each level measuring device has its temperature
and pressure operating conditions identified on their respective
vendor sheets. The temperature conditions may be as low as
60º C (140º F) for the electronics of some differential pressure
transmitters. Other level measuring devices, such as some
capacitance probes, may work in temperatures up to 1128º C
(2000º F). Pressure operating conditions for some level
measuring devices, such as bubblers, may be as low as
atmospheric pressure. Other level measuring devices, such as
differential pressure level detectors, are usable in conditions up
to 69 MPa (10,000 PSIG).
Maximum and
Minimum Safe
Heights of
Process Material
The engineer selects these devices to accommodate the
maximum and minimum safe heights of process material within
the vessel. Regardless of whether the level measurement is a
process level measurement or an automatic tank gauging
system, operations personnel’s foremost concern is to avoid
overfilling a tank or emptying it dry. The concern for safely filling
or emptying is usually addressed with level measurement
devices that meet the necessary level measurement safety
shutdown and alarming requirements.

Process Operating Conditions

The process operating conditions that bear on level measuring
device selection are:
• Process material characteristics

• Vessel operating conditions
Process Material
Characteristics
Process material characteristics are considered when selecting
a level measuring device because the process media itself can
eliminate a device from the application. Several examples of
process material are listed below and how they impact level
measuring device selection. Characteristics that influence level
measuring device selection are:
• Material buildups from process media,
• Changing specific gravity,
• Changing dielectric constant, and
• Coatings.
Material Buildups from Process Media - When level

measuring devices experience exposure to process media, one
concern is whether material buildups will occur. For example,
when a float or displacer is exposed to process media, then
material buildups are a potential possibility. Excess material
buildups can change the weight of the float or displacer, and as
a result, create errors in the level measurement.
Changing Specific Gravity - Level measurements may be based

upon on an assumed specific gravity value. When hydrostatic
methods are used to measure the level of the fluid, then an
undetected changing specific gravity can cause the level
measurement to be erroneous. If the application is likely to
experience undetected specific gravity changes, then the level
measurement device selected for that application would be
need to be one that is unaffected by specific gravity changes.
Pressure type devices and displacers are susceptible to
measurement errors if an undetected specific gravity change
should occur.

Changing Dielectric Constants affect the level measurement

accuracy of a capacitance probe. Some wave generation
devices, such as radar, depend on the reflectivity of process
material. Reflectivity is influenced by the dielectric constant of
process material. Several vendors provide compensation
technologies to overcome effects of changing dielectric
constants.
Coatings - When level measuring devices experience coatings

from process material, false level readings can occur. For
example, when the level in a vessel decreases, a process
material coating may remain on the capacitance probe, creating
a false level reading. Early capacitance probes are susceptible
to this coating problem. Newer capacitance probes use anti-
coating technologies to prevent the coating from giving a false
level indication when a material level has fallen below the
capacitance probe.
Vessel Operating
Conditions
Vessel operating conditions are considered when selecting a
level measuring device because the vessel conditions often
eliminate a device from use in the application. Several
examples of vessel conditions are listed below and how they
impact level measuring device selection. Vessel conditions that
influence level measuring device selection are:
• Turbulence and agitation
• Steam or other vapors
• Foaming
• Interference from internal tank structures
Turbulence and Agitation - Vessels often contain some kind of

mixing equipment to keep the materials mixed. Mixing the
materials helps avoid density and temperature stratification of
the material, which leads to erroneous level and volume
measurement results. The engineer may have to specify an
instrument for use in this kind of environment based upon the
presence and strength of the agitation.

Steam and Other Vapors - The presence of steam and other

vapors within the vessel has detrimental effects on the
performance of some level measuring devices. For example,
vapors can affect the ultrasonic device’s level measurement
reading by altering the timing of the return signal. Compensation
approaches are sometimes available on the level measurement
device to overcome unwanted affects from steam and other
vapors.
Foaming - The generally undesirable affects of foaming create

level measurement errors for some level measuring devices.
The goal of the measurement may have been to ignore the
effects of foaming and measure liquid level only. However, the
goal can be to measure both the level of foaming and the liquid
level. Level measuring devices are available that can measure
both the liquid level and the amount of foaming that is occurring.
Interference from Internal Tank Structures - The choice of a

level measuring device is often restricted by how much open
space is inside the vessel for a measurement device. Presence
of internal tank structures determine which level measuring
device is chosen. For example, wave generation devices, such
as radar and ultrasonics, are affected by reflections from
internal vessel structures. Radar and ultrasonic devices have
options that minimize or ignore the effects of internal tank
structures.
Safety Considerations
The safety considerations that influence level measuring device

selection are whether the device is used in an environment
where there is a possible occurrence of one or more of the
following:
• Explosion hazard
• Lethal material measurement
• Regulatory requirements

Explosion Hazard
Many of the gases and liquids measured are inflammable or
explosive in nature. Level measuring instruments often state
whether they can meet the intrinsic safety or other low energy
requirements for these types of measurement. The low energy
requirements of a level measuring device are recognized and
approved by agencies such as Factory Mutual (FM), Canadian
Standards Institute (CSA), and British Approvals Service for
Electrical Equipment in Flammable Atmospheres (BASEEFA).
Lethal Material
Measurement
Lethal materials, such as hydrogen sulfide, can be fatal even in
small quantities. Devices that are sealed properly will not let
lethal process material escape through the measuring unit.
Regulatory
Rrequirements
Some level measurement devices, mainly nuclear devices, have
regulatory concerns about proper use, record keeping, and
disposal. Because of the regulations and potential risk to
personnel, nuclear devices tend to be devices of last choice and
selected when no other device is found suitable for the
application.
Intrinsic Safety considerations are discussed in PC1 101.01.
Metallurgy
When the process material is corrosive to the level measuring

device, then metallurgy becomes an important selection
criteria. Devices that make contact with the process material
can often be covered with an inert insulating material such as
Teflon.

Installation Considerations
External versus internal mounting is a decision that has several

tradeoffs. Typical installation considerations that bear on level
measuring device selection are:
• Internal vessel mounting

• External cage mounting to vessel, standpipe, or stilling well
• Connection to process taps
Internal Vessel
Mounting
When a vessel can be taken out of service for scheduled level
measurement device maintenance and not interrupt the
process, then internal vessel mounting may be considered.
Level measurement devices are sometimes mounted internally
if the process liquid is highly viscous.
However, internal mounting decisions are not quickly made. For

example, the mounting location of a non-contacting device is not
necessarily at the apex of a vessel — vessel vapors can
accumulate there and cause measurement errors. If the
process connection is to the side of a vessel, then the process
connection is one where the affects of process material plugging
and accumulating would be avoided or, at best, have negligible
effects upon measurement.
An additional consideration about internal vessel mounting is

whether the device requires some type of guides or rods to keep
sensing element in place, as in the case of some floats and
displacers. A valid concern about internal mountings is the risk
of device breakage within the vessel and the difficulty of making
repairs if breakage occurs.
To summarize, internal mountings have to take into account

internal obstructions, proximity to product inlets, potential signal
interference from process equipment, location of mounting, the
risk of breakage and difficulty of subsequent repair, and
potential process material accumulations at the mounting
location.

External Cage
Mounting to
Vessel or
Standpipe
Some level measuring devices require an external cage,
standpipe, or stilling well to provide the best conditions for level
measurement (Figure 44). When an external cage is used to
house the level measuring device, the external cage permits the
level measuring device to be removed for service or calibration.
When a vessel standpipe is used, more than one level
measuring device may be connected to the standpipe (a notable
exception here is a shutdown device, which requires its own
vessel connection). In the real world, the location and number
of nozzles on a vessel are the determining factor.
Stilling
Well
Float
External
(Float)
Chamber
Or Cage
Standpipe
or Stilling
Figure 44. Standpipe Example

When a stilling well is used, as in the case of a floating roof tank

(Figure 45), the installation provides more stable level
measurement conditions. When a stilling well is inserted into a
tank, it is often called a “stillpipe.”
External cages, standpipes, stillpipes, and stilling wells provide

the following.
• Liquid waves do not bounce the sensing element. The

bouncing waves would cause erroneous level
measurements.
• The sensing element is easier to keep free from material

buildups, scale, and dirt.
• The connections to an external standpipe are less likely to

plug than if they were connected to the process vessel.
Level
Measurement
Device
Still
Pipe
Floating
Roof
Floating
Roof
Tank
Figure 45. Stillpipe Example

Connection to
Process Taps
Instruments may be connected to process connections called
“taps” that allow connection directly to the tank. Differential
pressure transmitters, for example, have tap location
considerations. In a level measurement application, the top tap
must be positioned so that the maximum high level is always
below the top tap. If the process material flows into the top tap,
the low side pressure measurement will be incorrect. In a
density measurement application, the top tap must be
positioned so that the maximum high level is always above the
top tap. If the process material is below the top tap, a density
measurement is not possible.
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-J-300 and Saudi

Aramco Design Practice SADP-J-300 describe the following
level measurement requirements (Figure 46). The engineer is
encouraged to review the following references, particularly the
discussion regarding standpipes. Pay attention to the figures in
the references for guidance.
Saudi Aramco
Reference Reason for use Summary
SAES-J-300, Location and Mounting of local instruments, accessibility
Section 4.1 orientation of local instruments.
SAES-J-300, Block valves Block valves provide capability to isolate
Section 4.4 instrument.
SAES-J-300, Standpipes Usage of standpipes when one or more level
Section 4.5 measurement device is required.
SADP-J-300, Standpipe’s function Functions, rationale, exceptions to standpipe
Section 3.1.1 and importance usage. Extreme cautions in selecting a
standpipe reviewed — de-rated if standpipe
is improperly selected.
SADP-J-300, Environmental Extreme operating conditions mandate
Section 3.2 conditions influence mounting conditions to protect personnel and
on mounting equipment.
API RP551, Transmitter General guidelines
Section 3.4.1 installations
Saudi Aramco Installation and •AC-036666 - Instrument standpipe
drawings Piping Drawings •AC-036690 - Liquid level gauges piping
•AC-036691 - Pneumatic level instruments
•AC-036692 - Electrical level instruments
Figure 46. Installation References

Maintenance and Calibration
The primary maintenance and calibration consideration in

selecting a level measuring device is the calibration device’s
ease of use. An instrument is often bench-calibrated before
installation. Other level measuring devices can be calibrated in
the field while connected to a still-pipe or standpipe.
As a general rule, the best calibration results are obtained from

the simplest calibration devices. For example, water can be
used to calibrate a displacer. Squeeze bulbs can be used for
calibrating pressure instruments. More complex devices, such
as nuclear devices, require sheets of lead for proper calibration.
When you calibrate a level measuring system, a question arises

as to what standard the level measuring system is calibrated
against. In some cases, you may have to rely on the visual
indication from a sight glass and calibrate the level measuring
device after it is installed. Some users state that calibrating a
sophisticated level measurement device with a sight glass is the
equivalent of calibrating a micrometer with a wooden ruler.
Thus, the calibration requirements may influence level
measuring device selection in that an accurate calibration
standard must also be available to ensure proper calibration and
traceability.
Compatibility With Existing Process Instrumentation
Compatibility considerations that influence level measuring

device selection are whether the other measurement and
control devices are compatible with the level measuring
device’s:
• output indication
• type of output signals, and
• relay connections.

Output Indication refers to a configuration choice of either

direct or reverse indication for the level measuring device’s
output signal. Direct output indication means that the level
measuring device outputs a low signal, such as a 4 mA signal,
representing a low level, and high signal, such as a 20 mA
signal, representing the highest level. Reverse output indication
refers to a choice for the level measuring device to output a low
signal representing a high level, and high signal representing
the lowest level.
Type of Output Signals from level measuring devices could be

pneumatic, electronic (4 to 20 mA), or proprietary digital signal
(Hart, Honeywell DE, Foxboro IA). Some level measuring
systems, such as load cells, have to communicate with various
commercial communication networks, such as RS232. An
additional network interface is required to support the device.
Relay Connections on a point level measuring device are used

for alarming, shutdown, or control configurations. The relay’s
specifications state whether they are compatible with the
alarming, shutdown, or control configurations.
Economic Considerations
Economic considerations that influence level measuring device

selection are:
• purchase price
• installation costs
• calibration costs
• training costs
• maintenance costs
• spares inventory

Purchase Price
The vast majority of simple point level measuring devices are
under 2000 Riyals, while continuous level measuring devices
are about 400 Riyals. More sophisticated devices, such as
radar, can be as high as 37500 Riyals. Purchase prices,
however, do not often provide an indication of what the
installation costs are.
Installation Costs
Installation costs are dependent upon where the device is
installed in the vessel. Devices such as a capacitance or
ultrasonic probe can easily be installed from a single vessel
opening above the process material level. Other devices
require an additional external measuring chamber or standpipe.
Some devices, such as differential pressure devices, have to be
installed below the material level. In summary, note that
devices can require costly modifications of the vessel in order to
properly install the device.
Calibration Costs
Microprocessor based instruments often do not require field
calibration — the calibration can be accomplished from the
control room. Less sophisticated devices may require
personnel to empty and fill vessels in order to calibrate the
device.
Training Costs
With a large variety of level measuring technologies available,
the costs for training personnel can become significant. Newer,
costlier technologies require adequately trained personnel to
support the installation and maintenance of such devices.
Maintenance
Costs
Maintenance costs can be inherently high in devices that use
mechanical parts. Devices such as floats, displacers, and
paddle wheels require periodic maintenance. More
sophisticated devices, such as radar, require little or no
scheduled maintenance.

Spares Inventory
One argument for standardizing on a particular level measuring
device is that the number of spare parts inventory can be
reduced. The main goal of the spares inventory is to reduce
downtime in the event of system failure. Some level measuring
devices can be adapted, such as shortening a probe length, to
meet different level measurement needs.
Technical Direction
The following discussion provides an overview of the technical

direction of level measurement technology. The discussion
briefly describes several ongoing trends that may influence
future selections of level measuring devices. The following
trends are briefly described as:
• advances in hardware and software

• point level switch trends
• RF admittance versatility
• growing acceptance of Hydrostatic Tank Gauging (HTG)
• increasing usage of microwave radar
• potential usage of time domain reflectometry
Advances in
Hardware and
Software
Advances in software permit users to configure their own
systems without reliance on vendors and third parties.
Hardware improvements such as application specific integrated
circuits (ASICs) reduce the size of the devices and improve their
reliability.
Point Level Switch

Trends
Ultrasonic switches have increased the temperature operating
ranges from 250º F to 300º F. Usage of frequency shift tuning
fork level switches is gaining acceptance. Frequency shift
tuning fork level switches are only slightly affected when
density, viscosity, solids buildup, and material composition
changes.

RF Admittance
Versatility
RF admittance or capacitance/admittance continuous level
measuring systems are claimed to represent a universal level
measurement technology. The technology is usable in a wide
range of applications such as slurries, volatile chemicals, and
interface applications. The technology is operational in
temperature and pressure extremes.
Growing
Acceptance of
HTG
Highly accurate pressure transmitters have led to the growing
acceptance of hydrostatic tank gauging as a solution for the
more difficult level measurement applications.
Increasing Usage
of Microwave
Radar
Although costly compared to other level measuring devices,
microwave radar has solved many difficult, hostile level
measuring applications. In Europe, radar is approved for
custody transfer applications because of its proven accuracy in
automatic tank gauging operations.
Potential Usage of
Time Domain
Reflectometry
Time domain reflectometry is based upon the principle that a
reflections from an electrical signal can be used to identify the
location of signal disconnection. For process measurement, the
“disconnection” is used to identify the level position. Time
domain reflectometry has evolved to where it now has become
a technology that is independent of a process material’s
capacitance, specific gravity, temperature, and capacitance.
Time domain reflectometry technology is relatively stable and
intrinsically safe.

DETERMINING WHETHER PROCESS LEVEL MEASURING DEVICES

MEET APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS
Sights
The sight category includes those devices that permit a local

visual indication of level. The types of devices in this category
are the:
• dipstick,
• tubular glass,
• reflex flat glass, and
• transparent flat glass.
Dipstick
The dipstick (Figure 47) is the earliest and simplest form of level
measurement device. If handled properly, its accuracy is as
reliable as its scale. However, the dipstick’s simplicity is also its
limitation. A dipstick can only be used in a vented tank.
Erroneous dipstick readings are given if the dipstick is inserted
at an angle, or inserted not low enough. Tank turbulence and
splash from quick dipstick insertions affect the reading. While
the dipstick is simple in design, it is not an ideal device given
present day measurement requirements.
Dipstick
Underground
Vessel
Figure 47. Dipstick Example

Tubular
For level measurements in low pressure applications, using a
tubular gauge glass to provide local indication is possible.
Principles - Tubular gauge glasses (Figure 48) act like a

manometer in which the liquid within the tubular glass seeks the
same height as the liquid within the vessel.
Design - The design of a tubular gauge glass consists of a pair

of valves that supports each end of a transparent glass tube.
The valves have corrosion resistant ball checks, which provides
instant shutoff should if glass breakage occurs. (The shutoff
prevents process fluid from escaping the vessel.)
Tubular
Glass
(Note: Protectors
Are Options)
Water
Level
Note: Tubular Glass

Gauges Used
Only In Non-Critical
Saudi Aramco
Applications
Figure 48. Tubular Gauge Glass

Performance - For level measurements, tubular gauge glasses

are susceptible to breakage. At best, they are used in non-
critical, low pressure services.
Installation - Tubular gauge glasses are fitted vertically and

externally to the tank. Glass protectors are available to protect
the glass tube from breakage.
Applications - Tubular gauge glasses find usage only in low

pressure measurements. According to API RP 551, Section
3.3.2, “Tubular gauge glasses are not recommended for
process units.” According to SAES-J-300, Section 5.6, “Tubular
glasses shall not be used in hydrocarbon service. They may be
used only in water and non-critical service applications where
the pressure is below 350 kPa (50 psig) and the temperature
below 95 deg C (200 deg F). Tubular gauges shall not be used
in fire water applications.”
A typical industry application (Figure 49) of tubular gauge

glasses is to use the gauge for calibrating low volume metering
pumps.
Tank
Tubular
Gauge
Metering
Pump
Figure 49. Tubular Gauge Glass Application

Reflex Flat Glass

Reflex flat gauge glasses provide local accurate level readings.
Reflex flat gauge glasses are one of several types of gauges
called armored gauge glasses (the other armored types are
transparent and magnetic gauges).
Principles - Reflex gauge glasses (Figure 50) act like a

manometer in which the level in the glass seeks the same
height as the liquid within the vessel.
Armored
Chamber
Liquid
Level
Reflex
Glass
Figure 50. Reflex Gauge Glass

Reflex flat gauge glasses use special prism glass windows

(Figure 51) that are based on the principles of light refraction
and reflection. Reflex flat gauge glasses are fitted with prisms
that allow light to pass to the interior to the gauge only on the
part of the glass that the liquid is contacting. The area of the
glass that the liquid is contacting appears dark (even if the liquid
is colorless). The area of the glass that liquid is not contacting
appears silvery white. A distinct line appears between the dark
and silvery white areas, which indicates the actual level.
Air
Light Reflected
By Reflex Glass
If No Liquid Present
Liquid
Light Absorbed
By Liquid
Figure 51. Reflex Gauge Glass Prisms

Design - Reflex flat gauge glasses consist of a flat piece of

glass clamped to a metallic chamber (Figure 52). The metallic
chamber is that part of the gauge that retains the fluid and to
which the flat glass is secured with bolts. Materials used in the
construction of the metallic chamber include carbon steel,
stainless steel, nickel, brass, aluminum, and nickel alloys.
The sizes of the reflex flat glass can vary from 9.5 cm
(3 3/4 inches) to 32.1 cm (12 5/8 inches). Multiple sections of
reflex flat glasses can be combined to provide visible length up
to 355 cm (139 3/4 inches).
Metal
Chamber
Liquid
Chamber
Reflex
Glass
Figure 52. Reflex Gauge Glass Design

Performance - Reflex flat gauge glass provide clear, local

indication to the operator. Refer to vendor specifications for
temperature and pressure ratings for the metallic chamber to
ensure that the limits of the glass are not exceeded. The
accuracy of this glass is very high, but it is dependent upon an
operator to correctly make the level reading at the vessel.
According to SADP-J-300 Commentary Part 1, " ‘Reflex gauges

shall be used in all clean services except for liquid interface
level.’ Reflex gauges operate from the light which enters the
gauge and is reflected from the internal back surface of the
gauge body. The clear fluid filters out the band width of light
which makes the reflex prisms appear white. Therefore, the
clear fluid in a reflex gauge appears to be black. The high levels
of light available in Saudi Arabia during the daylight hours can
mask the level of clear fluids in clear gauge glass to the point
where the level cannot be seen.
‘Minimum rating for the reflex type shall be 1400 kPa (2000 psi)
at 40 deg C (100 deg F), and for the transparent type 7000 kPa
(1000 psi) at 40 deg C (100 deg F).’ A review of vendor
specifications will indicate that these values are higher than
most vendor's low operating pressure gauges and lower than
most vendor's medium operating pressure range gauges. The
intent of this specification is to require a minimum which will
present maximum safety with reasonable economy. Medium
range gauges are Aramco's minimum requirements; in other
words, a 14 000 kPa (2000 psi) at 40 deg C (100 deg F) service
would require the installation of a 14 000 kPa (2000 psi) at
40 deg C (100 deg F) gauge or better.”
Installation - Reflex flat gauge glasses should always be
installed with shutoff valves at the top and bottom ends of the
gauge glass. The shutoff valve employs safety features, such
as a safety ball check, for automatic shutoff in case of gauge
glass breakage.
The installation of the reflex gauge glass includes the following
related considerations:
• Vessel centers and visible range - Vessel centers are the
vertical distance between the center lines of the vessel
taps. Visible range is the distance from the top to bottom
of the gauge over which the level can be viewed. Vessel
center dimensions determine gauge size, number of gauge
sections, valve dimensions, and gauge connections
(threaded or welded).

• Support requirements - If the gauge glass is over 100

pounds, vendors recommend additional supporting
structures.
• Commissioning and decommissioning - Vendor procedures
should be followed to avoid thermal shock, which can
break a gauge glass.
• Repair of installed units - In the event a gauge glass
requires repair and re-assembly, vendor procedures
should be followed for proper torquing. Additionally, never
re-install and reuse the previously used gauge glass,
gaskets, cushions, or mica shields.
Figure 53 references standard and practices that influence
gauge glass selection. Review these references (as well as the
vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when
determining a device’s suitability for an application.
SAES-J-300, General application • Hydrocarbon service requirements
Section 5.1 of gauge glasses • Temperature ratings
• Gasket requirements
SAES-J-300, Low temperature • Connection sizes
Section 5.2 applications • Pressure ratings
• Frost gauges
SAES-J-300, Limitations Limitations on glasses when the
Section 5.3 application is refrigerated, pressurized, or
corrosive service.
SAES-J-300, Installation • Required connections
Section 5.7 • Multiple gauge glass installations
• Gauge shut off requirements
SADP-J-300, Part Gauge glass usage Commentary on gauge glass usage.
1 Commentary
SADP-J-300, Selection criteria Standard lengths, viewing lengths, inlet
Section 3.1.2 ports, gauge cock size criteria used for
selection.
API RP 511, Assemblies, • Section 3.3.3.2 - vessel connections
Section 3.3 mountings, and • Section 3.3.3.3 - mounting for wide level
protections provided and interface applications.
• Section 3.3.3.4 - protecting the gauge
glass from process.
Liptak, “Process Level gauges Additional reference for gauge selection
Measurement,” and implementation.
Section 3.10
Figure 53. References for Gauge Glass Selection

Applications - Typical industry usage of reflex flat gauge

glasses is for local indication of a liquid, where the liquid must
not be corrosive to glass. Reflex gauge glasses are used when
clear, colorless liquids are present. The reflex glasses are
made in several groups that can operate in services up to
4000 psi at 38º C (100º F) and 300 psi at 315.5º C (600º F).
Various metallic chambers are available. For example, larger

metallic chambers are used with turbulent liquids. Chamber
options can be directly welded to a vessel to permit internal
viewing of vessel contents. Gauge glass windows also provide
scales for volumetric measurements.
According to SAES-J-300, Section 5.4, “Reflex gauges shall be

used on all clean services except for liquid interface level. Weld
pad type reflex gauges shall be used only for ambient
temperature and atmospheric applications.”
A typical application is shown in Figure 54, where reflex gauge

glasses are used for local indication of propane level.
Applications often require multiple gauge glasses so that the
process material level can be viewed properly.
LG
LG
Propane
LG
LG
Surge
Bullet
Vessel
Propane
Level
Indication
Figure 54. Reflex Gauge Glass Application

Transparent Flat
Gauge Glass
Principles - A transparent flat gauge glass (Figure 55) acts like
a manometer in which the level in the glass seeks the same
height as the liquid within the vessel. The transparent flat
gauge glass is called “transparent flat” because transparent flat
glasses are installed on both sides a metallic armored chamber.
Armored
Chamber
Liquid
Level
Transparent
Glass
Figure 55. Transparent Flat Gauge Glass

Design - In a transparent flat gauge glass, a flat piece of glass

is clamped to each side of a metal chamber (Figure 56). The
metal chamber is that part of the gauge that retains the fluid and
to which the flat glasses are secured to with bolts. Materials
used in the construction of the metal chamber include carbon
steel, stainless steel, nickel, brass, aluminum, and nickel alloys.
Metal
Transparent Chamber
Glass
Liquid
Chamber
Figure 56. Transparent Flat Gauge Glass Design
The chamber permits local indication of liquid color, condition, or

liquid/gas interface from one side of the gauge glass when light
is applied to the other side of the chamber (Figure 57).
Transparent
Glasses
Liquid
Light Passes through

Transparent Glasses
Figure 57. Transparent Flat Gauge Glass Concept

The lengths of the transparent flat glass can vary from 9.5 cm
(3 3/4 inches) to 32.1 cm (12 5/8 inches). Multiple sections of
transparent flat glasses can be combined to provide a visible
length up to 355 cm (139 3/4 inches).
Performance - Transparent flat gauge glasses provide a clear,

local indication of both the level and the characteristics of the
liquid to the operator. Refer to vendor specifications for
temperature and pressure ratings for the metallic chamber to
ensure that the limits of the glass are not exceeded. The
accuracy of this gauge glass is very high, but it is dependent
upon an operator to correctly make the level reading at the
vessel.
Installation - Installation requirements for a transparent gauge

glass are the same as those for a reflex gauge glass. Some
applications, such as an interface application, require the gauge
glasses be installed in overlapping fashion.
Applications - Transparent flat gauge glasses are used when it

is necessary to provide local indication of the liquid color,
condition, or liquid/gas interface. The transparent gauge glass
can be used with corrosive liquids, but a thin glass protective
shield is recommended. The transparent gauge glasses, like
the reflex glasses, can operate in services up to 4000 psi at
100º F and 300 psi at 600º F.
Many variations are available in the design of the metallic

chamber so that a wide variety of uses are possible. For
example, larger chamber gauges are used for turbulent liquids.
Chamber options are also available that can be directly welded
to a vessel to permit internal viewing of vessel contents. Gauge
glass windows are provided with scales to permit volumetric
measurements.
According to SAES-J-300, Section 5.6, “Transparent gauges

shall be used for acid, caustic, dirty or dark-colored liquids,
liquid interface, high viscosity fluids, high pressure steam
applications above 2100 kPa (300 psig), and NGL with specific
gravities less than 0.55. Suitable shields (mica, etc.) on the
inside of the gauge shall be considered for steam, caustic and
other fluids that may adversely affect the glass.”

