Preliminary Biology April Lecture 1

Before We Begin…
1. Go to the question box below
2. There you can ask any Qs and

answer polls!
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The Plan for Today
Module 1 Recap + Mod 2 IQ1
Mod 2 IQ2
Mod 2 IQ3 + Mod 3?
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Lecture Today
- We have a mammoth amount of content to get through

today so I will do my best to recap all the important points.
- These slides are pretty much self-directed, so whatever we
don’t get to, you should be able to read in the slides J
- If you have any topics you want to ask about, please put a
question in the box below :D I will be on the chat as this
streams!
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MODULE 1
Cells as the Basis
for Life
Mod 1- Cells as the Basis for Life
Cell Structure Cell Function
What distinguishes one How do cells coordinate activities within
cell from another? their internal environment and external
environment?
Cellular structures Movement in and out Biochemical
-prokaryotes and of cells processes-
eukaryotes -diffusion and osmosis photosynthesis, cell
-technologies to determine -active transport, respiration and
endocytosis, exocytosis removal of wastes
Prokaryotic/eukaryotic -SA/V ratio and
structures concentration gradients Actions of enzymes
-drawing diagrams in cells
-comparing cell Cell requirements
organelles/arrangements -light energy and Effect of
-fluid mosaic model chemical energy environment on
-removal of wastes enzyme activity
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Module One
Inquiry Question 1
Cell Structure:
What distinguishes one cell
from another?
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Cellular Structures
Prokaryotes Technologies to Determine Cell Structure
Cells with no membrane-bound organelles. Light Microscope
Genetic material stored in rings called - Light is used to illuminate a specimen
- Different lenses are used to magnify
plasmids. the specimen, which is viewed through
Unicellular organisms. the ocular lens (eyepiece)
eg. Bacteria - Can be used to view living specimen
- Cheap, but with limited magnification
Eukaryotes Electron Microscope

- Uses a beam of electrons rather than light
Cells with membrane-bound organelles.
- Can only be used on non-living specimens
Genetic material stored in nucleus. - Expensive, but with high magnification/resolution
Can be unicellular or multicellular organisms.
eg. Animal, Plants, Fungi Transmission Scanning
- Electrons pass through - Electrons bounce off the
the specimen specimen
- Up to 10 million x more - Creates a high
magnification/resolution resolution 3D image of
than SEM the shape of objects
Other Technologies:
Fluorescence Microscope, Cell Culturing
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Prokaryotic/Eukaryotic Structures
Synthesis/processing of proteins Storage + Cell Structures

and lipids VACUOLES- Provides structural support in
NUCLEUS- Stores genetic material and coordinates the cell's plants, used for storage and waste disposal.
activities- growth, protein synthesis, cell division etc. PLASTIDS- Contains genetic material and
RIBOSOME- Acts as the site of protein synthesis, found on plays a role in synthesis and storage. Not
the rough endoplasmic reticulum. found in animals.
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM- Transports proteins CELL WALL- A rigid structure found in plants
produced by ribosomes into the golgi apparatus. that provides structure to the cell.
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM- The site of synthesis CYTOSKELETON- Supports cell structure and
of phospholipids. movement, assists transportation within the
GOLGI APPARATUS- Packs proteins into vesicles, modifies cell.
them and sends them to their destination. CENTRIOLES- Involved in cell division.
LYSOSOME- Digests unwanted matter such as damaged CILIA and FLAGELLA- Hair-like structures
organelles and foreign material. involved in the movement of the cell.
Energy Transformations
MITOCHONDRION- Powerhouse of thee cell- plays an important role in cell respiration and
converting energy from food into energy used by cells.
CHLOROPLASTS- Plays an important role in photosynthesis in plants, trapping light energy.
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Prokaryotic/Eukaryotic Structures
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Prokaryotic/Eukaryotic Structures 2!
Fluid-Mosaic Model
- Cell membranes consist of a bilayer of
phospholipid molecules. Other molecules like
proteins, carbohydrates and cholesterol are
scattered throughout.
-Phospholipid molecules have a hydrophilic head

and two hydrophobic tails, which renders the
membrane semipermeable. Channel and carrier
proteins therefore facilitate the movement of https://youtu.be/nxB34u1umEs
certain molecules across the membrane.
-Other components of the membrane include:

