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Gpsworld July98
Gpsworld July98
Gpsworld July98
polarized it is, the lower its RHCP sensitiv- same frequency traveling in opposite direc-
ity, or gain. The degree of ellipticity is given tions. In the ideal half-wavelength dipole, for
by the antenna’s axial ratio (essentially the example, the current traveling from the feed
t ratio of the axes of the polarization ellipse). point undergoes a reflection at the ends of the
An axial ratio of unity, or 0 decibels (dB), wire. The reflected wave, when combined
implies circular polarization. Good GPS with the incident wave, creates a sinusoidal
antennas have an axial ratio in the zenith standing wave that has a constant zero ampli-
direction of 2 dB or better. tude at each end — a null or node — and a
Impedance. An antenna will have some resis- maximum amplitude in the center — a loop.
tance to current flowing in it. In addition, it An important consideration is the
may have some reactance because of antenna antenna–receiver connection. This is
capacitance or inductance, which also affect achieved with a transmission line, usually a
Figure 1. At a fixed point in space, the
the alternating current flow. The combined coaxial cable. To maximize signal transfer
electric field vector of a right-hand
opposition to current is known as impedance. from the antenna to the receiver, we must
circularly polarized wave rotates clock-
It can be expressed as a complex number minimize power loss. Power may be lost if
wise as seen from the wave’s source.
whose real part is the resistance and the the coupling between the antenna and the
imaginary part is the reactance. The relation- cable is imperfect and also within the cable
can consider a real antenna to be equivalent ship between impedance and the voltage and itself. (We’ll discuss cable loss later.) To pre-
to a number of Hertzian dipoles in series, and current in an antenna or any circuit element is vent power loss at the interface between the
we can deduce its properties by superimpos- given by the extension of Ohm’s law to alter- cable and the antenna, the impedances of the
ing the effects of the individual Hertzian nating current: It is the ratio of the voltage to cable and the antenna must be the same.
dipoles. the current and is measured in ohms. Antennas are designed to be coupled to a
For antennas, impedance is typically mea- coaxial cable with a certain impedance. If the
ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS sured at the feed point where the antenna is antenna’s characteristic impedance is differ-
The GPS antenna’s job is to convert the connected to the transmission line. An ent from that of the cable, then one must
energy in the electromagnetic waves arriving antenna’s impedance depends on many incorporate a matching circuit of some kind
from the satellites into an electric current that factors: how it is constructed, how it is within the antenna so that the cable and
can be processed by the electronics in the fed, and, to some degree, the surrounding antenna impedances match at the antenna
receiver. The antenna’s size and shape are environment. For example, an isolated cen- connection terminals. As we’ve mentioned,
very important, as these characteristics gov- ter-fed dipole with a length equal to one-half most GPS antennas have a 50-ohm imped-
ern, in part, the antenna’s ability to pick up its operating free-space wavelength has a ance because they are designed to work with
and pass on to the receiver the very weak characteristic impedance of 73 + j42.5 ohms. 50-ohm cable. If there is a mismatch between
GPS signals. The antenna may be required to By making the antenna shorter by about 5 antenna and matching circuit or matching cir-
operate at just the L1 frequency or, for dual- percent to account for the current speed in cuit and cable, signal reflections can occur,
frequency receivers, at both the L1 and L2 the antenna being slightly smaller than the which give rise to standing waves in the
frequencies. Also, because the GPS signals vacuum speed of light, the reactance disap- cable.
are RHCP, all GPS antennas must be RHCP pears and the antenna becomes resonant at The impedance mismatch can be quanti-
as well. Despite these restrictions, several the free-space wavelength. fied by measuring the peak signal voltages
different types of antennas have been and are The folded dipole, commonly used as the along the cable. The ratio of the maximum to
currently used with GPS receivers. These driving element in multi-element Yagi anten- minimum peak voltages is called the voltage
include monopole and dipole configurations, nas (often used for point-to-point signal standing wave ratio (VSWR). (We can also
quadrifilar helices (also known as volutes), transmission and reception at very- and ultra- measure the VSWR by expressing it as a
spiral helices, slots, and microstrips. high frequencies, for example), has a reso- function of the forward and reflected signal
Perhaps the most common GPS antenna is nant impedance of about 300 ohms. Most powers.) In the absence of reflections (in
the microstrip because of its ruggedness and GPS antennas are designed with a character- other words, a perfect match), the VSWR is
relative ease of construction. It can be circu- istic impedance of 50 ohms. 1:1. Such an ideal VSWR is essentially
lar or rectangular in shape and is roughly If one places an antenna inside an enclo- impossible to obtain in practice, and most
similar in appearance to a small piece of cop- sure, its impedance and resonant frequency consider a value of 1.5:1 to be quite good.
per-clad printed circuit board. Made up of may change. A microstrip patch antenna The corresponding signal loss for a VSWR of
one or more patches of metal separated from placed in a plastic enclosure, for example, 1.5:1 is only 0.18 dB.
a ground plane by a dielectric sheet (referred can have its resonant frequency shifted How an antenna is fed can also determine
to as the substrate), microstrips are often downward by several megahertz (MHz), its polarization. Several techniques exist for
referred to as patch antennas. They may have depending on the thickness of the plastic and feeding microstrip patch antennas, for exam-
either single- or dual-frequency capability, its dielectric constant. Antenna manufactur- ple, to produce circular polarization.
and their exceptionally low profile makes ers, therefore, purposely design their patch Bandwidth. Another important characteristic
them ideal for many applications. antennas to resonate at a higher frequency of an antenna is its bandwidth. This is the
Axial Ratio. To be maximally sensitive to than the actual operating value. frequency band over which the antenna’s
GPS signals, the ideal GPS antenna should be Standing Wave Ratio. In a resonant antenna, the performance, as measured by one or more
perfectly right-hand circularly polarized. current and voltage distribution is a standing parameters (such as input impedance, pat-
However, a real antenna will actually be or stationary wave. A standing wave is tern, polarization, and so on) is acceptably
elliptically polarized. The more elliptically formed by the superposition of waves of the good. The bandwidth needs to be large
July 1998 GPS WORLD 51
I N N O V A T I O N
TERRY ARSENAULT
enough so that the antenna functions well actual antenna element sits. Up to a certain
over the range of frequencies for which it is size, the larger the ground plane, the higher
intended. the antenna’s zenith gain. For example, a
Antennas may be narrowband or broad- microstrip patch element might have a zenith
band. Resonant antennas are characteristi- gain of only 0.75 dBic. By placing the ele-
cally narrowband, although their bandwidth ment on a 10 3 10-centimeter ground plane,
can be increased through certain construction one can increase the gain to about 5 dBic.