The application example in Figure 58 shows gauge glasses

used on a crude oil inlet sphere. The gauge glasses are
installed in overlapping fashion so that the interface level will
always be visible.
Gas LG
LG
Oil
LG
Water
LG
Figure 58. Separation Example
In conclusion, sight glasses are primarily used for local

indication, but sight glasses are also important for calibration.
Because they are made from glass, the main concern in using
sight glasses is breakage. Tubular glasses are more likely to
break than reflex sight glasses. Regardless of the sight glass
selected, Saudi Aramco Standards advise the user to select
glasses with significantly higher pressure ratings to minimize the
likelihood of breakage.
The common considerations in selecting sight glasses include

operating pressures, operating temperatures (because of
temperature’s effect on gasket brittleness), the optical
characteristics of the process material, and whether the vessel’s
standpipe can accommodate a gauge glass.

Float and Tape Devices
Float devices read the position of a float that rests on a liquid

surface. Float and tape devices include:
• float switch,
• chain or tape float gauge devices, and
• magnetic type.
Float Switch
A float switch (Figure 59) is often attached to a mechanical lever
that activates a relay at a predetermined level. The float switch
described in this section is referred to as a level switch.
Float Switch
Float
High Level
Low Level
Figure 59. Float Switch Example

Principles - A float switch operates on the same principle as

the float in a household flush toilet tank. Many float switches
operate on this principle. Instead of activating a mechanical
valve, floats activate magnetic switches (Figure 60). The
magnetic switches, in turn, control equipment, such as a pump
or control valve. The control equipment raises or lowers the
level until the switch de-activates, which in turn causes the
control equipment to go to the desired on or off state.
Design - The float resting on the liquid surface is the only

moving part that makes contact with the vessel’s liquid. A
magnet follows the float as it rises and falls with the process
level. The magnet is attached to a mercury wetted switch. The
switch can be set up to activate a relay when the level has
reached a configured point level. Depending on the switch
setting, the relay activation can represent that a high or low
point level has been detected. The mercury wetted switch can
be activated by vibration in the system. If such be the case, do
not use.
Switch
Mercury
Magnet
Float
Rising Level
(High Limit)
Falling Level
(Low Limit)
Figure 60. Float Switch Design

Performance - Because a float is dependent on a mechanical

connection, a float switch may not be dependable for use in
processes that would attack its mechanical connection.
Additionally, the float switch must be kept in a limited travel
range and move vertically to provide reliable performance.
Some performance advantages of float switches include:
• ease of use (easily modified, low cost, reliable)

• self powered (that is, the float rests on the material
surface)
• specific gravity ratings can be as low as 0.5
• high temperature capabilities up to 400º C (750º F)
Some performance disadvantages of float switches include:
• limited to point level (on-off) service or alarm applications
• repairing floats interrupts the process because they are
inside the vessel
• limited pressure ratings on low specific gravity floats
• limited float arm length (deadband increases as arm length
increases)
Installation - According to SAES-J-300, Section 11.4.1, “Each
external float switch shall have its own individual vessel or
standpipe connections. The float or displacer chamber shall be
installed with the longitudinal axis vertical. For details of typical
installations refer to [Saudi] Aramco Typical Installation
Drawings AB-036691 and AB-036692.” For wiring and piping of
switches, see Saudi Aramco Standard Drawing AB-036533 or
AB-036479.
According to API RP 551, Section 3.6, “Level switches used as

protective devices should have separate connections to the
vessel, independent of other instruments.”
Simple floats vary in design, they can be mounted internally in a

vessel or in an external cage or chamber of the vessel. The
external mounting could be either on the side of the vessel
(“side mounting”) or from the top of a vessel (“top mounting”).


float selection. Review these references (as well as the
vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when
SAES-J-300, Float level switch • Emergency shutdown requirements

Section 11 standards
• External float requirements
• Installation of external float
SADP-J-300, Switch characteristics Minimum characteristics

Section 3.1.5
SADP-J-300, Part 1 Level switches Commentary on float switches.

Commentary
API RP 511, Switch implementation • Section 3.6.2 - installation

Section 3.6
• Section 3.6.4 - testing of switch
Liptak, “Process Float level devices Additional reference for float selection
Section 3.8
Figure 61. References for Float Selection

Applications for the simple float are described in SAES-J-300,

Section 11. Applications include emergency shutdown,
alarming, and on-off control applications.
The example application shown in Figure 62 shows a float

switch used for level detection and level alarming in an oily
water separator.
LA
LS
LL
Oil
LS
Water LL
Oily
Water
Separator
Figure 62. Float Switch Application

Chain or Tape
Float Gauge
Devices
When a tape or chain attaches to the float, an externally scaled
indicator (also called a readout device) can monitor the float’s
movement (Figure 63). As the float position changes, the
external indicator to the tape moves accordingly and shows the
current level. These devices are called chain or tape float
gauge devices. Float and chain type devices represent one of
the earliest, and at one time, the most widely used, level gauge
devices.
Principles and Design - Chain or tape float gauge (Figure 63)

devices rely on the principle of buoyancy. A buoyant sphere-
shaped float rests on top of the liquid. The tape or chain is then
connected to the float and an external weight. A graduated
scale, which is positioned behind the weight, indicates the level
position.
External
Scale
Float
Process
Marker Liquid
(Weight)
Figure 63. Chain Float Gauge

In another approach, chain or tape float gauge devices may

have a sprocket assembly at the top of the tank, with the tape
connected to the sprocket. The sprocket is also attached to a
local readout indicator. As the tape moves up and down, the
indicator shows the current level (Figure 64).
Float
Gauge Head
Assembly (External
Float Readout Device)
Guide Wires
Or Rods
Figure 64. Float Example
Chain or tape float designs are fairly simple. Note that float
installations use guide wires or metal rods to restrict the float's
horizontal movement. For best performance, a float should be
kept vertical, which is accomplished through the use of guide
wires or metal rods.

Performance - One performance concern with float and tape

systems is that some process materials may coat the tape.
Coatings detrimentally affect the reliability of the float and tape
device.
Inaccuracies are commonly caused by:
• the float weight variances due to material buildup,
• tape system frictions variances , and
• buoyant force of float changing with liquid density.
Installation - Manufacturer’s instructions should be followed.

Mountings can be internal or external (Figure 65) to the vessel.
Liquid
Level
Floats Can Be Mounted

Internally Or Externally
In A Stand Pipe
Figure 65. Float Mounting

Applications - According to SAES-J-300, Section 8.1.4, “For

water storage tanks, float and cable instruments with counter
weight and gauge board are acceptable.” They are not
acceptable for hydrocarbon services. The use of float and cable
type for tank gauging require either “a spring for counter
balance or be servomotor driven.” (Float and tape tank gauging
applications are reviewed later in this course module.)
Figure 66 shows an example application of a float used to

monitor the level in a corrosion inhibitor storage tank.
Level
LI
Indicatior
Corrosion Inhibitor
Storage Tank
Figure 66. Float Application

Magnetic Type
When a magnet is inside the float, then the float is called a
magnetic type float.
Principles - A magnetic type float device (Figure 67) follows the

same concepts as a simple float, which rests on the surface of
the liquid. As the liquid surface position changes, a
corresponding change in float position occurs. The float itself is
magnetically coupled to a tape. The tape has a connection to a
level indicator.
Design - The float resting on the liquid surface is the only

moving part that makes contact with the vessel’s liquid. An
additional tube is inserted into the vessel, and the float
surrounds the tube. A tube guides the float. Magnets are
installed inside the float. A magnet is also present inside the
tube. As the float travels up and down, so does the magnet
inside the tube. The magnet inside the tube is attached to a
tape, which is attached to a pulley. The advantage of this
design is that process materials are prevented from entering the
process readout device.
Magnets Process
Level
Figure 67. Magnetic Float Example

Performance - For best performance, a float should be kept

vertical, which often is accomplished through the use of guide
wires or tubing. Viscous material can cause measurement
errors, because the float will ride higher in more viscous
material than less viscous material. Saudi Aramco standards
reference whether the calibration procedure may need to
include the density of material.
Some performance advantages are the following
• magnetic floats are accurate in deep tanks, and
• magnetic floats are independent of specific gravity
Some performance disadvantages are the following
• float may get stuck to the guide tube, and
• magnets can attract loose metal which interferes with float

operation.
Installation - A sufficient vessel opening is required to insert the

magnetic type device, as well the opening must permit removal
of the device for any type of maintenance.
Applications - Typical industry applications for magnetic floats

are primarily utility services. Float type devices are usually not
considered for processing applications. While no references to
Saudi Aramco applications can be found within SAES-J-300 and
SADP-J-300, references to float usage in tank level gauging
systems are found in SAES-J-300, Section 8.1.
Displacement Devices
Displacement devices are different from float devices in the way

the immersed float-like element is used to determine level.
Recall that a float rests on the liquid surface and changes
position with the change in level. Displacers differ from floats in
that a displacer is restrained from changing position as the liquid
level changes. All displacers transmit a signal related to its
changes in upward buoyant forces as level rises and falls.

Displacer designs vary. The design variations are in their

approach to sealing the internal displacer mechanisms from
process liquids, and how the displacer movement is restrained
and detected. Displacement devices include the following:
• simple displacement device
• torque tube displacers
Simple
Displacement
Device
Principles - Displacement devices are based upon Archimede’s
principle, which states that a body immersed in a liquid is
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the liquid that is
displaced. The weight of the displacer float-like element is
known. As the liquid level changes, the apparent weight of the
displacer changes (Figure 68). The apparent weight change is
sensed by a mechanism that converts the weight change to a
level measurement.
0 0 0
Displacer
Element
Changes in Liquid Level Change the Apparent

Weight of the Displacer Element
Figure 68. Displacement Principles

As the liquid level rises, the actual weight of the displacer float-
like element now becomes the displacer element weight minus
the displaced weight of liquid. The distance, h, which is the
level above the bottom of the displacer element, and the cross
sectional area, A, of the displacer element are also known. The
weight of displaced liquid is equal to A x h x density. The basic
principle is that the weight of the displacer element decreases
as the level increases.
Because the displacer is kept in a relatively fixed position, the
displacer experiences upward bouyancy forces. All displacers
transmit a signal related to its changes in upward buoyant
forces as level rises and falls.
Design - The float-like element of the displacer (Figure 69) does
have some movement. The motion is restricted or dampened
by a range spring. The range spring, which is contained within
an enclosed tube, is connected to a magnetic attractor ball. The
magnetic attractor ball is magnetically coupled to an external
magnet that encircles the tube. The external magnet's motion is
transferred to a rotating cam that indicates position and
operates either pneumatic or electronic control equipment.
M agnets
Spring
Disp lacer
Cham ber
Leve l
Disp lacer
h
A
Figure 69. Displacement Design

Although the displacer assembly can be installed inside a

vessel, the displacer is usually installed in an external chamber
outside of the vessel. A reason for using an external chamber is
to keep displacer element vertical at all times. The displacer
element that is not kept vertical would cause measurement
errors.
Performance - Displacers tend to be limited in their potential

span. Approximately 8 feet is the maximum span length. One
reason for the 8 foot limitation is that it is hard to keep a
displacer element that is more than 8 feet in length upright, even
when using an external chamber.
A potential for material buildups or coatings on the displacer

element is possible. The buildups change the weight of the
displacer and also change the displaced volume of liquid.
Because buildups on the displacer element are undesirable,
displacers are often used in reasonably clean liquids.
Because performance specifications vary for displacers, the

main consideration becomes the susceptibility of the displacer
to changes in specific gravity (density) of the liquid. While the
effects of buildups on the displacer have been noted, the main
contributor to a displacer’s measurement error is a change in a
liquid’s specific gravity. (Displacers also have performance
considerations when used in an interface application. Interface
considerations are described later in that section of the course
material.)
If the displacer is thought of as a sink rather than float-like,

some of the misconceptions will disappear. One problem with
displacers is material building up below the displacer element
and causing a different amount of apparent weight to be
registered.

Installation of a displacement device is somewhat dependent

on the application requirements. The available installation
arrangements are:
• flanged top mounting from the top of the tank

• external cage mounting so that the displacer is isolated
from the process for maintenance.
• side mounting for level applications that have a narrow
range.
External cage mountings have advantages. For maintenance
purposes, it is often desirable for maintenance to be able to
access the device for cleaning. When the displacer is externally
mounted, the process does not have to be shutdown for repair
and cleaning. However, external cage mountings also have
their own special considerations. The special considerations
are described in the section on using displacers for interface
applications. Briefly, the considerations may involve purging the
chamber to keep the displacer element clean, heating the
chamber if the fluid is viscous, and avoiding boiling liquids in the
chambers.
Applications - Simple displacement devices are typically used

in industrial applications such as boiler feedwater heaters,
boilers, scrubbers, and condensate drip pots. Displacement
devices are usually limited to clean processing applications.
Prior to the introduction of the electronic pressure measuring
devices, displacers were the preferred device for narrow
operating ranges, often used on level ranges that are less than
6 or 8 feet. As more microprocessor based pressure measuring
technologies become available, displacers become used less
frequently for level measurement applications.
According to SAES-J-300, Section 7.1, “Displacement type

instruments may be used for:
a. Ranges up to and including 1850 mm (72 in)

b. Non-viscous materials, and
c. Process liquids that do not contain high concentrations of
solids.
Displacement devices are recommended for liquid-liquid
interface level measurement.”

Figure 70 shows a displacement switch in an application for

controlling two pumps. The displacement switch has multiple
(tandem) floats that can be used in a variety of control
applications. In this example, when the normal level reaches
displacer float #2, then pump A turns on. If the level should get
too high and reach the #3 float, then pump B also turns on. If
the level is too low and reaches the #1 float, both pumps turn
off.
Pump
"B" 3 Internal
Start Displacers (1,2,3)
Arrangement
2
Pump
"A" 1
Start
Oily
Water
Separator
• On Normal Level, HL
Pump "A" Is On LS
LL
• On High Level,
Both Pumps On LX
• On Low Level,
Both Pumps Off
Pump "A" Pump "B"
Figure 70. Displacer Switch Application: Pump Control

Figure 71 lists references that influence displacement selection.

Review these references (as well as the vendor’s supporting
documentation) for additional detail when determining a device’s
suitability for an application.
Reference Reason for Use Summary

SAES-J-300, InstallationClearance for repair, prevention of displacer
Section 5.7 guidelines hanging up, avoidance of turbulent
conditions.
SAES-J-300, General application Suitable applications
Section 7.1 of displacement
devices
SAES-J-300, External • Materials of construction
Section 7.2 displacement • Connections required
devices
SAES-J-300, Internal • Materials of construction
Section 7.3 displacement • Mounting
devices • Installation
SADP-J-300, Part 1 Displacement Commentary on displacement meters.
Commentary devices
SADP-J-300, Usage criteria • Changing requirements for displacers
Section 3.1.3 • Chamber construction
• Transmitter requirements
SADP-J-300, Displacer switch Tandem float example, usage as level switch
Section 3.1.5 for point level control.
SADP-J-300, Displacer • Accessibility required
Section 3.2.2 installation • Chambers should permit cleaning
• Avoid vessels that experience vibration
API RP 511, Applications and • Section 3.4.2.2 - Applications
Section 3.4 installation • Section 3.4.2.3 - External cage mounting.
• Section 3.4.2.4 - Vessel connections
• Section 3.4.2.5 - External cage mounting
• Section 3.4.2.6 - Internal displacers
Liptak, “Process Displacers Additional reference for displacer selection
Section 3.7
Figure 71. References for Displacer Selection

Torque Tube
Displacers
A torque tube displacer (Figure 72) is so called because it uses
a tube assembly that converts displacement into a torque
movement.
Principles - A torque tube displacer relies on buoyancy forces

to move the displacer element. The resulting movement is
transferred through a torque assembly. The torque movement
is then converted to a level measurement.
Design - The displacer is attached to a torque tube assembly,

which consists of assemblies such as a torque arm, torque tube,
torque rod, torque arm block, and knife edge bearing. As the
displacer responds to buoyancy forces, the resulting torque arm
movement twists the torque rod within the torque tube. The
displacer is designed so that the angular displacement of up to
5º or 6º is proportionally linear to displacer weight. The angular
displacement is then converted to a level measurement.
Torque Torque Rod in

Arm a Torque Tube
Knife
Edge
Bearing
Displacer
Pointer
Displacer Movement
Chamber Due To Level
(Displacement)
Changing
Figure 72. Torque Tube Design

Performance - Torque tube displacers, like simple

displacement devices, have considerations regarding material
buildup and changing fluid density occurrence.
Installation - The displacer permits external vessel mounting so

that process operations can continue without interference.
Torque tube displacers can also be mounted on an internal
stilling well if internal vessel mounting is needed.
Applications - The applications are the same as those for

simple displacement devices. Clean processing applications
for torque tube displacers are preferable. The materials of
construction and connections required for torque tube displacers
are described in SAES-J-300, Section 7.2.
Torque tube displacers can be used in applications such as

bottoms level measurement in a crude oil distillation column
(Figure 73).
LT LC
Distillation
Column
Reduced Crude
To Vacuum Unit
Figure 73. Torque Tube Application: Bottoms

Level Measurement

Hydrostatic Head Devices
Level measurements can be inferred from measuring the force

that a column of liquid creates. The devices that infer a level
measurement from the force of a liquid column are called
hydrostatic head or pressure head devices. The force from the
liquid column is called hydrostatic pressure or hydrostatic head.
The term “hydrostatic” implies that the liquid in the vessel is
normally at rest or “static,” while the term “head” represents the
height of the liquid within the vessel. Before reviewing
hydrostatic head devices, first consider how level can be
inferred from a pressure measurement.
Inferring level
measurement
from pressure
measurement
To infer a level measurement from a pressure measurement,
you can use the following calculation.
p = h x r x (g/gc), where:
p = pressure
h = liquid height (head) in the vessel
r = density of process material (“density rho”)
g = acceleration due to gravity (value for that

geographical region)
gc = universal gravitational constant (9.8066 m/s2 or 32.2

ft/sec2)
(Note: For the following discussion, assume g/gc = 1. While it is

more rigorous to include acceleration due to gravity in pressure
calculations, the following section introduces general concepts
for several types of hydrostatic head measurements and ignores
gravitational effects.)

The pressure calculation illustrates principles of hydrostatic

head devices. As an example of the usefulness of the above
equation, if you know the height of the liquid to be measured as
well as its specific gravity, you can determine the span of the
hydrostatic head device. One assumption in this calculation is
that the tank is open to atmospheric pressure. As you will see
later, closed pressurized vessels have additional factors when
inferring a level measurement.
The following example illustrates calculating the pressure

transmitter range for an open tank. Assume that a pressure
transmitter is used to make the level measurement, the
maximum height of the liquid in the vessel is 3.05 m (10 ft), and
the process fluid is #2 fuel oil. The pressure calculation is
based on the following
The calculation, in metric units, follows:
p = h ρ (g/gc), where
ρ = specific gravity of #2 fuel oil x specific gravity of

water
ρ = 0.87 x 1 gm/cm3 = 0.87 gm/cm3
h = 3.05 m
p = h ρ (g/gc) = 3.05 m (100 cm/m) 0.87 gm/cm3 (10,000

cm2/m2 ) x 1.0
p = 2654 kg/m2

To convert 2654 kg/m2 to mm of water column, multiply 2654

kg/m2 by 1.0 (since 1 kg/m2 = 1.0 mm water column) to get 2654
mm of water column. To convert to kPa, multiply 2654 kg/m2 by
9.8067 (since 1 kg/m2 = 9.8067 Pa) to get 26 kPa.
The calculation, in customary units, follows:
p = h ρ (g/gc), where
ρ = specific gravity of # 2 fuel oil x specific gravity of

water
ρ = 0.87 x 62.4 lb/cubic foot = 54.3 lbs/cu ft
h = 10 ft
p = h ρ (g/gc) = 10 ft x 54.3 lbs/cu ft x 1.0
p = 543 lb/ft2 = 3.77 psi
p = 543 lb/ft2 x 1 ft2/144 in2 = 3.77 psi
To convert to inches of water column, multiply 3.77 psi by 27.7
(since 1 psi = 27.7 inches water column) to get 104.4 inches of
water column.
Maximum
Level
X = 3.05m
(10 ft) Minimum
Level
Pressure
Transmitter
Used For
Level Sensing
Figure 74. Example Pressure to Level Measurement

As you can see from the previous discussion, pressure is

described in terms of kPa, psi, mm of water column, and inches
of water column. Pressure is usually described with kPa or psi
units. For level measurement, it will be helpful to make the
following discussion more simplified if hydrostatic head is
discussed in terms of millimeters of water or inches of water.
Using millimeters of water (or inches of water) follows an
industry practice of using the term “head” to represent an
equivalent level of water, in millimeters or inches. Simplifying
the calculation in terms of equivalent levels of water also allows
the usage of specific gravity in the calculation. The pressure
measurement’s relationship to level is now shown as:
p = h x SG where
p = pressure in mm of H2O (or inches of H2O)
h = expected liquid height (head) in mm (or inches)
SG = specific gravity of liquid
The approach of using specific gravity and height is consistent

with the range elevation and suppression calculations described
in the SADP-J-300 Supplements manual. Some engineers
prefer to describe the relationship as p∝h x SG, indicating that
pressure (in mm or inches of H2O) is equivalent to height (in
millimeters or inches) times specific gravity.
To illustrate the approach, first consider an example of a 3.05

meter (10 feet) liquid height to be measured. If one assumes
that the liquid is water, then
p = h x SG where
h = liquid height (head) 3050 mm (120 inches)
SG = specific gravity of water = 1.0
p = h x SG = 3050 mm x 1.0 = 3050 mm of H2O (or 120

inches of H2O).