Cholesterol, glycolipids, glycoproteins,
cytoskeleton
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Module One
Inquiry Question 2
Cell Function:
How do cells coordinate
activities within their internal
environment and external
environment?
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Diffusion and Osmosis
Diffusion Concentration Gradient
Diffusion is the net movement of anything A concentration
from a region of higher concentration to a gradient: solute is
region of lower concentration. more concentrated
in one area than
another, causing
Osmosis solutes move
Osmosis is the net diffusion of water 'down' the
molecules across a semipermeable gradient- from an
membrane. area of high
concentration to an
area of low
Facilitated Diffusion concentration- to
If the membrane is impermeable to a solute produce an equal
it will move through it through transport
concentration
proteins (channel proteins or carrier throughout the
proteins). This is called facilitated diffusion. whole solution.
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Active Transport, Endocytosis, Exocytosis
Exocytosis SA/V Ratio

The surface area to volume ratio
Transport out of the cell. of a cell highlights the
When a vesicle membrane and the comparison between the size of
cell membrane come into contact, the outside of an
object and the inside. When a cell
the two fuse, and the contents of grows, its volume increases at a
the vesicle are released out of the greater rate than its SA, so its SA:
cell. V ratio decreases.
Endocytosis
Transport into the cell.
The cell takes in materials by engulfing them in vesicles
made from the cell membrane which are then pinched
off and brought into the cell. Three forms:
-Phagocytosis -Pinocytosis -Receptor-Mediated
Endocytosis
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Cell Requirements
Autotrophs: Make their own food and energy from inorganic compounds.
Photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs.
Heterotrophs: Can’t make own food so have to ingest organic compounds as a source
of energy.
Organic Nutrient Requirements: Inorganic Requirements:

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids Water, mineral salts, gases
Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis

- A set of metabolic reactions and processes In cells - Photosynthesis is a process used by plants
- Converts nutrients into ATP, and releases waste - convert light energy into chemical energy
- Occurs in mitochondira that can later be released to fuel the
- The first stage of cell respiration is glycolysis organisms' activities. T
- Second stage is either aerobic or anaerobic respiration - Occurs within the chloroplast of the cell, as
dependent on whether the cell has access to oxygen. The this organelle contains a green pigment
processes differ in that aerobic respiration creates 34 ATP called chlorophyll which is capable of
energy units, whereas anaerobic respiration creates only 2. absorbing energy from sunlight.
Carbon Dioxide + Water + Light →

Glucose + Oxygen
Glucose + Oxygen à Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
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Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins found in all cells which are responsible for speeding up, or catalysing,
chemical reactions happening in organisms.
In this theory, the substrate fits into an active site of
the enzyme like a key into a lock. The substrate is held
in place by bonds, forming the enzyme- substrate
complex. Once it is formed, the enzyme catalyses the
reaction by helping to change the substrate, either
splitting it apart or lining pieces together.
In this theory, the active site changes its shape to

enfold a substrate molecule. The enzyme, after
binding with a particular substrate, takes up its
most effective shape. Therefore, the shape of the
enzyme is affected by the substrate like the shape
of a glove affected by the hand wearing it.
Environmental factors effecting enzyme activity:

-pH -temperature -substrate concentration
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MODULE 2
Organisation of
Living Things
Mod 2- Organisation of Living Things
How are cells arranged in a
1. Organisation of Cells multicellular organism?
What is the difference in

2. Nutrient and Gas nutrient and gas requirements
. Requirements between autotrophs and
heterotrophs?
How does the composition of the transport