Next, consider the earlier example of a 3.05 m (10 ft) height to

be measured, for a liquid that is #2 fuel oil:
p = h x SG where

h = liquid height or head, 3050 mm (120 inches)
SG = specific gravity of #2 fuel oil = 0.87
p = h x SG = 3050 mm x 0.87 = 2654 mm of H2O
(104.4 in. of H2O).
The results are the same whether the calculation used is

p = h ρ (g/gc) or the calculation is based upon p = h x SG. The
distinction is that the calculation using p = h x SG implies that
the pressure from a liquid column of height, h, is expressed in
terms of a pressure that is an equivalent to a column of water of
height p.
Regardless of the method used, one subtle point to be made is

illustrated in Figure 75. From the earlier example calculations,
you can see that a 3050 mm of H2O pressure reading
represents 3.05 meters of water, while a pressure reading of
2654 mm of H2O represents 3.05 meters of fuel oil.
When Actual Level

Is 3050mm,
Transmitter Provides
Reading Of:
• 3050mm H2O If Liquid
Is Water
X = 3.05m • 2654mm H2O If Liquid
Is #2 Fuel Oil
(10 ft)
Figure 75. Level in Terms of Pressure

Devices inferring level measurement from a pressure

measurement are called “hydrostatic head” devices. Among the
hydrostatic head devices are:
• Bubbler tubes
• Pressure transmitters
• Differential pressure transmitter
Bubbler Tubes
In an open tank, one approach to measure liquid level is through
the use of a bubbler tube. A bubbler tube is so called because
a flow of gas or air is forced and bubbled into the tank through a
tube inserted into the process liquid.
Principles - The bubbler tube (Figure 76) is inserted to a depth

that represents the level to be measured. The upper part of the
tube is connected to an air supply, which supplies air or an inert
gas (such as nitrogen). A valve on the air supply is regulated to
maintain a constant flow of air. The air flow is usually an
amount that just causes bubbles to appear at the bottom of the
tube. A pressure measuring device, such as a pressure
transmitter, is installed on the tube. The pressure transmitter
measures the back pressure created by the constantly flowing
air or gas. The back pressure that the transmitter measures is
in direct proportion to the level in the vessel. As the liquid
height (liquid head) rises and falls, the back pressure created by
the air flow in the bubbler tube rises and falls. The measured
pressure, because it is equal to the pressure at the bottom of
the vessel, is used to represent the height of the liquid level.
Pressure measurement is based on the following calculation:
p = h x SG where
h = expected liquid height (head) in millimeters or
inches
The same calculation is also used to derive height, since
h = p/SG.
As an example of the usefulness of the equation, p = h x SG, if
you know the height of the liquid to be measured, as well as its
specific gravity, you can determine the span of the bubbler
tube’s pressure transmitter.

Design - Bubbler tubes also have special tips that ensure a

flow of small bubbles. Air supply transmission lines are often
sloped to allow condensate to drain to the vessel in the event of
a loss of air purge supply. Purge supply pressures are about 69
kPa (10 psi) or greater than the highest hydrostatic pressure to
be measured. The purge flow rate is small (about 500 cc/min),
a flow rate is typically just enough to see bubbles in the vessel
and to avoid pressure drops in the tube.
Air Supply Air Supply

Restrictor Regulator
Air
Supply
LIT
Pressure
Transmitter
Figure 76. Bubbler Tube Principles
Performance - The accuracy of a bubbler tube is limited.

Pressurized vessels normally do not use bubblers, so bubbler
tubes are often used in open or vented tanks. Piping leaks
affect bubbler tube performance. The bubbler tube does have
an advantage in that the pressure transmitter (or any other
pressure measuring device tied to the tube) is not exposed to
the liquid. Note that a continuous supply of air or gas must be
maintained, otherwise process fluid will enter the tube. If the
process material is a type that coats or plugs a tube, a bubbler
tube may be suitable as long as precautions are taken of
regularly purging the tube with a liquid or gas.

Installation - For proper installation of a bubbler tube, consider

the following:
• purge gas - the gas being applied to the process must not
react with the process material.
• product characteristics - products with coating buildups will
plug the bubbler tube eventually. Usually these types of
applications are avoided because buildups can eventually
cause increased back pressure readings, which cause
erroneous level measurements.
• physical installation of the tube - the bubbler tube is usually
installed to the depth of the level to be measured. To
avoid the problem of plugging the bubbler tube, some
users install the tube 7.6 cm (3 inches) above the level of
any sludge that accumulates in the vessel.
Applications - The bubbler tube is best used in clean
processing applications, in vessels that are open to atmosphere.
Ideally, the clean processing application should have no coating
problems, no temperature variations, and no vaporization or
steam. Bubbler tubes are normally not used in applications
where corrosion and plugging are possible, although regularly
purging the tube with air or gas can keep the tube clean and
permit use in those applications. Despite the possibility of use
in a number of applications, bubbler tubes are not very common
in demanding processing applications.
Air
Supply
LIT
Gauge Vent
Pressure
Transmitter
Solution With
Suspended
Particulates
Figure 77. Bubbler Tube Application

Pressure
Transmitters
In an open tank, a pressure transmitter installed at the bottom of
the vessel can measure the height of a liquid column.
Principles - The pressure transmitter referred to in the

following discussion essentially is making a gauge pressure
measurement. Just as in the bubbler tube level measurement,
one can calculate the pressure range if the height and specific
gravity of the liquid are known. If, for example, the height
(head) is 24 inches of water and the specific gravity of water is
1.0, then the pressure at the bottom of the vessel is 24 inches
H2O.
The pressure measurement’s relationship to level is again

based on the calculation:
p = h x SG where
p = pressure
h = liquid height or head
The calculation again illustrates how hydrostatic head devices

can infer level measurements, because the same calculation is
used to derive level:
h = p/SG where
p = pressure

Design - Pressure transmitters used in level measurement

applications include both the gauge pressure transmitter and a
pressure-based transmitter called a level transmitter. Level
transmitters are essentially gauge pressure transmitters that
have specially designed connections for flanged tank nozzles or
similar ANSI rated fittings. Level transmitters also have flush
and extended diaphragm options (Figure 78). Flush diaphragms
are useful in liquid level measurements where the process
material is clean. Extended diaphragms are useful for process
materials that are viscous or slurries.
Vessel
Nozzle
Transmitter
Flush
Extended
Mount
Diaphragm
Figure 78. Diaphragm Options
When a pressure transmitter (level or gauge) is installed in an

open tank application, the transmitter's high side connection is
made to a tank nozzle for the process connection. The
pressure transmitter's low side connection is vented to
atmospheric pressure. The effect of atmospheric pressure is
cancelled because the atmospheric pressure acts upon both the
high and low side of the pressure transmitter. Thus, the
hydrostatic pressure from the liquid acts upon the high side
of the pressure transmitter, and becomes an inferred
measurement of level height.

Performance - Pressure transmitters are not practical for liquid

level measurements whose specific gravity or density is
changing (unless the accuracy requirements are not stringent).
A reason for the impracticality is that a percentage change in
the specific gravity causes an equal percentage change in the
pressure transmitter’s output. If, for example, a hydrostatic
head device measuring 24 inches H2O experiences a specific
gravity change from 1.0 to 1.5, then the pressure instrument will
be in error by 50%. The error can be seen from the following
calculations:
When example conditions of specific gravity of 1.0 occur,

pressure is:
p = h x SG = 24 inches H2O x 1.0 = 24 inches H2O
However, the resulting pressure when specific gravity changes

to 1.5 is:
p = h x SG = 24 inches H2O x 1.5 = 36 inches H2O
error = (36-24)/24 = 50%
Despite the limitation of a liquid’s changing specific gravity, the

pressure transmitter has several advantages in liquid level
measurement:
• Wide ranges are supported with a pressure transmitter.

For example, other level measuring devices, such as a
displacer, may be distance limited to measuring heights
less than 2 meters (8 feet). Pressure transmitters can
measure heights represented by pressures as low as
0 to 12 cm H2O (O to 5 inches H2O) and over 134 m H2O
(433 ft H2O).
Pressure transmitters are suitable for a variety of liquids

that would clog or settle in another device's external
measurement chamber or pipe.
Pressure transmitters are externally accessible for

maintenance.

Installation - A common level measurement installation for a

pressure transmitter is an open or vented tank application. No
other type of pressure, such as nitrogen blankets or vaporization
pressure, should be applied to the liquid surface because that
pressure causes an erroneous level measurement. The error
occurs because the pressure transmitter is often referenced to
atmospheric pressure, not the added pressure of the nitrogen
blanket or vaporization pressure. (If a nitrogen blanket or
vaporization pressure is present, a differential pressure
transmitter is more suitable.)
When a level transmitter is installed, note that the diaphragm is

insensitive to level changes over the lower half of the
diaphragm. The transmitter therefore has a reference line,
called a datum line, which must be aligned with the centerline of
the tank nozzle. The tank nozzle, and consequently the
diaphragm of the pressure transmitter, must be positioned so
that the minimum liquid level is always at or above the datum
line (Figure 79).
Open Tank
Minimum Level Must Be

At Or Above "Datum" Line
Datum
Line
Pressure Transmitter
Figure 79. Datum Line

Applications - Pressure transmitters are suitable for a wide

variety of fluids, pressures, and temperature ranges. The
example in Figure 80 shows a pressure transmitter used to
measure level in a vented storage vessel.
Vent
3.05m 60% H2SO 4

(10ft) Storage
LIT
Level (Gauge Pressure)

Transmitter
Figure 80. Application: Level Measurement

in Storage Vessel

Differential Head
Devices
In closed or pressurized tank applications, a differential head
device is used for the hydrostatic pressure measurement. The
differential head device, when measuring hydrostatic pressure
in a closed tank, cancels the pressure effects of internal tank
pressures because the internal tank pressure is sensed at both
the high and low side of the pressure device. The differential
head device described in the following discussion is a
conventional electronic differential pressure transmitter used for
level measurement in a closed tank. The principles of a
conventional electronic differential pressure transmitter would
apply to pneumatic and microprocessor based instruments as
well.
When using hydrostatic pressure for level measurement in

closed or pressurized tank applications, the effects of any fill
fluids used in a differential pressure transmitter's high and/or low
side pressure connections must be taken into account when
calculating the range for the transmitter. Otherwise, a level
measurement would include the hydrostatic pressure effects of
the fill fluid.

Principles and Design - The key to understanding how level

measurement is accomplished using a typical differential
pressure transmitter is to first recall how the transmitter
generates an output signal, such as a 4 to 20 mA signal. Recall
that a differential pressure transmitter has two pressure
connections for measuring differential pressure — a high
pressure connection and a low pressure connection. For an
increasing output signal to occur in a typical differential pressure
transmitter, the high side connection of the pressure transmitter
must always be increasing in pressure relative to the low side
pressure connection. To achieve a maximum output signal (20
mA), the net pressure on both the high side and the low side
must be such that the pressure on the high side represents the
hydrostatic pressure for the maximum liquid level. Or,
described in terms of transmitter operation, for a maximum level
measurement to occur, the net pressure on both the high side
and the low side must be such that the pressure on the high
side is greater than the low side by an amount equal to the
configured span of the transmitter. Thus, when using differential
pressure transmitters for a level measurement, the high side
pressure connection is made to the lower process tap
connection of a vessel (Figure 81).
Maximum
Level, 100%
Differential
Pressure (DP)
Transmitter
Minimum
Level, 0%
Vented
Low Pressure
High Pressure Side (L.P.)
Side (H.P.)
Figure 81. High Side to Tank Bottom

When a differential pressure device is used in a closed tank

application, the internal tank pressure must be compensated for.
In a closed tank application, as the level falls, the pressure
inside the tank may decrease. The change in pressure has an
effect on the measured level indication. A common way to
account for the change in internal tank pressure due to
changing levels is to connect the low side of the differential
pressure transmitter to the top side of the tank (Figure 82). The
connections to the tank require two process taps.
Upper
Tap
Maximum "Leg"
Level, 100%
Lower
Minimum Tap
Level, 0%
Low Pressure
Side (L.P.)
High Pressure
Side (H.P.)
Figure 82. Connection for Closed Tank

As long as the level is between the two taps of the differential

pressure transmitter, the difference in pressure is based upon
the following formula:
∆p = h x SG, where
∆p = difference in pressure
SG = specific gravity
The level’s relationship to hydrostatic pressure is seen by

changing the calculation to:
h = ∆p /SG, where
∆p = difference in pressure
SG = specific gravity
Assume that a differential pressure transmitter’s high side

connection is installed at the lower process tap connection. The
upper process tap connection (also referred to as a “leg”) goes
to the low side of the pressure transmitter. On the high side of
the pressure transmitter, which is connected to the lower
process tap, the transmitter senses the pressure in the tank,
plus the pressure due to the height of the liquid. That
relationship can be shown in the expression:
p high side of transmitter = p tank + (h x SG) where
p tank = pressure in tank
SG = specific gravity of process material

Assuming that the other low pressure connection to the upper

process tap is a dry leg, which means that the leg is “dry” if it is
kept full of gas, then the pressure at the low side of the
transmitter is the pressure within the upper space of the tank, or
p low side of transmitter = p tank
The differential head (pressure), ∆p, measurement is thus

based on:
∆p = p high side of transmitter - plow side of transmitter = p tank + (h x SG) - p tank = h x SG
The calculations show that the effect of pressure within the

closed or pressurized vessel is cancelled when a differential
head device is used to perform a level measurement. To keep
a leg dry, one must keep the leg sufficiently heated to keep the
condensating liquids out of it, which is not always practical. In
practice, it is difficult to keep process material out of the dry leg.
Another approach to keeping process material out of the leg to
the upper process tap is to use fill fluids in the transmitter’s low
pressure connection to the upper process tap. For the
transmitter’s connection to the upper part of the tank, the
pressure effect of the seal fill fluid must now be accounted for,
as shown in the following calculation:
p low side of transmitter = p tank + h leg x SG fill fluid, where
SG fill fluid = specific gravity for the fill fluid.

p tank = pressure in tank
h leg = height of wet leg, measured from lower tap to
upper tap
∆p = p high side of transmitter - p low side of transmitter

∆p = (p tank + (h x SG)) - (p tank + (h x SG fill fluid ))
∆p = (h x SG) - (h x SG fill fluid )
Installation - The following discussion describes installation
considerations according to SADP-J-300, Section 3.2.3.
“Differential pressure level detectors lend themselves best to
transmitter installations. They should be used for fluids which
contain little or no suspended solids and do not have a tendency
to develop solids under static conditions or process temperature
changes. The solids will precipitate out in the diaphragm cavity
and limit the travel of the diaphragm.

The deposition of solids in the cavity containing the diaphragm

is usually indicated by output signal/zero shift and nonlinear
errors in the output signal.
Direct flange mounting transmitters are preferred for

installations which have a 2-inch pipe nozzle or larger and which
require a differential pressure transmitter regardless of solid
content. However, it should be remembered that the solids can
form in the nozzle next to the diaphragm in the same manner
that they develop in a standard diaphragm cavity.
A common error in the installation of a differential pressure level

transmitter is the intent to track small level changes in a very
high level which is totally read by the transmitter. For example,
a 15-meter high tank level is totally measured and you would
like to read the level to an accuracy of plus or minus
15 millimeters. (Oil tank in and out gages which are tape read
require this degree of accuracy). The true indication of the
performance of a differential pressure transmitting meter
is repeatability. Repeatability is typically 0.15 percent of
calibrated range. Therefore, the signal could vary 22.5
millimeters for the same tank level which is not satisfactory for
this application. This performance characteristic is the reason
why this type of meter is rated fair to poor as an accounting type
meter in the table under section 3.0 [of SADP-J-300].
The approach recommended in selecting the range of level to

be measure is to place the high pressure sensing nozzle no
lower than 25 percent below the lowest level of interest in the
vessel. For example, if you have a 15-meter tank in which the
level will be between 8 and 12 meters for 90 percent of the
operating life of the tank, the level operating range is only 4
meters and this is the range for which the transmitter would be
calibrated. The sensing nozzle would be installed at one meter
below the 8 meter level at 7 meters. The transmitter would be
zero elevated to compensate for the one meter. Refer to
Figure 1 in Section 4 [of SADP-J-300 Supplements] for
explanation of elevation and suppression. The scale on the
receiving instrument should read 8 at zero input signal and 12 at
maximum input signal. However, care should be exercised in
selecting ranges in relation to standard scales. When possible,
the instrument manufacturer's standard scale which will bracket
your desired range as closely as possible should be used.
Special scale ranges will increase cost in scales and charts
which can exceed the cost of the instrument over a 1000 times.

Differential pressure transmitters used on atmospheric pressure

tanks normally have the low pressure port open to the
atmospheric at the transmitter. This port should be equipped
with a 90-degree fitting which is turned down and which contains
a large mesh screen. The 90-degree fitting will keep dust and
liquid out of the low pressure cavity. The screen will keep out
insects and other small objects which could interfere with the
diaphragm's operation.”
As stated in the standards and implied throughout this

discussion, the top process connection (top tap) must be
positioned so that the maximum liquid level is always below the
top tap. If the process liquid comes in contact with the top tap,
the low side pressure measurement will be incorrect.
Applications - The following discussion describes application

considerations according to SAES-J-300, Section 10.1.
“Differential pressure type instruments shall be used for
measurement ranges exceeding 1850 mm (72 inches). They
may also be used for lower ranges where process conditions
prohibit the use of displacement type instruments. Transmitters
with diaphragm seals may be used for extremely viscous
materials, for materials containing solids or in hot service.”
Note the additional comments from SADP-J-300, Part 1
Commentary: “Differential pressure type instruments are not
restricted to use on levels of 1850 mm (72 inches) and greater
as this paragraph implies. However, for simplification of design,
‘use only on levels higher than 1850 mm’ could be used as a
rule of thumb. All process parameters should be considered to
select the proper level instrument to be used on any level.”
Section 10.1 of SAES-J-300 also states: “Levels in vessels

which are subjected to high vibration are best measured by
differential pressure transmitters. The transmitter can be
mounted away from the vessel and mounted on a non-vibrating
surface. Electronic transmitters can be mounted directly on a
vibrating vessel without any ill effects.

Differential pressure transmitters should not be installed in a

service where the measured liquid specific gravity will vary
widely and often. For example, a vessel is used for oil at a S.G.
of 0.8 and salt water at a S.G. of 1.0; when in oil service, a
transmitter calibrated for water would actually contain 3.6
meters of oil when indicating 3 meters of level. Also, differential
pressure transmitters work best on clean fluids which are fairly
constant in specific gravity, temperature, and pressure.
Differential pressure transmitters must be installed as level
transmitters for controllers when the level will vary over ranges
which exceed 1800 mm (72 inches). A displacer type controller
can control only when the level is on the displacer. The longest
standard displacer available is 1800 mm (72 inches).”
A typical industry approach is to apply differential pressure

transmitters in clean applications that have a temperature
of less than 149ºC (300ºF). While differential pressure
transmitters tend to have relatively low temperature limits,
techniques exist for extending the temperature through the use
of filled capillaries and/or remote seals. The filled capillaries
contain oil that does not readily transfer heat so that the
transmitter can be located away from the process.
Differential transmitters are also suitable for process that

contain suspended solids. However, the application involving
suspended solids should be carefully reviewed. Suspended
solids can accumulate over time and plug the sensor. While
extended diaphragms overcome this problem, over a period of
time suspended solids can accumulate in the bottom of the
vessel to a point above the pressure sensor.

An application in Figure 83 shows a differential pressure

transmitter used to measure the level in a butane product
sphere.
LI
Computer
System
d/p
14.6m Butane Product LI
(48ft) Surge Sphere LIT
Operator
Interface
H.P. L.P.
Differential
Pressure
Transmitter
Figure 83. Application Example: Butane Product


hydrostatic head device selection. Review these references (as
well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional
detail when determining a device’s suitability for an application.

SAES-J-300, General • Application
Section 10 application of • Calibration
differential
pressure devices • Purge system
• Local indication
• Transmitter characteristics
SAES-J-300, Installation • Open tank service
Section 10.6 • Wet leg/dry leg service
• Dampening comments
• LPG service requirements
• Diaphragm seals require block valves
SADP-J-300, Usage criteria • Application guidelines
Section 3.2.3 • Flange construction
• Installation requirements
• Range of level criteria
• Process characteristics (vibration, density
changes).
SADP-J-300, Transmitter range Reference for range calculations.
Supplements calculations
API RP 511, Applications and • Section 3.4.3 - Installation of differential
Section 3.4 installation pressure devices
• Section 3.4.4 - Installation of hydrostatic
head devices
• Section 3.4.4.4 - bubbler installation.
Liptak, “Process Bubblers and Additional reference for selection and
Measurement,” differential implementation.
Section 3.2 and 3.6 pressure devices
Figure 84. References for Hydrostatic Head Selection

The earlier discussion of using gauge and/or differential

pressure transmitters for level measurement assumed that the
transmitter is installed at the same level as the lower process
tap; however, that is not always the case. A transmitter for an
open tank level measurement is often installed below the lower
process tap. When that happens, the pressure effect of the fluid
in the lower process tap connection to the high side of the
pressure transmitter must also be taken into account.
The use of fill fluids in a differential pressure transmitter's legs

leads to one of the most misunderstood concepts in making a
level measurement with differential pressure transmitters. The
concepts of zero elevation and zero suppression are confusing
to most novice engineers. These concepts can be easily
explained by performing some transmitter range calculations.
When transmitter ranges are mathematically calculated, then
the effect of a leg’s fill fluid on zero suppression or zero
elevation of the range are no mystery at all.
Transmitter Range
Calculations
The following transmitter range calculations account for the
pressure measurement effects of a fill fluid in a transmitter's leg,
and make the concepts of zero suppression and zero elevation
much easier to understand when the relationship of suppression
and elevation to range are shown mathematically. To be sure, a
brief review of the terms “suppression” and “elevation” is
necessary. The terms “suppression” and “elevation” can be
confusing; the interpretation depends on the context they are
presented in.
The terms “elevation,” “elevated range,” and “elevated span”

represent the condition where 0 does not appear on the
measurement scale or range of the pressure transmitter. The
zero, in effect, is less than the lower range value. Note that
SADP-J-300 Supplements uses the term “range elevation” to
represent this condition. For example, when the range is 20 to
100 measurement units, range elevation occurs because zero
measurement units are not part of this range. At 20
measurement units, a 4 mA output is generated by a
transmitter, while at 100 measurement units, a 20 mA signal is
generated. However, you should note that the industry preferred
description for this condition is that it represents a “suppressed-
zero range.”

The terms “suppression,” “suppressed range,” and “suppressed

span” represent the condition where 0 does appear within (or
even above) the measurement scale or range of the pressure
transmitter. The zero, in effect, is greater than the lower range
value. Note that SADP-J-300 Supplements uses the term
“range suppression” to represent this condition. For example,
when the range is -25 to 100 measurement units, range
suppression occurs because zero is within this range. At -25
measurement units, a 4 mA output is generated by a
transmitter, while at 100 measurement units, a 20 mA signal
is generated. However, you should note that the industry
preferred description for this condition is that it represents an
“elevated-zero range.”
In summary, the terms zero “elevation” and “suppression” refer

to the relationship between zero and the lower range value. For
any application, whether or not the range configuration requires
suppression or elevation, the following relationships can be
used to calculate the transmitter range. Begin first by noting
that for a differential pressure transmitter to have a 4 mA output,
the sum total effects on the differential pressure transmitter
should be zero.
A 4 mA output, representing a minimum level, is generated

when:
p high side of transmitter - p low side of transmitter + Offset = 0, where
p high side of transmitter = pressure applied to the high side of

the pressure transmitter in inches of H20.
plow side of transmitter = pressure applied to the low side of the
pressure transmitter in inches of H20.
Offset = an offset factor that is either positive or negative,
in inches or millimeters of H20. The offset factor
automatically accounts for any effects of fill fluid upon
range suppression or elevation.
A 20 mA output, representing the maximum level, would occur
when:
p high side of transmitter - p low side of transmitter + Offset = Span, where
Span represents the configured span of the transmitter.

The two expressions for calculating a transmitters range are

then:
p high side of transmitter @4 mA - p low side of transmitter @4 mA + Offset = 0
p high side of transmitter @20 mA -p low side of transmitter @20 mA + Offset

= Span
The range calculation procedure is summarized as follows:
• Identify the expected pressures on both the high and low

sides of the pressure transmitter at the points where you
want a 4 mA output to represent minimum level and where
you want 20 mA to represent maximum level.
• Use the 4 mA minimum level and solve for any Offset with
the expression:
p high side of transmitter @4 mA - p low side of transmitter @4 mA +

Offset = 0
• Use the 20 mA maximum level, any Offset calculated

previously, and solve for the expected span.
p high side of transmitter @20 mA -p low side of transmitter @20 mA +

Offset = Span
• Calibrate the transmitter to a range of - Offset to (- Offset +

Span). In other words, the lower range value (LRV) is -
Offset, while the upper range value (URV) is (-Offset +
Span).
The following transmitter range calculations illustrate the use of

this procedure.

Open Tank Range

Calculation
In an open tank, the transmitter is often installed below the
lower process tap connection. Because the transmitter is below
the lower process tap, fill fluid is present from the lower process
tap to the transmitter high side connection. Although the level
may be measured at the lower process tap connection, a
hydrostatic pressure (due to the fill fluid) is present at the high
side of the differential pressure transmitter. For the transmitter
to output a signal representing just the level from its maximum
height to the lower process tap, the effect of the fluid in the high
side connection must be “suppressed.” In this situation it is
desirable that a 4 mA signal, representing 0 differential pressure
and thus the minimum level, is output when the liquid level is at
the lower process tap connection. A suppressed-zero range
must be configured for the transmitter.
Maximum
Level
HX
Minimum
Level
HZ
Vented
H.P. L.P.
Figure 85. Open Tank Range Calculation

The following example illustrates calculating the transmitter

range for an open tank with the low pressure side vented, with
the differential pressure transmitter below the lower process tap.
The maximum height of the liquid is 10 feet (120 inches) above
the minimum level, the process fluid has a specific gravity of
1.1, the fill fluid in the process connection from the lower tap to
the transmitter’s high side connection has a specific gravity of
1.1 and is a length of 1 foot (12 inches).
Note: When using a differential pressure transmitter, the fill fluid

is the process fluid from the lower tap to the transmitter’s high
side connection. When using a remote seal transmitter, the fill
fluid from the lower tap to the transmitter's high side connection
will be a fill fluid with a specific gravity that is different than the
process fluid’s. The reason for the specific gravity difference is
that the capillary is filled with a fill fluid that is not permitted to
combine with the process fluid.
The range calculation using the procedure follows.
• Use the 4 mA minimum level and solve for any Offset in

the expression:

Offset = 0
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) - 0 + Offset = 0
(0 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) -0 + Offset = 0
(0 + 13.2) -0 + Offset = 0
(13.2) -0 + Offset = 0
Offset = -13.2
p high side of transmitter @20 mA -p low side of transmitter @20 mA+
Offset = Span
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) -0 + Offset = Span
(120 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) -0 + Offset = Span
(132 + 13.2) - 0 + ( - 13.2) = Span
(145.2 ) - 0 + ( - 13.2) = Span
Span = 132


Span)
Range = - Offset to (- Offset + Span)
Range = - ( - 13.2) to (- ( - 13.2) + 132)
Range = 13.2 to 145.2 inches H2O
In the previous example, the zero of the transmitter’s range

represents a “suppressed-zero range.” That is, 0 does not
appear as a measurement unit on the range of 13.2 to 145.2
inches H2O. According to accepted practice, suppressed-zero
range is the preferred terminology. Note that terms such as
“elevation,” “elevated range,” and “elevated span” are also used
to express this condition. SADP-J-300 uses the term “range
elevation.”
Open Tank With

Wet Leg
Transmitter Range
Calculation
range for an open tank with a wet leg, again with the differential
pressure transmitter installed below the lower process tap.

In the next example (Figure 86), the maximum height of the

liquid is 10 feet, the process fluid has a specific gravity of 1.1,
the fill fluid in the process connection from the lower tap to the
transmitter’s high side connection has a specific gravity of 1.5
and is a length of 12 inches. The fill fluid in the wet leg has a
specific gravity of 1.5 and is 144 inches high. The span can be
readily seen to be 132 in H2O (120 inches height x 1.1). Ideally,
a 0 differential pressure would generate a 4 mA signal, while a
132 in H2O would generate a 20 mA signal.
Note that the pressure due to the fill fluid in the wet leg forces
you to place an elevated-zero range on the transmitter. The
elevated-zero range is necessary because the pressure effects
of the fill fluid from the wet leg must be cancelled to make the
level measurement. The elevated-zero range is necessary for
the differential transmitter to read a minimum or maximum level
at pressures other than 0 and 132 in H2O.
Maximum
Level
HX
Minimum
Level
HZ
H.P. L.P.
HX = 3050mm (120 inches), Height Of Process Liquid

HZ = 305mm (12 inches), Height Of Fill Liquid
SG Process Liquid = 1.1
d = 3658mm (144 inches), Height Of Fill Fluid In L.P. Leg
SG Fill Fluid = 1.5
Figure 86. Open Tank Wet Leg Range Calculation

(Again, note the following: When using a differential pressure

transmitter, the fill fluid is the process fluid from the lower tap to
the transmitter’s high side connection. When using a remote
seal transmitter, the fill fluid from the lower tap to the
transmitter's high side connection will be a fill fluid with a
specific gravity that is different than the process fluid’s. The
reason for the specific gravity difference is that the capillary is
filled with a fill fluid that is not permitted to combine with the
process fluid.)
In transmitter terms, as seen from the following calculations, for

the transmitter to generate a 4 mA signal, the differential
pressure will be -202.8 inches H2O when the liquid level is at a
minimum height.
p high side of transmitter @4 mA - p low side of transmitter @4 mA = ∆P
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) - ( h x SG fill fluid) = ∆P
(0 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.5) - (144 x 1.5) = ∆P
13.2 - 216 = ∆P@4 mA
-202.8 = ∆P@4 mA
In transmitter terms, as seen from the following calculations, for

the transmitter to generate a 20 mA signal, the differential
pressure will be -66 inches H2O when the liquid level is at a
maximum height.
(120 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1) - (144 x 1.5) = ∆P
(132 + 13.2) - 216 =∆P
145.2 - 216 = ∆P @20 mA
-70.8 = ∆P @20 mA

The calculation for the transmitter range follows. The range

calculation using the procedure follows and verifies the
expected differential pressure calculated previously.

the expression:
p high side of transmitter @4 mA - p lowside of transmitter @4 mA +

Offset = 0
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) -( h x SG fill fluid) +

Offset = 0
(0 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) - (144 x 1.5) + Offset = 0
(0 + 13.2) - 216+ Offset = 0
(13.2 ) - 216+ Offset = 0
Offset = 202.8


Offset = Span
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) - ( h x SG fill fluid) +

Offset = Span
(120 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) - (144 x 1.5) + Offset = Span
(132 + 13.2) - 216+ (202.8) = Span
(145.2 ) - 216 + (202.8) = Span

Span = 132 (note: by definition, span cannot be zero or
negative)
Span)
Range = - ( 202.8 ) to (- (202.8) + 132 )
Range = -202.8 to -70.8 inches H2O


represents an “elevated-zero range.” That is, 0 is greater than
the lower range value. In this example, the zero is also greater
than the upper range value. According to accepted practice,
“elevated-zero range” is the preferred terminology. Note that
terms such as “suppression,” “suppressed range,” and
“suppressed span” are also used to express this condition.
SADP-J-300 uses the term “range suppression.”
Closed Tank
with Dry Leg
Transmitter Range
Calculation
range for a closed tank with a dry leg, with the differential
pressure transmitter below the lower process tap. In the closed
tank example, the low pressure connection is connected to a
process tap at the top of the tank above the process liquid’s
maximum level. The pressure within the tank is then sensed at
both the low side and high side of the differential pressure
transmitter, effectively cancelling out the internal tank pressures
for the level measurement.
In a closed tank, the transmitter is often installed below the

lower process tap connection. When the level is at the lower
process tap connection, a hydrostatic pressure, due to the fill
fluid, is present at the high side of the differential pressure
transmitter. For the transmitter to output a signal representing
just the level from its maximum height to the lower process tap,
the effect of the fluid in the high side connection must be
“suppressed.” In this situation, it is desirable that a 4 mA signal,
representing 0 differential pressure and thus the minimum level,
is output when the liquid level is at the lower process tap
connection.

Maximum
Level
HX
Minimum
Level
HZ
H.P. L.P.

Figure 87. Closed Tank Dry Leg Range Calculation
(Note: When using a differential pressure transmitter, the fill

fluid is the process fluid from the lower tap to the transmitter’s
high side connection. When using a remote seal transmitter, the
fill fluid from the lower tap to the transmitter's high side
connection will be a fill fluid with a specific gravity that is
different than the process fluid’s. The reason for the specific
gravity difference is that the capillary is filled with a fill fluid that
is not permitted to combine with the process fluid.)


range for a closed tank with a dry leg, with the differential
pressure transmitter below the lower process tap. The
maximum height of the liquid is 10 feet above the minimum
level, the process fluid has a specific gravity of 1.1, the fill fluid
in the process connection from the lower tap to the transmitter’s
high side connection has a specific gravity of 1.1 and is a length
of 1 foot. The range calculation using the procedure follows.

the expression:
Offset = 0
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) -0 + Offset = 0
(0 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) -0 + Offset = 0

(0 + 13.2) -0 + Offset = 0
(13.2 ) -0 + Offset = 0
Offset = -13.2
Offset = Span
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) -0 + Offset = Span
(120 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) -0 + Offset = Span

(132 + 13.2) - 0 + ( - 13.2 ) = Span
(145.2 ) - 0 + ( - 13.2 ) = Span
Span = 132
Span)
Range = - ( - 13.2) to (- ( - 13.2) + 145.2)
Range = 13.2 to 145.2 inches H2O


represents a “suppressed zero range.” That is, 0 does not
appear as a measurement unit on the range of 13.2 to 145.2
inches H2O. According to accepted practice, suppressed zero
range is the preferred terminology. Note that terms such as
“elevation,” “elevated range,” and “elevated span” are also used
to express this condition. SADP-J-300 uses the term “range
elevation.”
Closed Tank
with Wet Leg
Transmitter Range
Calculation
range for a closed tank with a wet leg, with the differential
pressure transmitter below the lower process tap.
Ideally, the span or range of the instrument should be

dependent on what is measured in the tank. In the following
example, the span is again 132 in H2O. Ideally, a 0 differential
pressure would generate a 4 mA signal, while a 132 in H2O
would generate a 20 mA signal.

Maximum
Level
HX
d
Minimum
Level
HZ
H.P. L.P.

d = 3658mm (144 inches), Height Of Fill Fluid In L.P. Leg
SG Fill Fluid (Wet Leg) = 1.5
Figure 88. Closed Tank Wet Leg Range Calculation
(Note: When using a differential pressure transmitter, the fill

fluid is the process fluid from the lower tap to the transmitter’s
high side connection. When using a remote seal transmitter, the
fill fluid from the lower tap to the transmitter's high side
connection will be a fill fluid with a specific gravity that is
different than the process fluid’s. The reason for the specific
gravity difference is that the capillary is filled with a fill fluid that
is not permitted to combine with the process fluid.)

Like the calculation for the open tank with wet leg range
calculation, the pressure, due to the fill fluid in the wet leg,
forces you to place an elevated-zero range on the transmitter.
The elevated-zero range is necessary in order for the differential
transmitter to read a minimum or maximum level at pressures
other than 0 and 132 in H2O.
In transmitter terms, as seen in the following calculations, for the

transmitter to generate a 4 mA signal, the differential pressure
must be - 202.8 in H2O.
(0 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1) - (144 x 1.5) = ∆P
13.2 - 216 =∆P@4 mA
-202.8 =∆P@4 mA
For the transmitter to generate a 20 mA signal, the differential

pressure must be --70.8 in H2O. Note the following calculation:
(120 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1) - (144 x 1.5) = ∆P
(132 + 13.2) - 216 =∆P
145.2 - 216 =∆P @20 mA
-70.8 =∆P @20 mA

The calculation for the transmitter range follows. The maximum

height of the liquid is 10 feet above the minimum level, the
process fluid has a specific gravity of 1.1, the fill fluid in the
process connection from the lower tap to the transmitter’s high
side connection has a specific gravity of 1.1 and is a length of
12 inches. The fill fluid in the wet leg is 144 inches high and has
a specific gravity of 1.5. The range calculation procedure
follows.
• Use the 4 mA minimum level and solve for any Offset with
the expression

Offset = 0
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) -( h x SG fill fluid) +

Offset = 0
(0 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) - (144 x 1.5) + Offset = 0
(0 + 13.2) - 216+ Offset = 0
(13.2 ) - 216+ Offset = 0
Offset = 202.8


Offset = Span
(h x SG process liquid + h x SG fill fluid) - ( h x SG fill fluid) +

Offset = Span
(120 x 1.1 + 12 x 1.1 ) - (144 x 1.5) + Offset = Span
(132 + 13.2) - 216+ (202.8) = Span
(145.2 ) - 216 + (202.8) = Span
Span = 132 (note: by definition, span cannot be zero

or negative)


Span)
Range = - ( 202.8 ) to (- (202.8) + 132 )
Range = -202.8 to -70.8 inches H2O

represents an “elevated-zero range.” That is, 0 is greater than
the lower range value. In this example, the zero is also greater
than the upper range value. According to accepted practice,
“elevated-zero range” is the preferred terminology. Note that
terms such as “suppression,” “suppressed range,” and
“suppressed span” are also used to express this condition.
SADP-J-300 uses the term “range suppression.”
For any transmitter range calculation, when the range

calculation procedure is followed, the engineer will not have to
be concerned with whether the zero is suppressed or elevated.
The range calculation procedure automatically accounts for
suppression or elevation.
The engineer may now wish to compare the transmitter range

calculation procedure described earlier with the approach shown
in SADP-J-300 Supplements manual. The examples previously
described assume the minimum level is at the datum line. In
practice, that is not always the case. SADP-J-300 Supplements
also includes calculating the range when the minimum level is
above the datum line.

Electrical Type
Electrical type devices measure electrical properties, such as

capacitance, of process fluids and convert the electrical property
measurement into a level measurement. Electrical type devices
include the following:
• capacitance type devices

• radio frequency (RF) admittance
• conductivity type devices
• resistance type devices
Capacitance Type
Devices
Capacitance type devices use the dielectric constant of the
material to determine the level.
Principles - The capacitance probe’s operating principle is to

create a capacitor through the use of a capacitance probe
installed in the center of the tank. The capacitance probe acts
as one plate of the capacitor, while the walls of the tank act as
the other capacitor plate. Because all materials have a
dielectric constant, including air, the conditions for a changing
capacitance are possible. A reason for this is that a liquid’s
dielectric constant is always greater than air. As process
material fills the vessel, the process material surrounds the
capacitance probe and alters the tank’s capacitance. The tank’s
capacitance is altered in direct proportion to the level. The
capacitance variation is fairly linear, so that a changing
capacitance represents a changing level.
The capacitance changes because the dielectric constant of the

liquid, KL, and the dielectric constant of the air, KA, differ. When
the level increases from the probe’s lower tip to the probe’s top,
the tank’s capacitance changes and the probe senses this
change. No conductivity should be allowed to occur between
the center probe and metallic tank walls. To prevent
conductivity between the center probe and metallic tank walls,
vendors provide an insulator at the top of the probe.

Two assumptions are made in the analogy of creating a

capacitor from tank walls as one plate and the capacitor probe
as the other plate. One of the assumptions is that the tank walls
are metallic, otherwise the conditions for capacitance cannot
occur. Another assumption is that the process media is non-
conductive. The liquid, if conductive, creates a current path
where current flows between the probe and tank walls (ie, the
two capacitor plates). Both assumptions mean that an engineer
selects a capacitive probe design based on vessel and
fluid characteristics. Several capacitance probe designs are
available to support applications with either metallic or non-
metallic tank walls and either conductive or non-conductive
fluids.
Design - Four types of probe designs (Figure 89) are used in

capacitance level gauges:
• bare probe
• insulated probe
• concentric shield probe
• flexible probe
The bare probe is insulated from the tank walls through its
mounting coupling which acts as the insulator. Bare probes are
used with non-conductive liquids having low dielectric constants.
The insulated probe is covered with a coating (normally Teflon)

that acts as an insulator. The insulated probe is used with
conductive materials. Note that insulated probes are also
suitable for non-conductive liquids. An industry approach to
probe selection when you are unsure of the liquid’s conductivity
is “when in doubt, insulate.”
The concentric shield (sleeved) probe is provided with a

metal tube shield or sleeve to increase the probe’s sensitivity
to changes in capacitance. The increase in sensitivity is
necessary for very large vessels, when a change in level
produces a small change in capacitance.

The flexible probe is essentially a flexible wire, and can be used

on applications with ranges greater than 12 feet.
A high frequency oscillator is used to “excite” the capacitive

measurement system with a radio frequency signal. The
detector is able to detect changes in capacitance using
frequency response capabilities, mainly through a change in the
phase and amplitude of the sinusoidal signal. The signal is
generated between the probe and the tank itself. The power
levels of the signal are extremely low. Assemblies and probes
are available that meet intrinsic safety requirements.
Bare Probe Insulated Concentric Flexible *

Probe Shield Probe
Capacitance Probe
Device
Probe Probe
Tank Walls
Probe Stilling
Insulation Well
Open To
Process Material
* Flexible probes are used in irregular shaped vessels.
Figure 89. Capacitance Probe Types

Performance - Capacitance technology has been used in

process measurement for several decades and is considered
reliable by the oil processing industry. Assuming that no
material buildups occur on the probe, the capacitance probe is
relatively maintenance free. Some additional performance
advantages and disadvantages of capacitance probes are
listed.
Performance advantages of capacitance probes are the

following:
• no moving parts, so mechanical wear is not a concern

• available for continuous or point level measurement
• available in a wide variety of materials of construction
• supports any tank geometry
• high pressure usage up to 5000 psi
• temperature limits on probe’s insulator up to 1000º F
• low power options for intrinsically safe applications
Performance disadvantages of capacitance probes are the
following:
• measurement is affected when changes occur in the

process fluid’s dielectric constant. Note that temperature
changes a fluid’s dielectric constant. Water, for example,
has a dielectric constant of 88 at 0º C, 80 at 20º C,
48 at 100º C. Temperature compensation technology is
usually available for capacitance devices. According to
SAES-J-300, Section 12.1.3, “Automatic temperature
compensation shall be provided in probe circuitry for liquids
in which the dielectric constant changes as a function of
temperature.”
• proper installation is important, probes can short across

the insulator.
• buildups of conducting material on the probe can cause

erroneous level readings. This is minimized by using high
frequency oscillations.
• process material buildups, over time, on the insulator can

short the intended insulation.

Installation - The installation of the capacitance probe has the

following considerations:
• Continuous level sensing probes are installed vertically.

The probe should not come in contact with vessel walls or
internal vessel structures.
• Point level sensing probes are installed horizontally. The

goal is to provide a large change in the probe’s wetted
area for a small change in level.
• If the tank walls and process media are non-conductive,

additional ground reference electrodes may be necessary.
• The continuous level sensing capacitance probe can be

installed internally the vessel or externally in an chamber.
The following installation references apply to capacitance probe

installations.
Saudi Aramco Reason for Use Summary

Reference
SAES-J-300, Probe mounting Side mounting for point level applications or

Section 12.2.1 large vessels. Top mounting for continuous
level.
SAES-J-300, Process seal Sealed isolating valve preferred

Section 12.2.2
SAES-J-300, Probe location Avoid filling streams or use probe protection.

Section 12.2.3
Figure 90. Installation References

Applications - According to SAES-J-300, Section 12,

“Capacitance-type level instruments shall be considered only for
measuring the level of liquids, liquid-liquid interface levels and
for granular solids level. They shall not be used in liquids that
contain entrained gas. Capacitance probes shall not be used as
primary emergency shut-down devices.”
An example illustrates evaluating a capacitance level

transmitter. Assume that the capacitance range is 50 minimum
to 4000 pf (picofarads). The minimum specifies that the devices
can be set at 50 pf, so this means that from the tip of the probe
to the highest point, you must have a capacitance change of
50 pf. Organic fluids, such as propane, have low shift changes
in capacitance. Acids, like sulfuric acid, tend to have high shift
changes in capacitance. The geometry of the tank can also
affect the capacitance shift. The net result is that the narrower
the tank diameter, the larger the change in capacitance. In
cases when there is a large tank diameter, it is sometimes
recommended to use a concentric shield around the probe. In
effect, you now have a capacitor created between the probe and
the concentric shield. Vendors may refer to their shield as a
“stillwell.” Because the stillwell is used, you have the largest
capacitance change possible, and it is often used in measuring
organic liquids, such as propane.
Knowing the geometry of the tank, the capacitance of the liquid,

and the diameter of the probe, you can theoretically calculate
the capacitance change for the level to be measured. The
equations are fairly straightforward for tanks that have the probe
installed in the center of the tank. If, for some reason, the probe
is shifted off the centerline, or insulation is added to the probe,
the calculations become considerably complex. Charts are
often provided by the vendors to determine the capacitance
change per unit distance.

An example chart is shown in Figure 91. On the x axis is the

dielectric constant, from 0 to 10; on the y axis the capacitance
change for a bare probe is presented in pf per inch. Charts are
available for tank diameters and stillwells. These charts are
used as a screening tool to see if the probe will work. That is, if
you know the span the device will measure and the dielectric
constant of the material, you can select a device. In some
cases, you may have to consult with the vendor to see if the
probe is appropriate and get additional recommendations.
20 Stillwell
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
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2
12 feet
96 feet
T
a
1 4 6 8 10
Dielectric Value
Figure 91. Example Probe Gain Graph

Capacitance probes work well in initial crude oil processing

operations. The example application shown in Figure 92
is for an oil de-watering process. The capacitance probe
continuously monitors the water level. The transmitter’s signal
to the level controller, LC, provides a continuous indication of
level. The controller, LC, opens the valve to release water from
the tank when it reaches an undesirable level.
LIT
LC Level
Oil Control
Automatic Water
Well Test
To
Water
Plant
Dewatering Tank
Figure 92. Application Example: De-watering Tank


electrical type device selection. Review these references (as
well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional
detail when determining a device’s suitability for an application.

SAES-J-300, General application • Acceptable applications
Section 12 • Not permitted as shutdown device
• Temperature compensation guideline
• Installation guidelines
SADP-J-300, Usage criteria • Alarming application usage.
Section 3.1.6 • Process characteristics affect use.
API RP 511, Installation • Installation of capacitance device
Section 3.4.7.2
Liptak, “Process Capacitance and RF Additional reference for selection and
Measurement,” admittance probes implementation.
Section 3.3
Figure 93. References for Electrical Type Device Selection
Because of coating problems in early capacitance devices, the

use of capacitance probes were not readily accepted. However,
current capacitance probes overcome coating buildups by
adding a second probe (called a driven shield or guard), by
using higher frequencies, or by measuring admittance (which is
the reciprocal of impedance). The next discussion describes
one of the newer technologies, RF admittance.
Radio Frequency
(RF) Admittance
Radio frequency (RF) admittance transmitters overcome
coating-induced errors through the use of anti-coating
technology.

Principles - Before reviewing the principle of RF admittance,

first consider the effects of coating on capacitive measurements.
When an insulated capacitive probe is fully submerged, it
measures a nearly pure capacitive component. The capacitive
component of the measurement is more accurately called
capacitive susceptance. (Susceptance itself is defined as the
reciprocal of capacitive reactance.) As long as the probe is
fully submerged, a nearly pure capacitive measurement occurs.
When the level drops, coating of the probe may result. If the
coating consists of a conductive material, then a conductive
component is introduced into the level measurement. The
conductive component, called conductance, along with
capacitive susceptance, introduces an error signal into the
measurement. This error signal, if not corrected, can cause
artificially high level readings due to the coating effect. The
result of the error signal is an admittance component which is
45º out of phase with the main level signal. Admittance (which
is the reciprocal of impedance) includes both conductance and
capacitive susceptance components.
Susceptance Susceptance
Error
Signal,e e
c
c e
Total
Signal Actual 45Þ
Level
Level Signal
Signal
Conductance, c Conductance, c
RF Admittance Vector Diagrams

Approach "A" Approach "B"
c=e Level Signal Measured
Level Signal = Total Signal - c After 45ÞPhase Shift
Figure 94. RF Admittance Vectors

In the earlier discussion of the fully submerged probe, the

capacitive probe actually measured an admittance component
that consisted of nearly pure capacitance and no conductance.
The coating introduced conductance. Two ways to remove the
error signal resulting from conductance are to measure the
conductive component and subtract the error from the total
signal, or to cancel the error signal by phase shifting the signal
by 45º.
Design - To study the admittance phenomena further requires a

discussion of transmission line theory, which is beyond the
scope of this course module. All that is necessary here is to
know that the RF admittance device removes the conductance
components from error signals caused by coating. The RF
admittance devices remove the error signal through the use of
anti-coating circuitry, which is installed in the transmitter of the
RF admittance device.
Performance - The devices can work in extreme operating

conditions such as temperatures (probe range from -300º F to
1000ºF) and pressure (from -15 psig to 10,000 psig). Process
environments with agitation, foaming, corrosion, explosion
hazards, and lethal materials can be overcome with proper
probe, sensor, or seal selection.
Installation - RF admittance devices are relatively easy to

install. For each RF admittance device, only one vessel
entrance with a threaded coupling or flange is required. The
vessel opening is usually above material level.
Applications - RF admittance vendors claim that their devices

are the first level measurement device that is universal for all
level measurement applications. RF admittance devices are
suitable for point and continuous level measurements. The
devices can measure four materials types: liquids, slurries,
granulars, and interfaces.

In the example in Figure 95, an RF admittance probe is used to

continuously monitor the water level in an automatic well tester.
When the level is too high, the level controller opens the water
dump valve.
Continuous
Level RF
Admittance
Probe
LT LC
Oil
Production
From One Well
Water
Water
Dump
Valve
Figure 95. Application: Automatic Well Testing
Capacitance probes are also referred to as impedance probes,

which are described in the next section.
Impedance Probes
(Resistance
Probes)
The impedance probes described in this section are essentially
point level capacitance probes with driven shield or guard
technology that overcomes the undesirable effects of coating.

Principles - When level material drops below a capacitance

probe, coating may occur. Coating on a point level capacitance
probe allows current to flow to the vessel wall. The probe
incorrectly indicates that material level is present. To overcome
the incorrect level indication, impedance probes use a
technology referred to as driven shield (also called “guarded
shield”). The driven shield technology consists of a secondary
probe that is “driven” to the same voltage and frequency as the
main probe. Because the driven shield and main probe have no
potential difference when the probe is coated, a current cannot
flow through the coating to the vessel wall.
Design - The impedance probe for point level measurement

consists of a main probe, insulation, secondary probe, and
insulation as shown in Figure 96.
Point Level
Probe's Driven Detection
Probe's Or Guarded Probe
Measuring Shield
Section
Insulation
No Current
Normal Current Flows Through
Path When Level Process Media
Detected Coating
Figure 96. Impedance Probe Design
Performance - Impedance probes have advantages of

capacitance probes described earlier in the capacitance device
discussion, while overcoming coating problems. Impedance
probes are still susceptible to changes in dielectric constants.
Installation - Impedance probes have the same considerations

as an RF capacitance probe’s described earlier.