3. Transport
medium change as it moves around an
organism?
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1. Organisation of Cells
How are cells arranged in a multicellular organism?
● compare the differences between unicellular, colonial and multicellular

organisms by:
– investigating structures at the level of the cell and organelle
– relating structure of cells and cell specialisation to function
● investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and
relate those functions to cell differentiation and specialisation (ACSBL055)
● justify the hierarchical structural organisation of organelles, cells, tissues,

organs, systems and organisms (ACSBL054)
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2.1.1
UNICELLULAR, COLONIAL AND MULTICELLULAR

ORGANISMS
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OVERVIEW
UNICELLULAR EXAMPLES
• Organisms which consist of a single cell. Paramecium/ bacteria.
COLONIAL EXAMPLES
• Group of identical single-celled organisms called a colony. Volvox, coral and jellyfish.
MULTICELLULAR EXAMPLES
• Organisms which consist of many different types of cells. Plants and animals.
Unicellular: Bacteria Colonial: Volvox Multicellular: Plant
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Unicellular Organisms
OVERVIEW FEATURES
• Can either be prokaryotic • Directly exposed to external environment à therefore
or eukaryotic must have a functioning cell membrane.
• Carry out all metabolic • High SA/V ratio due to microscopic size à increases
processes to sustain life in efficiency.
one cell. • Not overly specialized à all cells will at least have a
• Low operational efficiency genome with genetic information and ribosomes.
of tasks: simple structure
and lack of organelles does
limit the efficiency of PARAMECIUM
carrying out metabolic Eukaryotic
processes at any given
time.
• Unicellular prokaryotes are
less efficient than
unicellular eukaryotes.
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Colonial Organisms
OVERVIEW FEATURES
• Identical single-celled • Sometimes have some specialized cells to help carry
organisms form colonies out functions however are not multicellular as they
where they are physically lack tissues and organs.
connected and • The bridge between unicellular and multicellular
interdependent. organisms in evolution.
• However, all these cells • Close proximity allows for nutrients to be distributed.
could otherwise work
independently to carry out
the functions for life. VOLVOX
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Multicellular Organisms
OVERVIEW FEATURES
• Organisms which consist of • Lower SA:V ratio – however this challenge is overcome
more than one cell. due to the fact the organism is made up of small cells
• Each cell has its own with high SA: V ratio.
specialized function • Tissues, organs and systems = more efficiency.
meaning that the cells rely
on one another/ cannot
survive on their own.
• Division of labour
(different cells being suited PLANT
for different functions) at a
cellular level rather than at
an organelle level as is
seen in unicellular
organisms.
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2.1.3
HIERARCHAL STRUCTURE OF ORGANISATION
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Organisation
ORGANELLES
Mitochondria, nucleus
BASIC
ORGANISATION
CELLS
Nerve cells
TISSUES
Nervous tissue
ORGANS
Brain
ORGAN SYSTEM
The Nervous System
ORGANISM
Human
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2.1.2
TISSUES, ORGANS, SYSTEMS AND CELL

DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
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Cell Specialisation
CELL DIFFERENTIATION CELL SPECIALISATION

The process by which a less specialised The specific function a cell has,
cell changes to become a specialised determined by their physiology and
type of cell. E.g. a blood stem cell cellular structures. E.g. red blood cells
differentiating into a red blood cell. are specialised with haemoglobin
molecules to carry oxygen.
Cells differentiate to allow them to develop structures and therefore become