Applications - The impedance probe with driven shield

technology is designed for point level measurements.
An example application is shown in Figure 97, where the de-

watering tank example shown earlier now includes impedance
probes used as level switches for high level indication and (at
the bottom of the tank) for low level indication. The inaccuracy
can be 0.5 inch.
HL
LS LIT
LC Level
Oil Control
Automatic
Well Test
Water
LS
To
LL Water
Plant
Dewatering Tank
Figure 97. Application: De-watering Tank Level Switch

Conductivity Type
Devices
Conductivity type devices rely on the conductivity of the process
material in order for the device to provide level detection.
Principles - Conductivity type devices are primarily point level

detectors. The operating principle is one where process
material, which must be conductive, rises and touches a
conductive probe electrode, which then makes an electrical path
from the probe to the vessel’s wall.
Design - Conductivity device design (Figure 98) consists of a

probe electrode and relay switches. The electrical path that is
created when process material contacts the probe electrode
actuates a relay. The relay’s contacts are then available for use
in point level detection or point level control applications.
Dual Probe
Conductivity
Switch
+ +
High Level
Indication
Low Level
Indication
Aqueous
Solution
Figure 98. Conductivity Device Design

Performance - Device accuracy is approximately ±3.175 mm

(±1/8 inch). Additional advantages and disadvantages are listed
below.
Performance advantages of conductivity type devices include

the following:
• no moving parts, easy to use
• low maintenance
Performance disadvantages of conductivity type devices include

the following:
• point level control only
• used with non-hazardous, clean fluids
• liquid must be conductive
Installation - Conductivity devices are relatively easy to install.

The metallic vessel becomes the ground electrode. If the vessel
is non-metallic, options are available for electrodes that serve as
the ground electrode. The devices are limited to approximately
60 inches length maximum, temperatures up to 600º F, and
pressures up to 3000 psig.
Applications - Technically, it is possible to use conductivity

devices with any liquid that conducts. However, from a practical
standpoint, conductivity switches are rarely used in critical
processing applications. The devices are limited to point level
applications with non-hazardous, aqueous liquids. Example
applications are water level detection uses, such as water level
alarms on boilers.

An example application (Figure 99) for a conductivity probe is to

detect high liquid level in a water collection pot for a crude
stabilizer.
High Level
LS
Switch
From Crude
LE Conductivity
Stabilizer
LIT
LIC
Water to
Knockout Drum
Figure 99. Application: Water Collection Pot

for Crude Stabilizer
Resistance Tape
Device
The resistance tape device is best described as a variable
resistor whose resistance changes as the liquid level changes.
Principles - A resistance coil runs down the length of the

sensor, the bottom of the sensor joins a metal strip to the back
of the coil. The tape’s resistance is read from an ohmmeter. If
the tank is empty, then the coil does not touch the strip at any
point, which gives a maximum resistance reading. As the level
starts to increase, the hydrostatic pressure makes the helical
coil deflect and touch the strip. As the coil touches the strip, the
resistance becomes lower. The measured resistance is from
the top of the tape at the roof of the tank to the level surface.

Design - The assembly (Figure 100) is enclosed in a Teflon

coating or container. Under normal conditions, the coil does not
touch the tape. As the liquid level rises, the hydrostatic force of
the liquid forces the coil to make contact with the sensor. For
water, the hydrostatic force of about 4 inches H2O will force the
coil against the backstrip. Because of the requirement for a
hydrostatic force to press the coil to the tape, a constant zero
offset is present.
Metal Sheath
Strip
Resistance
Coil
Material
Level
Figure 100. Resistance Tape Design
Since the whole assembly is enclosed in a plastic container, as

the level increases the plastic enclosure deforms. As the
container deforms, volume inside the container is lost. The
container must be able to breathe or vent air. To allow
breathing, the container has a capillary tube with a desiccant to
absorb moisture. The capillary tube prevents outside air from
entering the tube. In pressurized tanks, the tube is vented back
to the tank. In open tanks, the tube is vented to atmosphere.

Performance - For constant density applications, it is possible

to zero the device and calibrate the offset out of the device.
However, the immersion depth is a function of density. When
the density of the liquid is twice as dense as water, the
hydrostatic force will be 51 mm (2 inches) instead of 102 mm
(4 inches). When the density of the liquid is half as dense as
water, the hydrostatic force will be 204 mm (8 inches) instead
of 102 mm (4 inches). Therefore, the specific gravity of the
material does have an affect on the measurement’s accuracy.
Installation - In terms of applications, the span of the resistance

tape can be quite long, up to 45.7 meter (150 feet). The tape is
quite linear. The coil is made of high grade metal. The high
grade metal provides a constant resistance, so the tape tends to
be quite accurate. From a corrosion standpoint, normally the
tape is enclosed in Teflon, which makes the tape resistant to
chemical attack. The tape can be used with a large number of
process materials. However, there are some materials which
will slowly permeate polymers such as Teflon. Periodic
maintenance checks on the tubing are recommended.
Applications - Applications are primarily those of an inventory

control type. An example application would be for a large
underground propane tank. Resistance tapes are also used in
large shipboard vessels such as crude oil carriers.
LI Ground
Level
45.7m
(150ft)
Figure 101. Resistance Tape in Water Well

Ultrasonic Type Devices
Ultrasonic devices use the time for a reflected sound wave to

return to a transmitter as the basis for level measurement.
Principles
An ultrasonic type device (Figure 102) sends pulses of sound
waves to the liquid surface and then time how long it takes for
the reflected sound waves to return to the ultrasonic sensor.
The amount of time (called the round trip time) between the
original sound wave signal and reflected sound wave signal is
converted to a level measurement. The time between original
and reflected signals changes as distance from the sensor to
the liquid surface changes.
Ultrasonic type devices, when installed at the top of a tank, use

the round trip time to measure the depth of vapor space above
the liquid surface. Ultrasonic type devices, when installed at the
bottom of a tank underneath the liquid, use the round trip time to
measure the depth of liquid below the liquid surface.
Ultrasonic Device
Return
Signal
Transmitted
Signal
Figure 102. Ultrasonic Principles

Design
An ultrasonic device is usually mounted at the top of the tank.
An ultrasonic transmitter generates high frequency sound
pulses and directs the pulses to the liquid's surface.
Frequencies range from 9 KHz to 160 KHz signals, with 20 KHz
being typical. A sufficient amount of the signal is expected to be
reflected back to the sensor of the transmitter. Because sound
waves disperse as they travel across the process media within a
vessel, the dispersion affects the signal strength of the sound
wave. The strength of the reflected pulsed sound wave
decreases exponentially as the distance increases. Dispersion
is not the only cause of decreasing sound wave strength.
Sound waves are also absorbed by the process media (gas or
liquid) that they are travelling through. In addition to the
strength of the sound wave changing, process conditions within
the vessel can also affect the round trip time.
The round trip time, while dependent on distance to the liquid

surface, is also dependent on the sonic velocity. Sonic velocity
itself is function of temperature and vapor composition. The
dependence of sonic velocity on temperature is predictable, so
ultrasonic devices often have circuitry to compensate for
changes in temperature. A common approach is to measure
the vapor temperature and then compensate for the
temperature changes that affect sonic velocity.
Note that compensating for temperature changes does not

address the vapor composition influences. Mist between the
sensor and surface level affects sonic waves in that sonic
waves are dispersed before the waves reach the surface.
Additionally, when misting is present, the signals that do reach
the surface are dispersed on the reflected path so that the
sensor cannot detect them. To compensate for vapor
composition influences on sonic velocity, a sonic device could
send another sonic wave from another source or bounce the
sound wave back and forth. An additional reflective target could
be mounted that has a known distance. Since the target
distance is known, the device times the sonic velocity to the
known target, is calculated and used to compensate for
changes in sonic velocity. Additionally, vapor stratification can
cause the sonic velocity to vary through the vapor layers,
making accurate measurement difficult. To compensate for
influences of vapor stratification, an approach is to provide a
gas blanket within the vessel. The ultrasonic device is then
calibrated for a known speed of sound through the gas blanket.

The reflectivity of the surface material also affects how much of

the pulsed sound wave is returned. Liquids and larger solid
particles have good reflectivity. Small solid particles have poor
reflectivity because they absorb the sound wave. The surface
should be flat for best reflectivity to ensure that the signal
returns to the sensor. An irregular surface, such as a liquid
surface that is agitated, will not reflect sound waves properly as
agitation tends to disperse the sound waves. Foaming on a
liquid surface causes sound waves to be absorbed. Foaming
can be so dense that the sound wave is absorbed and no signal
is returned to the ultrasonic device.
Performance
Distances for most ultrasonic devices are in the range of 7.6 m
(25 ft), with some special designs having ranges up to 60 m
(200 ft). The level surface below the sensor must also be a
minimum distance below the sensor in order for it to work
properly. The minimum operating distances vary among
vendors, with the minimum distance in the range of 0.1 to 1 m (1
to 3 ft). Ultrasonic units are not hazardous to health.
The main advantage of ultrasonic devices is that the sensor

does not come in contact with process material.
The device’s accuracy is from .25% to 2% of scale depending

on vapor composition and surface reflectivity. Typical
accuracies are less than 1% of range. Note that with 0.25%
accuracy on a 9.1 meter (30 ft) vessel, the accuracy works out
to ± 2.3 cm (±0.9 inch).
Installation
When installing an ultrasonic type device, the transmitter must
be positioned carefully so that a sound pulse can return to the
sensor. Locating a transmitter near a product inlet at the top of
a vessel can interfere with the sound pulse’s path. An ultrasonic
device’s beam angle indicates how wide a path is required for
the sound pulse. Any potential horizontal obstacles (such as
piping, ladders, product flows) should not interfere with that
beam angle. If a sound pulse wave is reflected off of the
obstacle, the ultrasonic device will misinterpret the reflection off
of an obstacle and give a false level reading.

Heavy vapor space winds can occur within a vessel. The

direction of the sound pulse can actually move under these
conditions. Proper transmitter placement or the use of baffles
and stilling wells prevent this type of problem.
Installation near process equipment that could generate

ultrasonic sound bursts should be avoided. The sound bursts
could be accepted by the ultrasonic device and cause an
erroneous level reading. Some ultrasonic devices provide noise
filtering technology to prevent false readings from random noise.
Prevention of random noise occurrences may also require
proper filtering of the noise source, as in the case of variable
frequency motor drive controls.
Applications
Ultrasonic devices are used most often for continuous
measurements. Note that ultrasonic point level devices are
available for point level measurements. Applications can
include liquid level, slurry, and interface measurements. Solids
level measurement is dependent upon process conditions.
Ultrasonic type devices are best used in processes when
• an invasive type level measurement device could become

plugged, fouled, or coated by the process media, and
• an accuracy of 1% to 2% is acceptable.
An example application is shown in Figure 103. The ultrasonic

devices provides level measurement for an oily water sewer
sump.

LC
Water To
Evaporation
LI Pond
M
Figure 103. Application: Oily Water Sewer Sump

Nuclear Radiation Devices

Nuclear level devices use the amount of radiation absorbed by
the process material to determine the level measurement.
Principles - Nuclear type devices (Figure 104) work on the

principle that process material absorbs (attenuates) radiation.
On the outside of one wall of the vessel, an installed nuclear
source emits radiation. A nuclear detector is installed on the
outside of the opposite vessel wall. The nuclear source and
detector are usually built in a “strip” type of form. The type of
radiation is usually gamma rays (X rays). As the radiation
beams from source to detector, the process material absorbs
some of the gamma rays. The amount of absorption is based
upon the process material’s density and the current process
material volume within the vessel. As the liquid level rises, the
liquid absorbs more of the radiation than the gas or air above
the liquid. As the liquid level rises, the radiation detected
decreases. The increase in level is determined from the
decrease in detected radiation.
Design - The design of nuclear radiation devices requires

knowledge of the wall thickness of the vessel, the vessel’s
dimensions, and materials of construction. From that
information, you can determine the amount of radiation that will
be absorbed when the vessel is empty. You can then
recalculate the amount of radiation absorbed with the vessel full.
The calculations may indicate that factors, such as wall
thickness, can affect measurement resolution, since thick walls
absorb more radiation.
Detector
Detector
Nuclear Nuclear
Source Source
Process
Material
Absorbs
Radiation
Continuous Level Measurement Point Level Measurement
Figure 104. Nuclear Devices

Performance - Performance of radiation devices is very good;

reliability is excellent. Nuclear radiation devices are non-contact
devices, and require very little maintenance. Nuclear radiation
devices can be mounted outside the vessel. The devices can
accommodate a number of tank geometries. Occasionally,
nuclear radiation devices have automatic calibrations to account
for the decay of the radioactive source. The devices are fairly
linear. A major disadvantage is that radioactive material is on
the process site, which requires meeting various regulatory and
safety regulations.
For industrial applications, the radiation source is usually
Cesium 137 or in some cases, cobalt 60. Nuclear radiation
devices are usually under some form of governmental
regulatory control. The regulations change frequently. The
installation may require periodic checks for leakage. The user
of the nuclear radiation device is responsible for obtaining the
necessary approvals, not the vendor. Disposal of the device
may require additional costs, the device cannot be simply
thrown away. In summary, it requires an individual to assume
personal responsibility for the device throughout its lifetime and
also stay current with nuclear radiation regulations.
Installation - A typical installation is one where a point or strip
nuclear source is installed on one wall of the vessel, while on
the outside of the opposite vessel wall a detector is installed.
The devices are installed outside the tank; contact with the
media is not an issue.
Applications - Radiation devices find their main use in level
and density measurements. In level measurements, two
additional safety issues are worth mentioning. First, when a
radiation device is used in a vessel, procedures must be
established and followed to ensure that maintenance support
personnel do not enter a vessel during a vessel shutdown or
repair vessels while the radiation device is on. Second,
radiation devices used for level measurement tend to be greater
radioactive sources than those used for density measurements,
so additional regulations may apply for nuclear devices used in
level measurements.
While the nuclear radiation devices have excellent performance
results, users tend to look at nuclear devices as the
measurement device of last resort, and may even then decide
that the safety risks cannot be tolerated.

Forced Type
Load Cells
Load cell level measuring devices actually measure mass, not
level. Load cells are often installed on a vessel’s structural steel
supports. The structural steel support can be in the form of
steel legs on a bin, skirted support structures, or chains
suspending a small tank. Load cell sensors are mainly used for
the measurement of dry dusty solids. When a vessel has an
unusual, irregular shape, then load cells provide a suitable
measurement solution.
Principles and Design - Load cells are either used as
compression cells on vessel supports or used at the top of a
suspended weighing pan. For example, in a tank the support
structures are at the bottom of the tank. Each support structure
can be equipped with a load cell, called a compression type load
cell. As material is added to the tank, the steel support structure
begins to deflect. The deflection also implies that the
compression on the load cells increases. The compression
values are converted to a weight measurement.
The other type of load cell system is the suspension system.
The suspension system is used primarily for measuring solid
weights. An example arrangement is one when the pan is
suspended. Above the pan, a load cell is installed, which
measures the force as the weight of material changes.
Load Cell Load Cells

Sensors In Skirted
On Legs Support
Structure
Figure 105. Load Cell Usage

Performance - The main consideration in compression load

cells is that the weight should be applied vertically. Any side
motions or forces on the tank can give erroneous readings. Any
additional piping can have an adverse effect. In that case,
flexible hosing is often recommended. Note that flexible hosing
connections cause additional safety concerns as to whether it
can withstand pressure, corrosive services, and flammable
media.
Load cells require little or no maintenance; however, some

familiarity with RS 232 protocols may be required of the
maintenance personnel.
Installation - The interface to a load cell is often through an RS

232 port. If there is more than one load cell, such as 16 load
cells, the requirement for 16 RS 232 ports may be difficult to
cost justify. Because a multi-drop network arrangement is often
needed to collect the data, the additional RS 232 ports become
too costly. One approach is to take the RS 232 signal and
convert it to an RS 485 signal. When the distributed control
system (DCS) accesses data from one load cell, the DCS
designates a specific load cell. The load cell then responds to
the request for current weight data. The requests, however,
could be as slow as 10 requests per second. It is not unusual
for users to write their own programs to access the data. When
custom programs are written, maintenance personnel are often
not familiar with what the program is trying to do.
Applications - Load cell sensors do provide an alternative to

other level measuring devices when the goal is to measure
how much of a dry dusty solid is present. Load cells are
non-contacting with the process material. The non-contacting
technology makes the load cell appropriate for materials that
are corrosive, toxic, or viscous. Load cell sensors may be an
alternative when a vessel connection or instrument ventilation is
not possible. Load cells are a relatively expensive solution
when compared to more conventional level measurement
devices.

Microwave Radar Devices
Users generally refer to “radar level systems” as “microwave

radar level systems.” The operation of a microwave radar level
system is similar to that of an ultrasonic type device in that a
wave signal is transmitted to the surface and then reflected back
to a sensor. The amount of time for the microwave signal to
return becomes the theoretical basis for determining the
material level. The following discussion describes the type of
microwave radar level system that uses the Frequency
Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) method. The FMCW
method is regarded as the approach that meets the higher
accuracy demands than other more common radar methods,
such as those that use pulsed radar signals.
Principles
A microwave radar level system employing the FMCW method
(Figure 106) transmits radio waves in the X band of the
electromagnetic spectrum at about 10 GHz (giga Hertz). A
microwave signal source, usually an oscillator diode, generates
the electromagnetic radio waves which are focussed and sent
down into the tank through an antenna. The electromagnetic
radio waves are sent as a frequency sweep to the liquid surface.
The frequency sweep is a pattern of increasing and decreasing
radio frequencies over a fixed bandwidth and brief time period.
A radar sensor simultaneously detects both the radio waves that

are sent to the liquid surface and the radio waves that are
reflected and returned (echoed). The reflected signal’s
frequency is directly proportional to what is called the “time of
flight,” which is the difference between the time the signal is
sent to the liquid surface and the time the reflected signal is
detected. It would be very complicated to directly measure the
actual time of flight and use that as the basis for distance
calculations because the signals are travelling at approximately
the speed of light. For example, a 1.5 meter distance (5 foot)
would take about 20 nanoseconds, so tank gauging accuracy
requirements of 1/16 inch would require timing accuracies in the
picosecond range!

Transmitted
Signal Return
Signal
Frequency
Of Transmit
And Return
Signals
Time
Frequency
Time Of
Difference
Flight
Of Signals
Time
Figure 106. FMCW Method
While the time of flight is impractical to directly measure, the

difference in frequencies can be measured. Radio waves that
are reflected back to the radar sensor are phase shifted
because of the time of flight delay, and thus detected at a
different frequency. The radar sensor is able to compare and
mix the frequency difference between the transmitted signals
and the “older” reflected signals. The radar sensor produces
(outputs) a single frequency-modulated (FM) signal that is the
result of the frequency difference between the transmitted and
reflected signals. The resulting FM signal, which is directly
proportional to the time of flight, is then used to determine the
distance from the radar sensor to the liquid surface. For
example, resulting FM signals that vary between 0 and more
than 2000 Hertz are used to indicate levels that vary from 0 to
60 meters (0 to 200 feet).

An example follows that illustrates the FMCW method, which is

based on the following calculation:
distance = (T c ∆F) / 2 B
where
T = sweep rate time (the time period for a frequency

sweep)
c = speed of light
∆F = frequency difference between transmitted and

reflected signal
B = bandwidth.
In the following example, assume that a frequency difference of

50 Hz is sensed by the radar sensor when sweeping at a rate of
.01 seconds over a bandwidth of 50 MHz from 10.500 GHz to
10.550 GHz. What is the distance from the radar sensor to
liquid surface?
Distance = (T c ∆F) / 2 B
distance = (.01 sec x 186,281 mi/sec) (5280 ft/mile)(50

Hz)/ 2 (50 x 106 Hz)
distance = 4.9 feet

Design
The design (Figure 107) of a microwave radar system can be
described as consisting of
• a microwave electronics module,
• an antenna, and
• tank gauging options.
Microwave
Electronic
Module
Fixed Transmitted
Signal Radar
Roof
Antenna
Tank
Return
Signal
Process
Material
Figure 107. Radar System Design
A microwave radar electronics module contains the necessary

hardware (oscillator, frequency mixer, sensor, and so on) to
work according to the Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave
(FMCW) method described previously.

Antenna - As mentioned earlier, the microwave radar signals

are sent to the surface through an antenna. The antenna
directs the signal to the surface in a focussed, perpendicular
beam. Two types of antennas are the
• parabolic dish, and the
• horn.
Parabolic dish antennas, which have a dish shape, generally

provide more focussed beam and signal strength. Parabolic
dish antennas tend to be larger and more expensive than horn
antennas.
Horn antennas, which have a cone shape, provide a wider
beam and lower signal strength than parabolic dish antennas.
Horn antennas tend to be smaller in diameter than parabolic
dish antennas.
Parabolic Horn
Dish Antenna
Antenna
Figure 108. Radar Antennas
Note that an antenna creates a signal beam width which is

inversely related to the diameter of the antenna. A parabolic
antenna that is 30 cm (12 in) in diameter would have a narrower
beam than a horn antenna with a 10 cm (4 in) in diameter. A
property of an antenna that bears on radar device selection is
the signal beam width the antenna can create, which is
expressed by the term “divergence angle.” Too wide a
divergence angle means that a sensor may pick up undesirable
reflections from internal tank structures. While narrow beam
signal producing antennas are often used to avoid internal tank
obstacles, narrow beam signal antennas require proper radar
sensor alignment to ensure that a portion of the beam is
reflected back to the sensor.

Tank Gauging Options include temperature sensor

connections, which are required when tank gauging is used
for inventory purposes. The temperature inputs are necessary
to calculate tank volumes at reference conditions. Additionally,
remote data display units are available to assist the operator
in monitoring tank events such as filling, agitation, and
re-circulation.
Performance
Because microwave radar measurement is in the frequency
domain and not in the amplitude or time difference domain, the
measurement is relatively immune to noise, much in the same
way that FM radio is superior in signal conversion to amplitude
modulated (AM) radio. The performance advantages and
disadvantages of radar devices are described next.
Performance advantages of radar microwave devices are the

following:
• Microwave radar devices are non-contacting, rugged, and

have no moving parts. The devices are not susceptible to
problems of process media sticking and clogging the
sensor. Microwave radar devices have continued accurate
operation even when coated with a sticky, tarry media.
• Microwave radar devices perform well in hostile
environments, such as hot asphalt applications, that would
eliminate other devices from being used. The microwave
radar device, for example, disregards stratification and
obstacles, such as stalactites, growing from the tank
ceiling.
• Microwave radar devices provide indications of conditions
that require service while not affecting the accuracy of the
measurement. For example, when service is needed
because of too much coating on the sensor, the radar
device generates weaker FM signals. Radar devices may
also infer that foaming conditions are occurring in the
vessel based on the reduction in FM signal amplitude.
• Microwave radar devices require no re-calibration when
measurement conditions, such as pressure and
temperature, change.

• Unlike an ultrasonic device’s signals which are sound

waves, microwave radar device’s signals, because they
are radio waves, are not molecule dependent. A sound
wave depends on molecules colliding to transmit the sound
wave — radio waves do not. Thus, the radar signal is not
affected by changes in the temperature and pressure of
the gas above a liquid.
• Most foaming conditions do not affect the accuracy of the

level measurement; the radar microwave device detects
the level surface underneath the foam.
Performance disadvantages of radar microwave devices are the

following:
• Microwave radar devices are sometimes mounted on a

still-pipe, which is a stationary pipe in a floating roof tank.
When a microwave radar device is mounted on a still-pipe,
the device is susceptible to measurement errors when the
pipe is bent, non-perpendicular, changing in diameter, or
experiencing product buildups.
• When a microwave radar device is mounted on a still-pipe,

the device is susceptible to measurement errors due to
layering of contaminating liquids.
• Process liquid turbulence can affect the level measurement

in ways that are difficult to predict. Generally, turbulence
waves as high as 3 feet can be handled. However, on
smaller antennas the measurement errors caused by
divergent beams returning from a turbulent surface can
cause the level reading to appear 7.5 cm (3 in) lower.
• The reflected return signal is dependent on the reflectivity

of the material. The reflectivity of a material varies with
molecular density, which in turn corresponds to the
dielectric constant of the material. The higher the dielectric
constant, the more the signal is reflected. Generally,
materials with dielectric constants above 4 have the most
success reflecting a signal.

Installation
As implied earlier, reliable performance of a microwave radar
device is dependent upon proper installation. Microwave radar
units are not easy for most maintenance personnel to install.
The power, signal conditioning, and computing requirements for
a microwave radar device requires engineering or vendor
support. Typical maintenance crews usually are unable to
commission a microwave radar device. Once installed properly,
however, the radar device should operate relatively problem
free. Among the installation considerations of a microwave
radar device, the most prominent are
• the type of roof the tank may have and
• the type of antenna mounting a tank requires.
Common tank roofs are the following:
• floating roof
• fixed roof
Floating roof - Often a large crude oil tank with a floating roof
has a stationary pipe called a still-pipe. The still-pipe is used for
level gauging. Typically, the radar unit is installed on top of the
still-pipe. The still-pipe acts as a wave guide for the radar
signal. A properly sized cone adapter for the antenna is often
required to make the still-pipe a standard wave guide size. The
quality of the still-pipe is reviewed for conditions such as
whether the still-pipe has bends, buildups, changing
diameters,or is non-perpendicular.
As an alternative to still-pipe mounting, microwave radar

devices can measure the movement of the floating roof, but this
approach is not preferred due to roof movement characteristics.