specialized to carry out their function.
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Cells
EMBRYONIC CELLS
• Unspecialised/ undifferentiated
cells.
• All our cells are embryonic stem
cells when we begin development
as an embryo (unspecialised).
• As the embryo grows and cells
divide, these cells give rise to new
cells.
• Once they mature, they develop
structural changes for their
specialised functions. They can
differentiate into all types of cells.
• Although these only exist in
embryos, adult stem cells can be
Source: Year 11 Biology in Focus found in places such as the bone
marrow.
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Cells
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Specific cells may have particular structural features to
allow them to perform their functions more easily.
CELL FLATTENED/ ELONGATED
Higher SA:V ratio
Biochemical processes more
efficient i.e. exchange of materials Squamous cells lining lungs =
flattened
BICONCAVE SHAPE
Function = transport oxygen around
the body in the body
Very small size + biconcave shape increase
SA:V ratio
Small size allows cell to travel through the
smallest capillaries.
No nucleus = more space for hemoglobin
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Tissues
A group of cells which work together to perform a specific function.
Animal Plant
MUSCLE TISSUE XYLEM TISSUE
Makes up muscles Makes up Xylem
STRUCTURE STRUCTURE
Composed of myocytes Made of tracheids
Elongated cells Elongated with thick cell wall
FUNCTION FUNCTION:
Help with function of movement Water flow
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Organs
A structure which is composed of a number of tissues which work together to perform a
shared function.
Animal Plant
THE HEART THE STEM
The heart is made of The stem is made
Cardiac, connective, of epidermis,
Blood and nervous vascular and ground
tissue. It pumps blood tissues. It transports
Throughout the water and nutrients
Circulatory system. between the roots and the leaves.
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Organ Systems
A structure which is composed of a number of tissues which work together to perform a
shared function.
Animal Plant
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM VASCULAR SYSTEM
PURPOSE: pass blood to all cells in the PURPOSE: transport nutrients/water
body around the plant.
HOW?: Some organs deliver the blood HOW?: The xylem transports water and
and some pump the blood. the phloem transports food.
COMPONENTS: COMPONENTS: Xylem and Phloem.
Heart and blood
vessels (arteries,
veins and
capillaries).
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Organisation
ORGANELLES
Mitochondria, nucleus
BASIC
ORGANISATION
CELLS
Nerve cells
TISSUES
Nervous tissue
ORGANS
Brain
ORGAN SYSTEM
The Nervous System
ORGANISM
Human
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Sli.do Time!! J
Ask questions via Q+A!

heterotrophs?

3. Transport
organism?
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2. Nutrient and Gas Requirements
What is the difference in nutrient and gas requirements
between autotrophs and heterotrophs?
● interpret a range of secondary-sourced information to evaluate processes,
claims and conclusions that have led scientists to develop hypotheses, theories
and models about the structure and function of plants, including but not limited
to:
– photosynthesis
– transpiration-cohesion-tension theory
● trace the digestion of foods in a mammalian digestive system, including:

– physical digestion
– chemical digestion
– absorption of nutrients, minerals and water
– elimination of solid waste
● compare the nutrient and gas requirements of autotrophs and heterotrophs
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2. Nutrient and Gas Requirements
● investigate the structure of autotrophs through the examination of a variety of
materials, for example:
– dissected plant materials
– microscopic structures
– using a range of imaging technologies to determine plant structure
● investigate the function of structures in a plant, including but not limited to:
– tracing the development and movement of the products of photosynthesis
● investigate the gas exchange structures in animals and plants through the
collection of primary and secondary data and information, for example:
– microscopic structures: alveoli in mammals and leaf structure in plants
– macroscopic structures: respiratory systems in a range of animals
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2.2.1
STRUCTURE OF AUTOTROPHS
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Vascular and Non-Vascular Plants
Plants can be described as vascular or non-vascular.
Vascular Non-vascular
Plants with a transport system for: Without a transport system for
• Support providing support or for moving
• To allow substances to be moved around substances.
the plant. Use osmosis and diffusion to receive
nutrients and eliminate wastes. E.g.
Ensures organs (leaves, stem, roots, flowers mosses
and seeds) receive what they need.
Contain two tissues called the xylem and

phloem to transport organic compounds,
water, minerals and gases around the cell.
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Systems in Plants
Like in animals: specialised cells à tissues à organs à systems
Root
System Shoot
System
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The Root System
HOW DOES IT WORK?
OVERVIEW • Diffusion (for mineral ions)
• Anchors the plant and absorbs water and and osmosis are the main
inorganic nutrients from the soil through forms of cell transport.
osmosis/ diffusion.
• If cell transport is too slow,
facilitated diffusion/ active
transport may occur.
FEATURES TO INCREASE SA • Water moves through the