Radar
Radar
Antenna
Gauge
Still Pipe
(Stand Pipe)
Floating
Roof
Floating
Roof Tank
Figure 109. Floating Roof Tank Installation
Fixed roof - Typically, the radar unit is installed in an opening

such as a manhole cover. Although the microwave electronics
module is not in contact with the material, the sensor is placed
inside the roof and exposed to the tank atmosphere.
Radar
Gauge
Fixed Roof Tank

Figure 110. Fixed Roof Tank Installation

Antenna are available in two mounting versions:

• Suspended
• Fully isolated
Suspended versions of the antenna are those in which the
process seal is between the antenna and the microwave
electronics module. In this version, the radar antenna (horn or
dish) is inside the tank and exposed to the tank atmosphere.
Fully Isolated versions of the antenna are those in which the

radar sensor is above the seal. In this version, the radar
antenna (horn or dish) is outside the tank and not exposed to
the tank atmosphere. The process seal is made out of a plastic,
ceramic, or glass material and installed on top of a tank nozzle
flange. The radar sensor is installed above the process seal.
Because the process seal material has a low dielectric constant,
a radar beam can pass through it with little loss of signal.
Transparent
Plastic Seal
Radar
Sensor
Tank
Roof
Tank
Roof
Opening
Tank
Flanges
Figure 111. Fully Isolated Mounting

Applications
A typical radar unit may cost 37500 Riyals, but the actual
installed cost may reach as high as 56000 Riyals. Because of
these costs, radar units should be considered for the most
demanding applications. Radar devices generally are not
applied to relatively clean applications because less costly level
measurement alternatives are available. Examples of liquids
that can be measured with microwave radar systems are crude
oil, asphalt, liquified petroleum gas (LPG), and liquid sulphur.
An example application for a radar gauge is shown in

Figure 112. The radar gauge for the LPG level measurement is
installed upon a still-pipe.
LIT
Radar
Gauge
Still-Pipe
LPG Sphere
Figure 112. LPG Application

Level Switch
Level switches are often used in process interlocks, safety

interlocks, and on/off (discrete) control applications. The use of
level switches is especially important to applications that involve
safety. Preferably, the level switch provides a point level
measurement, which indicates whether a liquid is present or not
present at a particular point in a vessel.
For example, if a pressure transmitter is installed at the bottom

of the tank, the output of the transmitter can be taken to a
pressure switch or on-off detectors. However, when safety is a
consideration and the concern is a level exceeding a certain
point, instead of using a pressure switch, one approach is to use
a level switch. The level switch’s purpose in this example is to
determine whether or not a liquid level is there. Level switches
can be used for liquid/gas, solid/gas, liquid/liquid interface
applications.
The technologies vary for level switches. The following

discussion provides a brief description of technology as it
applies to level switches.
• Diaphragm - The diaphragm is connected to a switch.

When a level is present, it deflects the switch.
• Float - A float type could be inserted in the side or top of

the tank When the level rises to the point level, the switch
is tripped.
• Displacer - Displacers elements are usually fairly short in

length and have a narrow span.
• Vibrating element - Similar in concept to a tuning fork, an

oscillating device on the outside of the tank vibrates the
fork at a certain amplitude of the vibration.
• Ultrasonic - Ultrasonic switches use a probe, inserted

either on the top or at the side of the tank. The probe itself
has a gap. On one side of the gap is a vibrating crystal, on
the other side of the gap is a receiver. The signal
reception decreases when liquid is in the gap.

• Capacitance - The capacitance probes are similar in

design to the ultrasonic probes, except that they measure
the capacitance in the gap.
• Microwave - Microwave level switches have a transmitter

and receiver installed on opposite sides of the tank. If the
vessel is empty, the signals are detected, if the vessel is
full the signals are not detected.
• Conductivity - A conductivity probe’s electrode conduct

current when level is sensed.
• Paddle wheel - Paddle wheels are fairly reliable for

detecting solid levels. The wheels move slowly and are
able to detect when a solid is present.
• Nuclear devices - Nuclear devices, using source and

detector, detect a level when the point beam’s intensity is
reduced.
The application and installation requirements for level switches

are described in SAES-J-300, Section 11.
Optical Level
Devices
Optical level devices use light reflection or refraction to sense
the presence of liquids. Optical level devices are mainly used
for point level measurements, although some continuous
versions are available.
Principles and Design - Refractive types (Figure 113) indicate

level by changing to a dark color when liquid is present. The
optical level type devices are based on the principle of light
refraction. When a liquid is not present, the prism appears
bright white because light is reflected back. When a liquid is
present, the prism appears dark because light is refracted into
the liquid. For the light to refract into the liquid, the liquid must
have a higher index of refraction. The prism glass’s index of
refraction is about 1.5, air’s index is 1.0, while a liquid’s index is
generally higher than 1.5.

Performance and Installation - Liquids that coat can give false

level readings. Accuracy of refractive optical used for
continuous level measurements is estimated at 1.6 mm (1/16
inch).
Applications are limited to clean, non-coating services.
Switch Switch
Light Light
Source Sensor
Reflected
Light
Refracted
Light
No Liquid Liquid Presence
Figure 113. Optical Device Design

DETERMINING THE APPROPRIATE INTERFACE MEASURING DEVICE

FOR A SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION
Interface measurements are another form of process level

measurements that can include continuous and/or point level
measurements. This section provides a special focus to the
level measurement device selection aspect of interface
measurements. To support that end, the following topics are
discussed:
• Definition of interface
• Purpose of interface measurement
• Units, terminology, and symbols
• General categories of interface measuring devices
Definition of Interface
Process vessels such as separators permit immiscible liquids

(ie, liquids that are incapable of mixing) of different specific
gravities to separate for further processing. The boundary
between the immiscible liquids is called an “interface.”
Purpose of Interface Measurement
Providing an accurate interface measurement is important

because movement of the interface position or even reversal of
one of the phase positions to the top or bottom of a vessel can
cause lost production, increased operating costs, and even
safety hazards.
Interface measurements are frequently found in the crude oil

cleanup steps of oil production. The cleanup of crude oil is
essential in order for the oil to be transported properly and to be
processed without causing fouling and corrosion of equipment.
The interface measurements that are common in the cleanup of
crude oil are usually one of the following:
• field separation processes
• crude oil desalting

Role of Interface
Measurement in
Field Separation
Field separation is one of the initial attempts to remove gases,
water, and dirt that is contained in crude oil. Field separation is
accomplished in large vessels that permit the crude oil to
separate into three phases - gas, crude oil, and water. The
separation process is often a function of gravity. Because the
crude oil is heavier than gas and lighter than water, field
separations occur, ideally into distinct layers of gas, oil, and
water. The layer of crude oil appears within the vessel as a
middle layer.
The interface measurement in a separator (Figure 114) includes

measuring the location of the gas/oil interface, as well as the
location of the oil/water interface. It is important to measure the
interface, because each layer within the separator is processed
further. The gas layer is often pumped out for natural gas
processing. The crude oil is pumped from the middle layer for
more processing, such as stabilization. The water is pumped
from the bottom of the separator to be disposed of at the well
site.
Gas To Fuel Gas System

And/Or Knockout Drum
Oil/Gas
Interface
Level Control
Gas
LT LC
Oil
Oil Crude Oil

Water LT Water
To Stabilizer
Interface Feed Pumps
Level
Control LC
Water To Oily
Water Tank
Figure 114. Interface in Oil Separation Example

Role of Interface
Measurement in
Crude Oil Desalters
Crude oil desalting (Figure 115) is a water washing operation
to treat crude oil for further processing. Crude oil from
prior separation processes contains contaminants. These
contaminants, if not removed, will plug equipment, dissociate at
high temperatures and corrode equipment, and deactivate
catalysts in refining processes. To prevent this from occurring,
an important measurement that occurs within a crude oil
desalter is the interface measurement. If the level is too high,
then the electrostatic elements (voltage grid) within the desalter
can short out. If the level is incorrectly measured as too low,
then product is unnecessarily dumped.
The oil/water interface must be tightly measured (and

subsequently controlled) for the reasons previously mentioned.
The challenges an engineer faces in this type of measurement
is that a small change in level can make a very large change in
volume. The reason for this is that crude oil desalter vessels
are very large, containing large volumes of crude oil and water.
Changes in crude oil and water densities by itself can cause
erroneous interface measurements. These measurement
considerations, along with the process operation objective of
providing constant desalter throughput, create a measurement
selection challenge for the engineer.
Level Desalted Crude

Transmitter Discharge Pump
LT
Level LC
Control
Crude
Gas/Oil Desalter
Desalter Water Exchanger
Sour Water Stripper
Foul Water Disposal
Figure 115. Crude Oil Desalting Example

The role of interface measurements in plant operations again

illustrates a consistent theme throughout this course module -
the level measurement selection process is application
dependent.
Units, Terminology, Symbols

The units, terminology, and symbols are the same in interface
measurement as those used for point and continuous level
indication and control. Refer to Figure 7 for those symbols.
General Categories of Interface Measuring Devices

The following discussion describes general categories of
interface measuring devices which include the following:
• displacement devices,
• capacitance devices,
• hydrostatic head devices, and
• other types of devices, such as
- float
- ultrasonic
Displacement
Devices
Displacement devices are described in detail in an earlier part of
this course module. Several additional comments are made in
this section as they apply to interface measurement.
Principles and Design - The principles and design of the

torque tube displacer were described earlier in the process level
measurement section. In an interface application, however, the
displacer is completely submerged. Selecting the proper
diameter for the displacer is significant for interface applications.
In an interface application, the upper liquid and lower liquid will
have different specific gravities. In these applications, the
lighter fluid surrounds the upper part of the displacer, while the
heavier fluid surrounds the lower part of the displacer. The
buoyant force that the displacer is trying to detect is dependent
upon the difference in specific gravities, so larger diameter
displacers are required when the specific gravity difference is
small.

Performance - For displacer units to detect an interface, a

minimum difference in the liquid’s specific gravities must exist.
A reason for the added complexity is that in a typical process
level measurement, liquid specific gravities of 0.5 or greater
generate sufficient buoyant force. However, in an interface
application, the differences in specific gravities between the
liquid/liquid layers could be very slight. The need to measure a
slight difference in specific gravity means that the sensitivity of
the displacer must be very high. For example, one vendor’s
device requires that the minimum specific gravity between fluids
must be 0.2 or greater. If the fluids are less than that 0.2 value,
non-standard displacers must be specified and selected.
Installation - The displacer can either be installed inside the

vessel or externally mounted for the interface application. When
a displacer instrument is mounted internally in the vessel
through a flanged opening, the displacer element remains inside
the vessel. The displacer element actuates the switch or pilot
mechanisms that are housed externally to the vessel.
When a displacer is mounted externally (Figure 116), as is the

case in many process applications, the displacer element is
housed in an external chamber (also called a ”float cage”).
While this permits convenient maintenance without shutting
down processes, some considerations should be noted.
Interface
Boundary
Displacer
Chamber
Figure 116. External Displacer Configurations

Some applications may require the following extra installation

considerations:
• The displacer and connecting piping may need to be

heated when the liquid is viscous.
• If the vessel temperature is high, the displacer chamber

may require heating so that the liquid within the external
chamber can be at the same specific gravity as the fluid
within the vessel.
• In a steam stripper application, the presence of water

vapor and hydrocarbons creates the risk that hot droplets
of condensed water vapor may fall on the hot hydrocarbon
liquids inside the external displacer chamber. Boiling can
occur, causing the displacer element to surge and provide
false readings. To avoid this, a continuous flow of purge
gas is necessary to minimize the amount of water vapor
entering the chamber.
• Applications may require purging, diluting or limiting the

fluid entering the external chamber to prevent material
buildups on the displacer.

Applications - Displacers are generally used in clean

applications. Highly viscous material may cling to the displacer
and affect the displacer's operation, requiring additional steps
such as continuous purging of the external chamber.
An interface application requiring a displacer is shown in

Figure 117, where the displacer measures the interface in a
settling tank.
Undissolved
Oil
Solvent
LI
Interface
LC
Untreated
Oil
Displacer
Chamber
Extract
Figure 117. Interface Measurement in Settling Tank

Capacitive
Capacitance probes are well suited for interface measurements,
as well as the process level measurements described earlier in
this course module. While a hydrostatic head device or
displacer can be used to measure an interface, the
measurement's sensitivity is often a function of the difference in
specific gravities (densities). When a capacitance probe is used
for an interface measurement, that device’s sensitivity is a
function of the difference in dielectric constants.
Principles and Design - The principles and design, although

described earlier in this course module, are briefly reviewed to
emphasize several concepts. Recall that the capacitance type
probe measured the amount of capacitance between two plates
of a capacitor. The vessel walls in most application became
one plate, the capacitance probe became the other plate. The
process material became the dielectric barrier to be
measured between the two capacitance plates. For interface
measurements, it is very important to note that the capacitance
probe is measuring only one variable. Therefore, in interface
measurements, the capacitance probe can only measure one
interface.
In an interface application, two interfaces may be present. The

process may have a gas/upper liquid interface and upper
liquid/lower liquid interface. The challenge for the engineer is to
select a capacitance device or find a method that will ignore the
gas/upper liquid interface. The goal is to measure only one
interface, and there are two ways to accomplish this:
• design the vessel to be 100% full, or
• select a probe that ignores the gas/upper liquid layer.
Since it is not always practical for the vessel to 100% full, the
better option is to select a probe that ignores the gas/
upper liquid layer. This is accomplished through the use of
capacitance probes that have inactive shields. The inactive
shield covers the probes to a point that is below the gas/upper
liquid interface. The inactive shield approach is a common
method of solving the problem of applications that have two
interfaces.

Performance - If the interface is between oil and water, the

dielectric constants for oil and water are much greater than the
specific gravities for oil and water, giving the capacitance probe
better sensitivity. However, if the interface involves measuring
an acid, then the capacitance probe may not be as suitable if
the material composition affects the dielectric constant.
Installation - The small size and small process connections

make the capacitance probe inexpensive and easy to install.
The installation of the capacitance probe for an interface
measurement has the same considerations as when it is used in
measuring process level height. The considerations are the
following:
• Continuous level sensing probes are installed vertically.

The probe should not come in contact with vessel walls or
internal vessel structures.
• Point level sensing probes are installed horizontally. The

goal is to provide a large change in the probe’s wetted
area for a small change in level.
• If the tank walls and process media are non-conductive,

additional ground reference electrodes may be necessary.
• The capacitance probe can be internally installed within the

vessel or externally in an chamber.

When used in an interface application, the installation of the

capacitance probe also has the following consideration:
• The continuous level sensing capacitance probe’s inactive

sheath extends to a distance that is just below the interface
(Figure 118).
Inactive Gas
Shield Is Phase
Below The
Level Of
Oil Phase
Oil
Phase
Active Portion
Of Sensing
Probe
Water
Phase
Figure 118. Probe Installation

Applications - Capacitance probes are best applied in relatively

clean products that do not have heavy buildup problems. If
buildups are anticipated, capacitance probes are available that
include anti-coating technology. Capacitance probes can be
used in difficult applications, including those that have high
temperatures and pressures.
When used to measure an oil/water interface, the water phase

is measured since an aqueous phase is more conductive than
an oil phase. The oil phase is often considered an insulating
phase with relatively insignificant changes in capacitance.
The following applications are also possible with capacitance

probes:
• Point level sensing of water bottoms in an oil stock tank is

accomplished through the use of a horizontal interface
probe.
• Continuous level sensing of the interface level in a heater
treater.
• Point level sensing of the interface in a heater treater. The
horizontal probe here is used as a backup to a continuous
level sensing probe.
• Continuous level sensing of the interface in a skim oil tank.
• Point level sensing of the interface in a skim oil tank. The
horizontal probe here is used as a backup to a continuous
level sensing probe to provide a low interface alarm.
Capacitance Probe's
Crude Oil Device Inactive
Outlet Electrostatic
Section
Elements
Crude Oil
Pickup Crude Oil
Salt Water Crude
Inlet
Water
Dump
Valve
Figure 119. Application: Crude Oil Desalter


level measuring device selection when used in an interface
application. Review these references (as well as the vendor’s
supporting documentation) for additional detail when
SAES-J-300, General • Section 4.4.5- Standpipe requirements

Section 4 and 5 application
• Section 5.4 - Reflex gauge not permitted
• Section 5.5 - Transparent gauge permitted
SAES-J-300, Displacers Displacer recommended.

Section 7.1
SAES-J-300, Capacitance Capacitance acceptable for interface.

Section 12.1
SADP-J-300, Part Standpipes Commentary on standpipe (Section 4.5.5 of

1 Commentary commentary)
Liptak, “Process Level measuring Each device (capacitance, displacer,

Measurement,” devices used for hydrostatic) has a brief discussion regarding
Section 3 interface interface applications
applications
Figure 120. References for Level Measuring Device Selection

for an Interface Application

Hydrostatic Head
Devices
The following discussion refers to the use of microprocessor
based pressure transmitters to measure an interface position.
An advantage of using this approach is that the hydrostatic head
method provides a continuous measurement (as opposed to a
point level detection) of the interface position.
Principles and Design - The span of the differential pressure
transmitter in Figure 121 is configured to locate the interface
level. The span is based on the difference between the liquid’s
specific gravities and the distance between the maximum and
minimum interface levels. The following calculation is used to
determine the span
Span = H (SG2 - SG1), where
H = distance between maximum and minimum interface

levels
SG1 = specific gravity of liquid 1
SG2 = specific gravity of liquid 2
Additional calculations may be required for any range

suppression or elevation.
Maximum
Level
Maximum
Interface
Interface
Minimum
Interface
H.P. L.P. Differential

Pressure
Transmitter
Figure 121. Hydrostatic Method for Interface Detection

Performance and Installation - The measurement of an

interface with less than a 0.1 difference in specific gravities is
difficult when conventional 4 to 20 mA transmitters are used.
When microprocessor based transmitters are used, it is possible
to measure down to smaller differences in specific gravities. For
example, a 0.05 difference in specific gravity can be controlled
within a 7.5% level change. A conventional transmitter would
require a 20% change in level before it would detect this
change. Microprocessor based transmitters can better detect
the shift in interface position.
One assumption in the use of differential pressure transmitters

is that the specific gravity of the two liquids does not change.
The assumed specific gravity is then used to calibrate the
differential pressure transmitter. The concern is that an
unchanging specific gravity can cause undetected measurement
errors. Interface positions are then incorrectly reported when
the specific gravity of the liquids change. In Figure 122, several
pressure transmitters are employed, two pressure transmitters
are used to account for the specific gravity change in each
liquid, one is used to measure total head pressure.
Density Oil LIT

Oil
D/P Oil
Density Total LIT

D/P Total
Density Water Water

LIT
D/P Water
D/P Total D/P Water

-
Density Total Density Water
% Level Interface =
D/P Oil D/P Water
+
Density Oil Density Water
Figure 122. Multiple D/Ps for Interface Detection

Performance advantages are the following:
• Continuous measurement is provided in this method

• Hydrostatic method is not susceptible to foaming and
bubbles.
Performance disadvantages are the following:
• Movement of interface level position should be large

enough to be detectable by differential pressure
transmitters. Note this situation is addressed in Figure
122.
• Hydrostatic method can be susceptible to changing

specific gravities.
Applications - Microprocessor based pressure transmitters can

continuously measure interface position for liquids whose
specific gravities can change.
Other Types of
Interface Devices
Other types of devices include the following:
• float
• ultrasonic
Float - Floats are available for measurement of liquid interface.

The float is weighted so that it floats on interface position. The
floats used for interface measurement are larger than those
used for level indication. While floats may be used in typical
industry interface applications, they are not acceptable for Saudi
Aramco applications. According to SADP-J-300, Section 2.5, “A
float cannot be used for interface detection.”
Ultrasonic - Special transducers are available from

manufacturers to permit ultrasonic detection of an interface.
Usually this is a point level measurement. To operate properly,
the device is installed at a 10º off horizontal angle. Another
approach is to install the ultrasonic device at the bottom of the
vessel and reflect signals off of the interface position.

Selecting an
Interface Device
When Emulsions
Present
Of particular measurement concern in separators is the
occurrence of emulsions of crude oil and water (Figure 123).
What makes an interface measurement particularly challenging
is an emulsion layer, up to 1 or 2 meters thick, can appear. The
thick emulsion layer can make it difficult to properly measure
and control the interface. Capacitance devices perform best if
you need a small percentage water in oil. However, if you need
a small percetnage of water oil in water, then the application
becomes challenging. Under those requirements, the emulsion
layer makes it difficult for level measurement devices to identify
the interface. As a result, the controller does not get the proper
measurement information of when to dump water from the
separator. Ideally, you do not want to dump the emulsion.
Oil
Emulsion LIT LC
Water
Figure 123. Emulsions Presence in Interface

Fortunately, some interface measurement approaches have had

success in this approach, and are briefly listed. For this
particular application, consulting with the instrument vendor is
recommended. The intent of this brief overview is to illustrate
that more than one level measuring device can be used for a
difficult interface application. The devices are the following:
• microwave probe - Some microwave probes are able to

detect very small amounts of water in hydrocarbons. The
probes are not temperature or salinity sensitive. Coatings
such as paraffin or tar do not hinder probe operation.
• RF admittance probe - The RF admittance probe can be

spanned across all liquid layers. Doing so creates a
measurement that is the average of all three layers. The
interface can be measureed to an inch within a 3 foot
diameter vessel. The probe has negligible effects from
heavy bitumen asphaltic coatings and temperature
extremes.
• differential pressure transmitters - Two differential pressure

transmitters installed slightly above the discharge line can
measure the density. The varying density is measured as
the emulsion layer travels within the vessel.
• conductivity sensors - Installing two conductivity sensors

that are sensitive to the low conductivity variances can be
used. One sensor is installed at the interface level, while
another is installed at the bottom of the vessel.
When emulsions occur in an interface measurement, processing

methods are often used to minimize the emulsions. Processing
methods such as heat treating, allowing gravity to separate the
emulsion, or adding chemicals to break up the emulsion.
(For additional discussion of this application which this summary

is based upon, the Participant is encouraged to review the
article, “What’s the Best Way to Control an Interface Level when
an Emulsion Tends to Form Between Phases?,” published in the
July 1992 issue of Control, pages 48-52).

DETERMINING WHETHER LEVEL MEASURING DEVICES MEET

AUTOMATIC TANK GAUGING APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS
The terms “automatic tank gauging” represent a measurement

system that provides an accounting of hydrocarbon inventories.
The accounting of inventories places demands that the process
measurements be highly accurate so that the subsequent
inventory calculations - that are in part based upon the level
measurements - are also accurate. An automatic tank gauging
system may include level, temperature, and density
measurements. Because level measurement plays an
important role in the tank gauging system, the selection of a
level measuring device or system places several unique
challenges upon the engineer.
While tank gauging includes a variety of process measurements

and calculations, it is often regarded as a separate
measurement discipline and not just another form of process
level measurement. For example, an automatic tank gauging
system may compensate the measured level quantity and
calculate level data for changes in the tank structure itself as the
tank fills and empties. Tank gauging measurements of level are
used to derive mass and volume data.
The following discussion is mainly concerned with the level

measurement aspect of tank gauging. What is important to note
in determining whether a level measuring device meets tank
gauging requirements is the purpose of a tank gauging
application, how the level measurement data in a tank gauging
application is derived, and how important the level
measurement is to the end user. In order to have an adequate
background and understanding of the role of level measurement
in tank gauging, the following topics that influence level
measurement device selection are discussed.
• Purposes of level measurement in tank gauging

• Differences between tank gauging and process level
measurement
• General comments about tank structures
• Automatic tank gauging techniques

• Float and tape devices
• Servo driven displacers
• Radar devices
• Ultrasonic devices
• Hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG)
Purposes of Automatic Tank Gauging
Tank gauging has as its purposes one or both of the following:
• Account for inventory and/or ownership transfer
• Provide effective process operations
Account for
Inventory and/or
Ownership
Transfer
Tank gauging provides measurement data that is often needed
for inventory control purposes. Various departments, such as
management, sales, and accounting, need to know what
hydrocarbon inventories they have to successfully do their jobs.
The inventory data includes gross volume, standard volume,
mass, and level data.
Although the majority of Saudi Aramco custody transfer

operations are accomplished through flow metering, a
significant amount of custody transfer is accomplished through
automatic tank gauging. When automatic tank gauging is used
for custody transfer, the accuracy of measurements becomes
important. Before and after the product transfer, the level of the
tank is read. The difference in level can be used to determine
the amount of material delivered or received. Custody transfer
information goes into billing, so accuracy of inventories is of
considerable importance.

Provide Effective
Process
Operations
Note that not all tank gauging measurements are just for the
purposes of inventory management and custody transfer. Tank
gauging is also important to process operations personnel
whose foremost concern may not necessarily be inventory
management. Operations personnel are concerned that they do
not overfill a tank, or when discharging a tank, empty the tank
dry. To provide safe operations, operations personnel need to
know the level and volume-to-safe fill height so they can safely
transfer product into and out of the tank.
Operations personnel can also use tank gauging data for

assessing feed rates and yields. As an industry example, tank
gauging measurements are sometimes used in blending
operations. For example, the tank gauging system could have a
role in the initial processing of crude oil. Crude oil streams from
several tanks can be blended to a consistent density (API
number), then charged to a surge tank before entering a crude
distillation process. Blending to a consistent density has the
effect of providing smoother process operations of the crude
distillation process. These kinds of operations are dependent to
some degree upon automatic tank gauging, of which level
measurement plays a role.
Differences Between Automatic Tank Gauging and Process Level

Measurement
To have a better understanding of the differences between tank

gauging and process level measurement, the following
differences are briefly reviewed:
• accuracy requirements
• data access intervals
• communication path
• types of data required

Accuracy
Requirements
One major difference between tank gauging and process level
measurement is that the accuracy of tank gauging systems may
approach the accuracy requirements of custody transfer
systems. A reason for using highly accurate tank gauging
systems is the concern that the increased yields in automating
processes are often lost in less than accurate tank gauging
systems. Additionally, highly accurate tank gauging systems
provide better information on process performance.
Data Access
Intervals
Tank gauging systems provide Management Information
Systems (MIS) departments measurements at scan rates of
about every minute. Process level measurements have scan
intervals of 1 second or less to continuously monitor and/or
control a level.
Communication
Path
Another difference between tank gauging systems and a typical
process level measurement is that a different communication
path is used between the storage tanks (tank farm) and the
control system. The communication path for a typical process
level measurement system is its 4 to 20 mA signal to a
controller. For a tank gauging system, a separate data highway
or network is used, where the control system get its data from a
field interface unit. The field interface units consist of
microprocessor based technology that receives the process
signals such as level, pressure, or temperature measurements.
The field interface unit uses that data to make density and mass
and volume calculations. The field interface unit then sends its
data to a remote system.
Types of Data
Required
The previous discussion about field interface units correctly
implies that tank gauging supplies a variety of measurements
and calculated data. The typical data that a tank gauging
system provides often includes level, average temperature,
water bottoms, density, gross volume, standard volume, and
mass. The measurements can be provided by either of several
tank gauging techniques.

Tank Gauging Techniques
The distinction among the tank gauging techniques is that

typical tank measurement data - such as level, volume, mass,
and density - is derived differently. Depending upon the
technique, data is derived either through direct measurement,
inferential measurement, calculations, or some combination
thereof. Thus, the accuracy of the data depends on how the
data is derived. Knowing how the data is derived and how
important accuracy is to the end user influences the level
measuring device selection. The tank gauging techniques are:
• level based techniques,
• pressure based techniques, and
• combined (hybrid) techniques.
Level Based
Techniques
Level based techniques employ devices such as float and tape
devices, servo driven displacers, and radar as the level
measuring devices for obtaining a direct level measurement.
The techniques use one of these level measuring devices to get
the most accurate level measurement possible. Accuracies of
tank gauging are to be 1/16” or 1.6 mm according to Saudi
Aramco specifications. A rationale for such a high degree of
accuracy is to have the most accurate level measurement for
the subsequent volume and mass calculations. To arrive at
mass, a lab sample is required to get the density value for the
mass calculation. Level based techniques provide the most
accurate level measurement compared to pressure based
techniques. Some vendors claim accuracies up to ±.8 mm
(±1/32”). However, the density measurement, because it is a
lab sample, requires personnel to make the measurement. The
lab sample itself may not necessarily be representative of the
average density of all the tank’s hydrocarbon inventory.

Pressure Based
Techniques
Pressure based techniques employ a method called hydrostatic
tank gauging (HTG). HTG uses highly accurate microprocessor
based pressure transmitters to arrive at a measure of the weight
or mass of the product. HTG is sometimes referred to as a
“mass based system.” HTG represents a fundamentally
different approach to tank gauging. Pressure based techniques
provide the most accurate mass measurement, compared to
level based techniques. Because it is a mass based approach,
some users feel that HTG is inherently more accurate than level
based systems. If a level measurement is needed, an additional
density measurement is made. The level measurement is
calculated - the calculation is based upon the pressure and
density measurements. The pressure based technique of HTG
is not new to tank gauging, it has been known for several
decades. Only in recent years has accurate and stable
technology been available to make HTG practical.
Combined (Hybrid)
Techniques
Combined (hybrid) techniques employ a method that combines
both level and pressure measurement technology. The
rationale behind this approach is that the best of both level
based and pressure based techniques are combined to make
very accurate level, mass, and density measurements.


level measuring device selection when used in an automatic
tank gauging application. Review these references (as well as
the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail
when determining a device’s suitability for an application.

SAES-J-300, General • Large storage tank applications
Section 8.1 application
• LPG requirements
• NACE requirement
• Installation guidelines
SAES-J-300, Installation Installation guidelines (API and vendor
Section 8.2 installation references recommended.)
SADP-J-300, Usage criteria Criteria unique to Saudi Aramco
Section 3.1.4 applications.
34-SAMMS-318 ATG Lists float and displacer requirements for
requirements ATG systems
API RP 511, Common level Non-inventory (process level) tank gauging
Section 3, Level measuring criteria.
devices
API Manual of Common level Inventory tank gauging criteria.
Petroleum measuring
Measurement devices
Standards,
Chapter 3
API Standard 2545, Traditional Provides a basis for traditional automatic
Method of Gaging measurement tank gauging methods. Does not discuss
Petroleum and approaches inventory tank gauging systems such as
Petroleum Products, radar or HTG.
Chapter 3
Liptak, “Process Common level Non-inventory (process level) and inventory
Measurement,” measuring tank gauging criteria.
Section 3 devices
Figure 124. References for Level Measuring Device Selection
for Automatic Tank Gauging

Tank Structure Considerations When Selecting Level Measuring

Devices
To determine valid level, mass and volume data also requires

an understanding of tank structures, which are beyond the
scope of this course. Nonetheless, some general comments
about tank structures are made in order to place a sufficient
perspective on level measuring device selection for tank
gauging systems. The considerations can be summarized as
the following:
• Imperfections of tanks
• Fixed versus floating roof tanks
• Importance of reference point to level measurement
Imperfections of
Tanks
Tanks are imperfect objects, so level measurement errors are
possible unless allowances are made for the imperfections
(Figure 125). Current tank gauging systems often include
technology, called correction or strapping tables, that
compensate for changing process conditions. While the
objective of tank gauging is to measure level to 1/16” or 1.6 mm,
within a very large tank, 1/16” or 1.6 mm is a small distance to
measure. Tank imperfections by themselves can contribute to
errors of a larger magnitude. Tanks are also elastic. Thermal
stresses cause tanks to expand and contract with temperature.
Tanks change shape as they fill and empty. The large
quantities of liquid within the tank also present measurement
challenges. For example, the liquid itself can experience
temperature and density stratification. Stratification can cause
the temperature and density measurements to not reflect
current product conditions and, as a result, make the resulting
mass and volume calculations suspect. Fortunately, many
tanks have re-circulation equipment to reduce the effects of
stratification.

Level Measuring
Device
Upper
Fixed (Cone) Reference
Roof Tank Point
Movement
Thermal
Stresses
Hydrostatic
Deformation
Tank Bottom
Movement
Figure 125. Tank Imperfections That Affect

Level Measurement
Fixed Versus
Floating Roof
Tanks
Fixed roof and floating roof tanks also influence level measuring
device selection for tank gauging systems. To minimize floating
roof errors, one option is to install a still-pipe within the tank.
The still-pipe, also referred to as a stilling well, is an
independent structure within the tank. The still-pipe does not
deform during the filling and emptying of a tank. Because the
still-pipe is not a structural member of the tank, its rigidity is
much better than the tank walls. Occasionally, the level
measuring device is installed on top of the still-pipe structure in
order to provide an accurate measurement.

Importance of
Reference Point to
Level
Measurement
Regardless of how accurate or sophisticated a level measuring
device may be for a tank gauging application, movement of a
tank gauging mounting or reference point always causes the
largest measurement error. Addressing the movement of a tank
gauging mounting or reference point should be the engineer's
foremost concern whether the tank gauging is automatic or
manual. These concerns are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 3.1A of the API standard on tank gauging.
The imperfections and elasticity of tanks are such that selecting

a level measuring system for a tank gauging application can
indeed be very challenging. These challenges have led to tank
gauging technologies that have evolved and continue to evolve.
The types of automatic tank gauging (ATG) systems include:
• Float and tape
• Servo driven displacers tank gauging (STG)
• Hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG)
• Radar tank gauging (RTG)
• Ultrasonic
(Note: Industry literature often uses abbreviations ATG, FTG,

STG, HTG, RTG to identify automatic tank gauging systems.
Automatic tank gauging (ATG) encompasses all technologies,
which include float and tape tank gauging (FTG), servo driven
displacers tank gauging (STG), hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG),
and radar tank gauging (RTG). Acronyms FTG, STG, HTG,
RTG identify a specific ATG technology. HTG is one of the more
commonly used acronyms; less frequently used abbreviations
are FTG, STG, and RTG.)

Float and Tape Devices
Float and tape devices, also referred to as “mechanical

gauges,” are perhaps the earliest tank gauging system and
continue to be extensively used in many industrial applications.
Principles and
Design
The simplest description for a float element is that a float
element is a buoyant object that rests directly on the liquid
surface. The float element is guided along a set of wires to
keep the float from shifting horizontally. A float must be kept in
a vertical plane in order to provide an accurate measurement.
The guide wires have anchors for them at the tank bottom, as
well as spring mechanisms at the tank’s top that maintain
tension on the guide wires. The float element often has a wide
diameter, about 381 mm (15 inches), to minimize the potentially
detrimental effects a product’s changing specific gravity has on
the level measurement. A float has a wide diameter because if
there is a change in the liquid’s specific gravity, the resultant
change in the float's immersion depth is less for a wider
diameter float than a smaller diameter float.
A perforated tape is connected to the float. The perforated tape

is also connected to a gauge head assembly. The gauge head
assembly provides the level indication. Within the gauge head
assembly is a sprocketed counter drive and tape storage spool.
The perforated tape is routed over the sprocketed counter drive
and tape storage spool. The shaft of the sprocketed counter
drive is connected to a level readout indicator. The tape storage
spool inside the gauge head assembly is able to wind and
unwind the tape as the float element rises and falls with the
liquid level.
The gauge head assembly is either mounted on top of the tank

directly above the float, or next to the tank at grade (ground
level). When the gauge head assembly is attached to the top of
the tank, the operator has to climb up to the top of the tank in
order to view the readout indication.

In a fixed roof tank (Figure 126) that has a still-pipe, the gauge
head assembly is preferably mounted at the top of the still-pipe.
The float element rests on the liquid level within the still-pipe.
Although the float is within a still-pipe, guide wire assembles are
still present to keep the float in a vertical plane.
Gauge Head
Also Top-Mounted
Float
Gauge
Head
Assembly
Still-
Pipe
Figure 126. Float in Fixed (Cone) Roof Tank

Performance
Properly installed float and tape devices are capable of highly
accurate measurements. Although float and tape devices
represent one of the earliest tank gauging technologies, they
can be accurate up to 1.6 mm (1/16 inch). However, the
installation (described later in this section) of a float and tape
device has a major influence on its accuracy. Additionally, a
tank builder may provide the float and tape device as a tank
accessory (appurtenance). Note that if the float and tape device
is purchased as a tank accessory, it may not have necessarily
received the attention from the tank builder that a float and tape
device requires to perform accurate measurements.
The performance advantages of float and tape devices include:
• direct level measurement (not by inference),

• relatively inexpensive device,
• no limits to height of tank, and
• no limits to specific gravity.
The performance disadvantages of float and tape devices

include the following:
• accuracy dependent upon installation (3.2 mm to 1.6 mm if

installed on still-pipe, 254 mm or more if installed at grade).
• accuracy may not be acceptable for custody transfer

operations.
• accuracy may be questionable for inventory operations,

given the increasing value of petroleum products and
desires for more precise inventory control.
• over a period of time, float and tape devices can become

very maintenance intensive. Types of maintenance issues
include:
- moving parts exposed to fluids,

- tapes can bend or break,
- tank obstructions interfere with float, and
- float must be kept clean.
- loats can be difficult to repair if breakage occurs

inside tank.
Installation
The installation of a float and tape device has a major influence
on its measurement accuracy. A typical industry installation is
to mount the gauge head assembly at grade on the side of the
tank. Installing the float and tape in this fashion can lead to
measurement errors in the range of ± 2.5 cm (± 1 inch). The
error can be higher if the device is not properly maintained. A
reason why the error is high is that the tape has to be routed
from inside the tank from the float to the outside assembly at
grade level. When a tank wall grows or shrinks because of
thermal and/or hydrostatic influences, the tape also moves.
Tape frictions and effects of corrosion also contribute to errors.
Grade mounted tape and float devices also experience the
largest error when its top reference point moves down during
tank filling, resulting in an under delivery of product.
If float and tape devices are installed on the top of the right kind
of still-pipes or stilling wells, they become inherently more
accurate, with accuracies up to ± 3.2 mm (± 1/8 inch).
However, a typical industry practice is that floating roof tanks
rarely have float and tape devices mounted on top of a still-pipe.
Instead, the float and tape device pulleys are supported from
the side of a tank. The exposed tape can experience errors due
to windage.

In addition to the references listed in Figure 124, the following

references apply to float and tape device installation. Review
these references (as well as the vendor’s supporting
suitability for an application. Installation of float and tape
devices is described in API Manual of Petroleum Measurement
Standards (MPMS), Chapter 3, Tank Gauging. Figure 127
provides a summary of these references.

API MPMS Mounting location Mounting requirements with and without
Section 3.1B.3.6.1 still-pipes, avoidance of turbulence,
proximity to gauging hatch.
API MPMS Section Still-pipe design Still-pipe support, location, diameter,
3.1B.3.6.2 depth.
API MPMS Section Mounting Goal of mounting is to have minimal
3.1B.3.6.3 vertical movement with respect to tank
reference.
API MPMS Section Data collection, Providing proper security for measured
3.1B.5 transmission, and data through good installation practices.
reception
API MPMS Specific installation Mounting requirements with and without
Appendix B, requirements for float still-pipes, grade mounting with a still-
B.2.1.3 and tape devices pipe, gauge head elevation, mounting,
float guide wires.
API MPMS Installation on floating Installation of separate float, minimizing
Appendix B, roof tanks windage, and installation while tank in
B.2.1.5 service
Liptak, “Process Tape level devices Inventory tank gauging criteria.
Measurement,”
Section 3.18
Figure 127. References for Float and Tape Device Installation
Applications
Generally, float and tape devices represent a mature technology
that is being replaced with level measuring devices, such as
improved servo driven displacers, hydrostatic tank gauging
(HTG), or radar devices. Float and tape devices are used in
tank farm applications, primarily in liquid services.

Servo Driven Displacers
A servo driven displacer (Figure 128) can eliminate many of the

problems experienced with a float and tape device. Servo
driven displacers, also called servo-powered automatic tank
gauges (STG), are expensive and regarded as precision
instruments. Servo driven displacers are popular with users
today because manufacturers based the design on the
automation of a manual tank gauging process called hand
dipping.
Servo
Gauge
Displacer
Figure 128. Servo Driven Displacer

Principles and
Design
The difference between a float element and a displacer element
is that the displacer element is heavier than the liquid it is
immersed in, while a float element rests on a liquid surface.
The displacer element sinks into the liquid unless it is restrained
by a cable connected to a servo assembly. The servo winds
and unwinds a cable so that it is always supporting the
displacer. The displacer, because it is more dense than the
liquid, has fixed weight. The combination of the fixed weight of
the displacer and the weight of the cable means that a known
amount of tension should be on the cable when the displacer is
immersed in the liquid. The servo assembly maintains that
constant tension on the cable, and uses that tension (along with
the length of cable extension) to determine the level surface. As
the level changes, the servo senses changes in the cable
tension. The servo assembly winds or unwinds a cable
accordingly to change in the displacer position so that an
equilibrium tension is always maintained. In effect, the displacer
is continuously weighed, and as a result the level is constantly
monitored. The servo driven displacer uses precision force
transducers and microprocessor based technology to make
highly accurate measurements and .004 inch repeatability.
S t e p T r a n s m it te r
G ro o v e d
M e a s u r in g
T e rm in a l
Drum
C o m p a r tm e n t
Servo
M otor
D i s p la c e r
D is p l a c e r
Figure 129. Servo Driven Displacer Design

Performance
Because currently manufactured servo driven displacers have
less moving parts, currently manufactured servo driven
displacers have better reliability than earlier servo devices. For
example, one manufacturer reduced the number of parts from
nearly 100 parts to essentially three parts (the servo spool,
the cable, the displacer element). Some vendors claim
measurement accuracies to ±.8 mm (± 1/32 inch). The
advanced servo driven displacers have accuracies that are
approved for use in custody transfer operations.
Installation
references apply to servo type displacer installation. Review
these references (as well as the vendor’s supporting
suitability for an application. Installation of servo type displacers
is described in API Manual of Petroleum Measurement
Standards (MPMS), Chapter 3, Tank Gauging. Figure 130
provides a summary of these references.

API MPMS Section Mounting location Mounting requirements with and
3.1B.3.6.1 without still-pipes, avoidance of
turbulence, proximity to gauging
hatch.
Section 3.1B.3.6.2 Still-pipe design Still-pipe support, location, diameter,
depth.
Section 3.1B.3.6.3 Mounting Goal of mounting is to have minimal
vertical movement with respect to
tank reference.
Section 3.1B.5 Data collection, Providing proper security for
transmission, and measured data through good
reception installation practices.
API MPMS Appendix Specific installation Discussion of windage, tolerances,
B, B.2.2.2 requirements for servo weight of cable, product density as
driven displacers applied to servo driven displacers.
API MPMS Appendix Mounting location Location considerations
B, B.2.2.2.6
Liptak, “Process Tape level devices Inventory tank gauging criteria.
Measurement,” (includes servo driven
Section 3.18 displacers)
Figure 130. References for Servo Driven Displacer

Applications
Servo driven displacers are best suited for clean applications,
such as finished products like gasoline and diesel fuel. Because
the displacer element is more dense than the liquid, servo
driven displacers also find usage in measuring liquid interfaces.
Some tanks operate with water at the bottom of a tank (also
called “water bottoms” or “swimming pools”). A servo driven
displacer can be used to detect the interface in those
applications. Additionally, in an interface application, the same
servo driven displacer that is used to measure surface level can
be programmed to periodically descend and locate the interface.
Density measurements are also possible with servo driven
displacers.

Radar Devices
Radar devices are described in detail in an earlier part of this
course module. Several additional comments are made in this
section as they apply to tank gauging and level measurement
device selection.
Principles and
Design
The basic principle described earlier is that a radar device,
mounted on top of a tank (Figure 131), simultaneously sends a
signal to the surface and senses the reflected echo signal. The
time it takes for the reflected signal to return becomes the
theoretical basis for calculating product level. Radar devices
provide a direct level measurement reading. Most radar tank
gauging systems have temperature measurement capabilities
as options.
Floating
Roof Radar
Still Pipe
Floating (Stand Pipe)
Roof
Floating Crude
Roof Tank Oil
Fixed Roof
Free Space Radar
Propagation
Manhole
Fixed Roof
Tank
Crude
Oil
Figure 131. Tank Radar Operations

Installation
references apply to radar device installation. Review these
references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation)
for additional detail when determining a device’s suitability for an
application. Installation of radar devices is described in
API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS),
Chapter 3, Tank Gauging. Figure 132 provides a summary of
these references.

API MPMS Section Mounting Mounting requirements with and without still-
3.1B.3.6.1 location pipes, avoidance of turbulence, proximity to
gauging hatch.
API MPMS Section Still-pipe design Still-pipe support, location, diameter, depth.
3.1B.3.6.2
API MPMS Section Mounting Goal of mounting is to have minimal vertical
3.1B.3.6.3 movement with respect to tank reference.
API MPMS Section Data collection, Providing proper security for measured data
3.1B.5 transmission, through good installation practices.
and reception
API MPMS Safety Avoidance of hazardous radiation during
Appendix B, B.2.4.2 precautions testing and service.
API MPMS Installation Free space requirements,comments on
Appendix B, B.2.4.4 requirements for mounting arrangements.
fixed roof tanks
API MPMS Installation on Installation on top of still piping
Appendix B, B.2.4.5 floating roof
tanks
Liptak, “Process Radar devices Inventory (and non-inventory) tank gauging
Measurement,” criteria.
Section 3.13
Figure 132. References for Radar Device Installation

Performance and
Applications
The performance and application of radar devices is described
in detail in an earlier part of this course module. An additional
comment regarding performance is that radar devices are
available from vendors in performance tiers. In other words,
radar devices are available from vendors that are designed just
for automatic tank gauging applications. The more accurate
radar devices, which are those that provide ±1 to 3 mm (±0.04
to 0.125 inch) accuracies for tank gauging, are more expensive
than radar devices used in process level measurements.
Performance considerations of radar devices are described in

API Standard, Chapter 3, Tank Gauging, Appendix B, Section
B.2.4.3. Review the performance considerations briefly
described in this section, which include:
• smoothness of liquid surface,
• foaming,
• moisture,
• error due to internal tank pressures, and
• internal tank structures.

Ultrasonic Devices
Ultrasonic devices are described in detail in an earlier part of

this course module. Several additional comments are made in
this section as they apply to tank gauging.
Installation
Installation of ultrasonic devices is described in API Standard,
Chapter 3, Tank Gauging, Appendix B. Section B.2.6.3
regarding ultrasonic transmitter installation. Review the
installation considerations briefly described in Section B.2.6.3,
which include:
• sensor and transmitter installation,
• separation from liquid level,
• transmission path to surface,
• use of still-pipe, and
• accessibility for maintenance.
Performance
Performance of ultrasonic devices is described in API Standard,
Chapter 3, Tank Gauging, Appendix B, Section B.2.6.2. Review
the performance considerations briefly described in Section
B.2.6.2, which include:
• wave absorption, and
• temperature compensation.

Hydrostatic Tank Gauging

Hydrostatic tank gauging systems use pressure measurements
to derive (calculate) values for level, mass, density, and volume.
Of the HTG derived values, mass measurement is the most
accurate. Because HTG measures the hydrostatic pressure at
the bottom of a tank, it is best to think of HTG as a method of
measuring oil mass. The HTG method represents a
fundamentally different approach to tank gauging. Unlike direct
level measuring systems, HTG systems infer the level
measurement. The level measurement is inferred from a
pressure measurement. The density measurement - unlike
float, radar, and servo driven displacers - is a current density
measurement.
Principles and
Design
An HTG system (Figure 133) consists of one to three highly
accurate pressure transmitters, a resistance temperature
detector (RTD), and an optional hydrostatic interface unit (HIU).
The HIU converts the measured pressures and temperature into
product density, mass, volume, and level. The HIU also takes
into account the changing physical shape of the tank. In an
HTG system, one pressure transmitter must always be installed
at the bottom of the tank.
P3
P2
Hydrostatic
T Interface
Unit (HIU)
RTD
P1
To Control
System And/Or
Host Computer
Field
Interface
Unit
Figure 133. HTG System

If direct measurement of density is needed, a second pressure

transmitter is installed. The second transmitter is installed a
short distance (usually about 8 feet) above the lower
pressure transmitter. The pressure difference between the two
transmitters provides the data for a density calculation. The
density value is then used to calculate level and standard
volume.
A third pressure transmitter is located at or near the top of the

tank if the tank is pressurized. The third pressure transmitter
reads pressure in the tank vapor space. The pressure reading
from the third transmitter is subtracted from the first pressure
transmitter at the bottom of the tank. If the tank is an open tank
or is at atmospheric pressure, then the third pressure transmitter
at the top of the tank is not necessary.
A resistance temperature detector (RTD) is normally provided in

HTG systems. The RTD is installed in between the two lower
P1 and P2 transmitters. The RTD provides the temperature of
the liquid between the two lower P1 and P2 transmitters. The
temperature reading from the RTD is necessary for calculating
inventories at standard conditions. Note that liquid temperature
is not needed for the mass calculation. The purpose of the
temperature reading is to take current density value derived
from the two pressure transmitters, P1 and P2, and reference
the current density back to standard conditions. The current
density and temperature are used to derive the standard density
(or API gravity at 60ºF), often referred to as “D ref.” The
reference density, Dref, is used in the calculation of net
standard volume.

Simplified calculations (Figure 134) for the HTG measurements

(Figure 135) are listed in Figure 134. (Occasionally in the HTG
calculations, more rigorous users may include gravitational
constants, which here are assumed to be 1.0.)
Measurement Calculation
Density Density = (P1 - P2)/Distance between P1 and P2
Level Level = (P1 - P3)/Density
Mass Mass = (P1 - P3) x Area
Area Equivalent area from tank strapping table, determined by

dividing volume by level, Area= Volume/Level
Standard Volume Standard Volume= Mass/Density at reference temperature
Figure 134. HTG Calculations
P3
P2
L
H T
RTD
P1
Figure 135. HTG Measurements

Performance
Performance advantages of HTG include the following:
• Provides a non-contacting measurement

• No moving parts, no tank internals, grade accessible
• Easier and less maintenance
• Installation possible while tank in service (“hot-tapping”)
• Direct density and mass measurement (as opposed to
density from a lab sample).
• Provides an inherently more accurate mass measurement
than level based systems.
Performance disadvantages of HTG are the following:
• Density and/or temperature stratification may affect HTG

calculations. For example, the density measured between
P1 and P2 may not necessarily represent the product
density throughout the tank. The distance between P1 and
P2 may only represent 20% of the total tank height, so it is
possible the density between P1 and P2 may not be
representative of the whole tank.
• Provides less accurate level measurement compared to

currently manufactured servo driven displacers, radar, and
properly installed float and tape devices.
Although an HTG system may provide a level measurement

accuracy of 1/4 to 1/2 inch, it does not mean that HTG is inferior
to currently manufactured servo driven displacers, radar, and
properly installed float and tape devices. As the general
comments on tank structures suggest, any level measurement
accuracy should not be assumed to be constant for all level
measuring devices given fixed reference point movements.
Whether the level measuring device is servo driven displacer,
radar, float and tape, HTG, or ultrasonic, accuracy is dependent
on product type, tank size and geometry, and other installation
factors.