• Branching – also aids with anchorage of the epidermal cells in the
plant. epidermis (outer most layer
• Root hairs – increase SA up to 12x through of the root).
extending from the root.
• Epidermal cells – flattened
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The Shoot System
The shoot system usually develops above ground and includes organs such as leaves,
stems and flowers. Functions include: photosynthesis, reproduction, storage, transport.
DERMAL TISSUE VASCULAR TISSUE GROUND TISSUE

• Outer layer of the leaf • Contains xylem and • Fills space around
• Responsible for gas phloem tissues stored vascular tissue in the
exchange and in vascular bundles stem
waterproofing the • Xylem = transportation
plant of water
• Phloem = products of
photosynthesis i.e.
glucose
• Also provides structural
support
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Diagram of a Plant
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Leaf Transport
VASCULAR TISSUE
• Main transport system within the
plant
• Extends throughout the whole
plant
VEINS
• Veins branch off the main vein, the
midrib
• Contain xylem and phloem tissue
which aids in the distribution and
transport of materials within the
plant
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Leaf Structure
MAIN FUNCTIONS
• Photosynthesis – absorbing sunlight
• Transpiration
• Water movement from roots to
leaves to help cool the plant
FEATURES
• Large SA of the leaf allows the
chlorophyll in the chloroplasts to
absorb the sunlight.
• Thin leaf structure means all cells are
close to the surface and therefore
sunlight.
• The epidermis/ outer layer is
transparent allowing sunlight to get
to the cells performing
photosynthesis.
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Leaf Structure
EPIDERMIS
• There is both the upper and lower epidermis of leaves
• Prevent evaporation of water through creating a waterproof cuticle + protect leaf.
• Transparent to allow light through
STOMATA
• Primary gas exchange structure in plants.
• Lower epidermis.
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Leaf Structure
Cells that carry out photosynthesis:
Palisade cells:
• Contain a large number of
chloroplasts
• Lie vertically and obtrude into the
upper epidermis aiding them to
absorb sunlight
Spongy mesophyll cells

• Secondary photosynthesis cells
• Situated below the palisade cells and
contain less chloroplasts
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Leaf Adaptations
HOT, DRY ENVIRONMENTS RAINFOREST ENVIRONMENTS
Hot, dry environments: leaves contain a Leaves are large and dark to allow them to
waxy cuticle to protect against absorb maximum sunlight in an
excessive evaporation of water. environment usually lacking in sunlight.
Water loss is less of a concern.
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2.2.4
CLAIMS AND CONCLUSIONS- PHOTOSYNTHESIS

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Scientific Developments- Photosynthesis
Source:
ATARNotes Preliminary
Biology Notes
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Ancient Greeks
Hypothesised plants were only able to attain mass by absorbing minerals in soil
1600s
Jan Baptista van Helmont – concluded water led to plant growth.
during a 5-year experiment with a willow tree, Helmont tracked the changing mass of the soil
and the tree.
When the tree gained 74kg and the soil’s mass did not change, he concluded that the water led
to the plant growth.
1770s
Jan Ingenhousz – proved plants produced oxygen.
Placed plants submerged in water in direct sun or shade. He noted that the plants placed in the
sun produced air bubbles and when they were moved into the shade, they ceased to produce
bubbles.
As a result, he concluded plants converted light to oxygen.
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1800S
Nicolas-Theodore de Saussure – showed that plants need both carbon
dioxide and water to grow.
1864
Julius Sachs – showed starch was produced by plants
when light was present.
Observed this was related to the presence of chlorophyll.
1930s
Corneilius Van Niel – proposed the general equation for
photosynthesis.
Led to our current, more simplified, equation.
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1930s
Corneilius Van Niel – proposed the general equation for photosynthesis.
Led to our current, more simplified, equation.
CORNEILIUS VAN NIEL’S EQUATION

light
2H2A + CO2 à 2A + (CH2O) + H2O.
CURRENT CHEMICAL EQUATION

light
6CO2 + 6H2O à C6H12O6 + 6O2
CURRENT WORD EQUATION

light
Carbon dioxide + water à glucose + oxygen
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Imaging tech to Determine Structure
MRI (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING)