Performance considerations of HTG hardware are described in

API Standard, Chapter 3, Tank Gauging, Appendix B. Figure
136 provides a summary of the references.
API Reference Reason for use Summary

B.2.3.2.1 Standard density Density is either user entered or measured
B.2.3.2.2 Temperature RTD location
measurement
B.2.3.2.3 Calculations Calculations should account for several
factors
Section 3.1B.5 Stratification Types of stratification
Figure 136. Performance References
Installation
references apply to HTG installation. Review these references
(as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for
additional detail when determining a device’s suitability for an
application. Installation of an HTG system is described in API
Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS),
Chapter 3, Tank Gauging. Figure 137 provides a summary of
those references.

API MPMS Pressure sensor Distance between P1 and P2 sensors
Appendix B, location (P1 and P2)
B.2.3.4.1
API MPMS Pressure sensor Top pressure sensor P3 usage
Appendix B, location (P3)
B.2.3.4.2
API MPMS Establishing a zero Goal of zeroing is to establish zero datum
Appendix B, datum (i.e, reference).
B.2.3.5.2
API MPMS Data collection, Providing proper security for measured
Appendix B, transmission, and data through good installation practices.
Section 3.1B.5 reception
Liptak, “Process HTG systems Inventory tank gauging criteria.
Measurement,”
Section 3.6
Figure 137. References for HTG Installation

Proper installation is important in HTG systems because the

hydrostatic deformations that occur when a tank is filling can
literally cause movement in the upper reference point, as well as
movement in the distance between P1 and P2. Fortunately,
microprocessor based technology provides compensation
algorithms for tank deformations.
A standard recommendation for pressure transmitter installation

(when the vessel is a spheroid or bullet) is to have the bottom
pressure transmitter, P1, installed as close to the bottom as
possible. The second pressure transmitter, P2, should be
installed at about 20% of the tank height above P1 (Figure 138).
Minimum distance between P1 and P2 is two feet, maximum
distance is eight feet. An installation with P1 and P2 following
these distance guidelines are less likely to have the P2
transmitter uncovered. The P2 transmitter should not become
uncovered by process media because the HTG system needs
readings from both the P1 and P2 transmitters to calculate
density. Applications where the tank height contains products
that will always be at a height much greater than the 20% of
tank height recommendation can have the P2 transmitter
installed at a higher height. The higher height for the P2
mounting provides a more accurate density calculation at the
risk of the P2 transmitter becoming uncovered.
P3
LPG Sphere
(Or Side View Of
Bullet Tank)
P2
H = 20%
T Tank
RTD Diameter
P1
Figure 138. HTG Measurement when Vessel is Spherical

Common tank equipment such as mixers, blowers, or agitators

cause random pressure effects and do affect HTG operation.
The effects of tank equipment are minimized by placing a
transmitter in a position that is not directly across from the tank
equipment. In such cases, the ideal position is at 90º from the
equipment.
Applications
HTG is suitable for applications for products such as LPG (liquid
propane gas) to asphalt. HTG is usable with various tank
geometries such as vertical, spherical and bullet shapes that
would eliminate other devices.
Closing
Commentary on
Automatic Tank
Gauging
In conclusion, again note that accurate volume or mass data is
not necessarily a concern of operations personnel, who are
concerned with safely filling and emptying a tank. Regardless of
the level measuring device selected for a tank gauging
application, the concern of safely filling and emptying a tank is
often met by providing level switches in addition to the level
measuring device. For example, in the event a float and tape
device is stuck, a false level reading occurs, leading to a
potential accident. A separate high level switch could be
installed and configured to prevent an overflow of the tank.
Although the level measurement may meet the 1/16” or 1.6 mm

level requirement for tank gauging, personnel concerned with
inventory management may express doubt about the accuracy
of the volume or mass calculation, because of valid concerns
about variables such as temperature and density as well as
concerns about the tank structural deformations. The selection
of a level measuring device for a tank gauging application, then,
is often determined by how critical the measurement data is to
the end user and how to best provide that data.

WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE WHETHER

LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICES MEET
APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS
Work Aid 1A: Vendor Data Sheets
Work Aid 1B: Saudi Aramco Instrument Specification Sheets
Work Aid 1C: SADP-J-300 (See Course Handout 1.)
Work Aid 1D: SAES-J-300 (See Course Handout 2.)
Work Aid 1E: SADP-J-300 Supplements — Procedures for

Calculating Transmitter Calibration and Range

WORK AID 2: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE THE

APPROPRIATE INTERFACE MEASURING DEVICE
FOR A SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION
Work Aid 2E: SADP-J-300 Supplements — Procedures for

Calculating Transmitter Calibration and Range

WORK AID 3: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE WHETHER

LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICES MEET TANK
GAUGING APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS
Work Aid 3E: 34-SAMMS-318

GLOSSARY
actuate Transforming a signal into corresponding movement, as

in a relay’s opening or closing.
alarm An alert to operators of a process condition that is not

considered normal.
ATG Automatic tank gauging
bridle See standpipe
cavitation Occurrence of vaporization within a centrifugal pump.
chamber Externally mounted housing that houses measurement

device.
coating When used in describing level measuring devices, a

coting is process material that remains on the sensor
after the level has fallen below the sensor.
column Same vessel as tower or fractionator.
conductivity Electrical property that is the inverse of resistance.
control scheme Arrangement of measurement and control devices that

provides control.
delta P Pressure differential or pressure drop.
desalt Removal of salt from crude.
dielectric Non-conducting material.
float A sealed chamber that rests on the top of a liquid.

Implies that the device is a float type device. However,
note that vendors may call a displacer element a “float.”
FTG Float tank gauging

HTG Hydrostatic tank gauging
interface The point or location where two phases meet. In a liquid

level measurement, two non-mixing liquids of different
specif gravities and color establish a boundary that can
be viewed as a distinct line.
plugging When used in describing level measuring devices, a

process material that collects in the measuring device’s
nozzle connection.
purge Free a vessel or housing of a fluid or solid.
RF admittance A capacitance probe that employs anti-coating

device technology.
RTG Radar tank gauging
standpipe A large pipe, usually 4 inches in diameter, mounted on

the side of vessel. Level measurement devices, such as
sight gauges and pressure transmitters, are attached to
the pipe. The standpipe serves to transmit level to more
than one device. Also referred to as bridle or stilling well.
STG Servo (driven displacer) tank gauging
still-pipe A stationary pipe within a tank that provides stable

measurement conditions for the level measuring device.
That is, process conditions such as turbulence and
foaming that would otherwise compromise accuracy are
minimized when a level measuring device is attached to
the still-pipe.
stilling well The term “stilling well” must be taken in the context it
is presented. Broadly used to represent either an
external standpipe or internal still-pipe. A stilling well can
also represent a concentric shield surrounding a
measurement device.
taps Connections to a vessel to which a measurement

device’s nozzle/flange is attached.

ADDENDUM
Specific Gravity: Terminology, Purpose, Examples
Common usage of the terms “specific gravity” and “density” have led even experienced
personnel to think of the terms as being the same. Specific gravity is not the same as
density. The following discussion clarifies what is meant by the terms “specific gravity”
and “density”.
In order to interpret specific gravity terminology, and how it applies to level measuring
device selection for a specific gravity measurement, the following topics are discussed:
• Definition of specific gravity

• Purpose of specific gravity measurement
• Units, terminology, symbols
• General categories of level measuring devices
Definition of Specific Gravity
Specific gravity represents the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a
reference fluid at specified conditions. The most frequently given specific gravity
reference for a liquid is the density of water at standard conditions of 15.6º C (60ºF).
For a gas, the most frequently given specific gravity reference is the density of air at
standard conditions. Specific gravity for a liquid, for example, can be expressed as
having the following relationship:
Specific gravity = Density liquid / Density water at standard conditions
Because specific gravity represents a ratio of densities, specific gravity is also referred
to as “relative density.” Water, which is the specific gravity reference for liquids
(including water), has a density of 0.999 gm/cm3 (62.34 lbs/ft3.) at standard conditions
of 15.6º C (60ºF). The specific gravity of water at 15.6º C (60ºF) is said to have a value
of “1,” because the ratio of water densities are at the same reference conditions, and
calculated as follows:
Specific gravity = (0.999 gm/cm3) / (0.999 gm/cm3)
Specific gravity = 1.0

If a process liquid has a density of 0.849 gm/cm3 at 15.6ºC (60ºF), then its specific
gravity is calculated as follows:

Specific gravity = (0.849 gm/cm3) / (0.999 gm/cm3)
Specific gravity = 0.85
In this example, a specific gravity value of 0.85 means that the process liquid at 15.6º C
(60ºF) has a density of 0.85 times that of water at standard conditions.
In some cases, the specific gravity for a fluid may be defined for reference conditions
other than standard conditions of 15.6º C (60ºF). For example, a specific gravity for a
liquid may be stated as 0.7560/40. In this example, 0.7560/40 means that a liquid at 60º F
(15.6ºC) will have a density of 0.75 times than that of water’s density at 40º F (4.4ºC). It
is important to note that specific gravity and density values only have meaning if the
temperatures are clearly stated for the process liquid and the reference liquid.
From the previous examples, note also that the density measurement units (gm/cm3)
cancel in the calculations for specific gravity. Specific gravity has no measurement
units associated with its value. Because specific gravity has no measurement units, the
specific gravity value is called a “dimensionless number.”
The specific gravity value, because it is dimensionless, can be used in combination with
measurements in any units. To have a better understanding of specific gravity as it
relates to level measurement requires a brief discussion of specific gravity and density
terminology, their units, and their symbols.
Units, Terminology, and Symbols
Although specific gravity does not have measurement units, density is expressed in
measurement units. The density measurement units often represent liquid densities,
although density units can be expressed for solids and gases as well. The metric
measurement units used most frequently for density are g/cm3. The metric density units
include g/cm3 or g/mL for liquids and solids, and g/L for gases. The English units for
density are typically lbs/ft3, lbs/in3, or lbs/gal. Density, often represented by the Greek
symbol “rho,” ρ, is defined as mass per unit volume.
Examples of identification letters for specific gravity or density measurement that could
appear in a process flow diagram are listed in SAES-J-004, Section 4. The measured
variable letter “D” represents either density or specific gravity. As examples of
identification letters could appear in a flow diagram, the letters DI would represent a
density or specific gravity indicator, while letters DT represent a density or specific
gravity transmitter.

When making a specific gravity or density measurement, the terms “specific gravity” and
“density” represent the same physical property of a process material, which is the
density of a process material. The main difference is whether the measurement units
are expressed directly in terms of a mass per unit volume (as is the case for density), or
expressed as a dimensionless number in terms of a relative density (as is the case for
specific gravity). The purpose for using the specific gravity value in combination with
other measurement units is described next.
Purpose of Specific Gravity Measurement
The purpose of specific gravity measurement as it relates to level measurement is

twofold:
• estimate material composition or value

• compare material quantities on the same basis
Estimate Material Composition or Value
Specific gravity (relative density) can be used to estimate a process material’s

composition or value. In practice, the term “API gravity” is often used when referring to
the density of a petroleum liquid. The API gravity of a crude oil is often used to provide
a rough estimate of a crude oil’s economic value. The API gravity is expressed as
ºAPI (degrees API). The American Petroleum Institute (API) derived a scale of
measurement units called ºAPI, which is related to specific gravity in the following
manner:
ºAPI = (141.5 / S.G.) - 131.5, when
S.G. = specific gravity of petroleum referenced to water at 15.6º C (60ºF)
A practical reason for describing density in terms of ºAPI is that the scale is easier to
use than specific gravity values. For example, a change of 1º API from 25º to 26º
represents a change in specific gravity from 0.9042 to 0.8984.
Compare Material Quantities
Specific gravity or density values are used to compare material quantities on the same
basis. For example, if you need to compare the current material inventories with
material inventories from several months ago, then it is possible that the volume data
may have been derived from different process conditions. Process conditions such as
temperature could influence the process measurements. Specific gravity or density
values provide a way of comparing material inventories at either the same reference
conditions or comparing material quantities in terms of mass.

Several ways to derive the same basis for comparing material quantities are to use:
• current density to calculate mass

• density to calculate volume at reference conditions
• specific gravity to calculate volume at reference conditions
Current Density to Calculate Mass - A vessel’s level measurement units often express
level in height (such as meters, feet). The measurement units, along with the tank’s
dimensions, are used to calculate the volume of the process material. To convert the
volume measurement to mass requires a density measurement. The mass calculation
is then the result of multiplying the actual volume times actual density.
mass = Volume actual x ρ actual
Density to Calculate Volume at Reference Conditions - Another way for comparing

measurement data is to calculate volume under reference conditions. If the current
density and density are known at reference conditions, convert the actual volume to
volume under reference conditions.
Given that: mass = Volume actual x ρ actual,
Observe that mass also is equal to:
mass = Volume reference x ρ reference,
Volume reference is equal to:
Volume reference = mass/ρ reference
Substituting for mass with Volume actual x ρ actual, then
Volume reference = Volume actual x (ρ actual/ρ reference)
Specific Gravity to Calculate Volume at Reference Conditions - In the equation for

calculating Volume reference = Volume actual(ρ actual/ρ reference), you can substitute specific
gravity values.
The equation becomes
Volume reference = Volume actual(specific gravity actual/specific gravity reference)

General Categories of Level Measuring Devices Used to Measure Specific Gravity
Level measuring devices can be used to perform a specific gravity measurement. In

practice, however, that measurement is frequently performed by analytical devices.
Nonetheless, level measuring devices can, if necessary, provide a specific gravity
measurement. Those device are the following:
• Hydrostatic head devices

• Buoyancy devices
• Weight of material devices
Hydrostatic Head Devices
Assuming that a height of a liquid column is a fixed distance, then the only remaining
variable that could affect a pressure measurement is a liquid’s changing specific gravity.
The pressure changes of a fixed liquid column thus become measurements of changes
in the specific gravity.
The terms “hydrostatic head” are used to describe this type of approach to specific
gravity or density measurement. The term “hydrostatic” refers to a fluid at rest exerting
pressure, while the term “head” refers to the height of the liquid above a measurement
point.
Principles and Design - Recall that the measurement of hydrostatic head in an open
vessel is based on the relationship
Pressure = h x SG actual
where h = height of liquid column
SG actual = actual specific gravity of liquid
If the height of the liquid column is fixed, then to establish a relationship of specific
gravity values to a pressure value simply means modifying the expression to the
following:
Pressure = h x (SG maximum - SG minimum)
where h = height of liquid column
SG maximum = maximum specific gravity to be measured
SG minimum = minimum specific gravity to be measured

In the following discussion, assume that a differential pressure transmitter is used to

measure a range of specific gravity values using the hydrostatic head approach. The
same expression, h (SG maximum - SG minimum), is used to define the span or range of
the hydrostatic head device. Regardless of the type of vessel constraints, the span or
range for a specific gravity measurement is always equal to h x (SG maximum -
SG minimum). The span or range calculation of h (SG maximum - SG minimum) applies to
specific gravity measurements occurring in open vessels with fixed level height, in open
vessels with variable level, and in pressurized vessels with variable level.
Measuring a range of specific gravity values with a differential pressure transmitter
means dedicating the differential pressure transmitter to only measuring pressure
changes caused only by liquid density changes. To accomplish the density
measurement requires elevating the lower range value (the instrument’s zero reading)
as the minimum head pressure to be read by differential pressure transmitter. The
minimum head pressure is at SG minimum , so the instrument range has a zero
suppression equal to h (SG minimum). For example, if SG minimum is 0.9 and the height of
the liquid column, h, is 50 inches of water, then the zero suppression is 45 inches of
water. If the specific gravity ranges from 0.9 to 1.1, and the height of the liquid column is
10 ft, then the span is 24.0 inches (.2 x 120 inches), and thus the range is from 45 to 69
inches of water.
Performance and Installation - Often the change in the specific gravity results in a
fairly small change in the pressure reading. The small pressure changes place
demands upon the resolution of the pressure transmitters. When the vessel height is a
larger distance, observe that the equation - pressure = h x (SG maximum - SG minimum) -
implies that greater values of height provide more resolution to specific gravity values.
Typically, the height should be 3 meters (10 feet) or more to provide a more reliable
specific gravity value. Storage tanks, where the height is 3 m (10 ft) or more, provide
the most opportunities for reliable specific gravity measurements. In smaller tanks (less
than 3 m), it is more difficult to get accurate density measurements using a hydrostatic
approach.
A common dilemma one faces in attempting a specific gravity measurement for a typical
storage tank application is that the height is not normally known. For those applications,
a differential pressure (“delta P”) transmitter can be used. The differential pressure is
measured across the known distance between two process taps.
Note that the differential pressure measurement approach for specific gravity only works
when the level is above the higher tap. If the tap is too high, and the level drops below
the higher tap, no specific gravity measurement occurs. Again, one goal is to have a
good distance between the two taps, because the higher the distance, the greater the
change in the differential pressure as the density changes. Ideally, a goal is to separate
the process taps as much as possible in order to have the best resolution to the
measurement.

(When you are measuring differential pressure, if sealing fluid is in the leg, an
adjustment for zero is necessary. This was described earlier in the transmitter range
calculation section.)
Applications - An exercise in calculating pressures follows. Suppose an oil with the

density of 0.88 is in a vessel. If there is a 10 ft difference in the taps, what should be
the expected differential pressure, ∆P?
The expected ∆P should be
∆p = r Z(g/gc)
∆P = (0.88) (62.4 ) (10 ft) (1)
= 549 lb/ft3
= 3.81 psi
= 105.6 in H2O
So for the delta P transmitter, if you had exactly the specific gravity that we expected,
the delta P transmitter would read a differential pressure of 105.6 in H2O. Now consider
the sensitivity of the unit. If there is a change in specific gravity of .01, a change results
in the ∆P transmitter reading.
The change in ∆P can be expressed as an equation:
d(∆) = d (r) Z g/gc
= (0.01) (62.4)(10 ft)(1.0)

3
= 6.24 lb/ft
= 0.0433 psi
= 1.2 in H2O
In looking at the sensitivity, you are looking for fairly small changes in the ∆P
measurements and inferring that to be a change in specific gravity. To accomplish the
measurement, set the zero elevation and the span properly. Assume in this example
that the range is from 0.80 specific gravity to 1.0 specific gravity, for a change of
0.2 specific gravity . The 0.2 change translates to a span in inches H2O that is 20 times
the value for .01 specific gravity units. For example, 20 x 1.2 in H2O for a span of 24 in
H2O.

The measurement device is calibrated for the span. If the specific gravity for the
material is 0.88, then a calibration standard of 0.88 is used to determine what the ∆P
transmitter is actually reading. When the specific gravity calibration standard is 0.88,
then you know from the previous calculation that the reading should be 105.6 in H2O.
You can calculate the ∆P transmitter for the values you want, and essentially span the
∆P transmitter for the units required. The transmitter also has to be zeroed for the
minimum specific gravity value.
In current HTG systems, the measurement of specific gravity is often accomplished this
way.
Buoyancy Devices
Buoyancy devices sense buoyancy force changes as indications of specific gravity

changes.
Principles - Buoyancy devices measure the forces acting upon a totally immersed
displacer float as it attempts to float or sink. Buoyancy devices then use the force
measurements as indications of specific gravity changes. When a displacer float is
lighter than the process fluid, buoyancy devices measure the buoyancy forces
attempting to lift the float out of the fluid. When a displacer float is heavier than the
process fluid and attempts to sink, buoyancy devices measure the forces holding the
float in place. Buoyancy devices use the resulting buoyancy forces as indications of a
process fluid’s specific gravity variations.
Design - The design of a buoyancy device is similar to the displacer float assembly
used for level measurement. An external cage is connected to the vessel. To use the
assembly to measure density, a slight change in the approach is needed. When
measuring density, the cage is always full of liquid. The assembly, in effect, has what
could be called a “flow through” chamber. Normally the device is constructed such that
it brings in the flow in the centerline of the displacer. The flow exits through openings in
the top and bottom of the cage. The intent of the top and bottom openings is to reduce
any viscous drag. The cage is always full of liquid, so that there is a buoyant force on
the liquid at all times. Thus, the buoyancy force variation represents the variation in the
density of the liquid. Generally, an instrument manufacturer that makes a level
displacement device can modify the device so that it measures density.
Performance - From an application standpoint, note that the larger the size of the cage,
the more sensitive the displacer is to changes in upward buoyant force. However, this
means that more process fluid must pass through the cage in order to detect a change
in density. Using a larger buoyancy device and cage may sacrifice the device’s speed
of response to gain an increase in sensitivity to density.

Installation and Applications - When using a buoyancy device to measure density as

compared to a hydrostatic head device, recognize that the approaches to specific
gravity measurement are different. In a large storage tank with a differential pressure
(∆P) method of measurement , the density is measured as long as the liquid level is
above the upper process tap.
While both devices are measuring density, the measurement itself represents density
measurement from two different perspectives. The differential pressure device provides
the density of the material currently inside the tank. However, the differential pressure
transmitter provides density values over a period of time. The reason for this is that the
tank is averaging the density of the material over a period of time. Often an application
may require identifying what the density of the material being produced is right now. If
the density of the material is off target, the averaging method used by the differential
pressure transmitter will not provide that information for some time. The buoyancy
device provides more current values of density. You can, for example, install the
displacer in a flowing stream. Again, smaller displacers provide a faster response,
larger displacers provide more accurate resolution. In summary, a displacer provide a
current density reading, while the differential pressure method provides an averaged
density.
Additionally, when considering a displacer, note that the entire flow does not pass
through the displacer. Displacers generally use a sampling system. If material is
pumped, most likely the flow is tapped off the pipeline. The sampled flow goes through
the density unit, and is returned through another set of valves. (The discussion of
sampling systems is beyond the scope of this course material and normally is covered
in analyzer courses).
Weight of Material Devices
Weight of material devices weigh a known volume and use material weight as the
indication of liquid density.
Principles and Design - While all weight of material devices use the same principle of
weighing a known volume, the simplest of these devices is the U-tube density gauge.
The operating principle is to take a sample liquid stream to a U-tube about 3/4 inch in
diameter. Because the volume of the U-tube is fixed, the only necessary measurement
is to weigh both the material and the U-tube. The whole U-tube is placed on a scale.
The weight of material device accounts for the U-tube’s known weight and fixed volume,
then provides the weight of material indication. The weighing system must be very
precise to have any kind of acceptable resolution.
Performance -Some measurements could have very good resolution as low as .005
specific gravity. Weighing devices are sensitive to vibration. Because of the flexible
connections, high pressure or fast flowing fluids would create safety issues in using this
approach.

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Chapter : Process Instrumentation For additional information on this subject, contact

LEVEL MEASUREMENT: PURPOSE, TERMINOLOGY AND SYMBOLOGY,

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Installation Considerations ...................................................................................... 75

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Electrical Type ...................................................................................................... 156

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

Accuracy Requirements .................................................................................. 218

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iv

WORK AID 2: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE THE APPROPRIATE

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards v

Figure 1. Level Measurement Definition...................................................................... 11

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards vi

Figure 31. Insulated Capacitance................................................................................ 49

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards vii

Figure 62. Float Switch Application ........................................................................... 101

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards viii

Figure 93. References for Electrical Type Device Selection...................................... 164

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ix

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards x

LEVEL MEASUREMENT: PURPOSE, TERMINOLOGY AND

This course module discusses the selection of level

The following discussion provides an introductory overview of

• the purpose of level measurement,

Purpose of Level Measurement

Level measurement, as used in this course material, is defined

Upper Reference Point

Level: The Measurement Of

Lower Reference Point

Figure 1. Level Measurement Definition

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

The purpose of level measurement is to provide a measured

• a local level indication,

• a detection of material presence,

• an input signal to a level control scheme,

• or a measured quantity in hydrocarbon inventory

The purpose and importance of level measurement is best

• control a vessel’s process material level in order to provide

• accurately measure a crude oil storage tank’s level in order

Level measurement is essential to the effective control of

As an example of the general importance of controlling a

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

As a more specific example of the role of level measurement in

Figure 2. Oil Separation Example

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Accurate level measurement is also necessary when measuring

Floating Roof Tank

Figure 3. Oil Storage Example

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

The broad variety of level measurement devices available to

Because the selection of a level measurement device or system

• Point level process measurements

• Point level process indication

• Point level process control

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 15

Point Level Process Indication provides an indication of

Point Level Process Control provides the control of a material

An application could require both point level indication and

• Continuous level process indication

• Continuous level process control

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 16