• Uses radio waves and magnetic field to
generate an image of the plant.
• When used in combination with
technologies such as PET (Positron
Emission Tomograph), we can also
analyze cell function too.
X-RAY COMPUTED MICROTOMOGRAPHY

(MICRO-CT)
• Hundreds of images are taken of the
plant using X-ray technology, using many
different angles to generate a 3D image.
• Allows us to analyze internal tissues.
• Like a CT scan.
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2.2.2
FUNCTION OF STRUCTURES IN THE PLANT

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Movement of the Products of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis:
Carbon dioxide + water + light à glucose + oxygen PRESSURE-FLOW THEORY
-Nutrients are moved into
the phloem by active
GLUCOSE transport
-Glucose is transported by the phloem which -Water follows by osmosis,
runs from the leaves to the rest of the plant. creating a pressure
-Transported by translocation gradient
-Nutrients move passively
down phloem, following
the gradient
OXYGEN -Sugars transported out
-Rate of photosynthesis is greater than rate of
respiration, so excess oxygen is produced.
-Released through stomata in the leaves
through gas exchange.
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2.2.3
GAS EXCHANGE – MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURES

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Gas Exchange
The diffusion of gases from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower

concentration, especially the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an
organism and its environment. In plants, gas exchange takes place during
photosynthesis. In animals, gases are exchanged during respiration.
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Microscopic Structures- Plants
The stomata J
-Gas exchange in plants occurs through a structure called the stoma (plural = stomata).
-Located in lower epidermis
-Consists of two specialised epidermal cells called guard cells which surround a pore.
-The guard cells can open and close the pore to allow or stop gas exchange.
During gas exchange, the guard cells swell to open the pore to release oxygen and gain
carbon dioxide.
When the stoma opens, water will also diffuse out. The amount of water which
transpires depends on the climate. In a dry climate,
the guard cells will not swell/ become turgid –
preventing gas exchange.
Open: Turgid
Closed: Flaccid
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Microscopic Structures- Plants
How does gas exchange occur in other parts of a plant?
LENTICELS!
Lenticels are found on the epidermis of
different plant organs such as fruit and the
stems of woody plants. They are pores
which always remain open, in contrast to
stomata Lenticels permit the exchange of
gases between the environment and the
internal tissue spaces of the organs.
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Microscopic Structures- Mammals
The diffusion of gases from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration, especially the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an
organism and its environment. In plants, gas exchange takes place during
photosynthesis. In animals, gases are exchanged during respiration.
BLOOD = medium for transport within

mammals. Carries nutrients and gases to cells
and wastes from the cells.
During the process of aerobic respiration,

oxygen is transported into the blood in the
lungs.
This process is conducted by the membranes

of the alveoli.
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Alveoli: any of the many tiny air sacs of the

lungs which allow for rapid gaseous exchange.
Air flows from the bronchioles of the lungs into

the alveoli for gas exchange.
Blood capillaries are bound around the alveoli,

which transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
When the thin membranes of the alveoli

touch, gas begins to diffuse.
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LARGE SURFACE AREA

STRUCTURAL FEATURES TO ENSURE
• High SA/V ratio EFFICIENCY – ALVEOLI
• Carbon dioxide and oxygen diffuse
quicker
SURFACE AREA OF ALVEOLI KEPT MOIST
• Carbon dioxide and water move quicker

COVERED IN BLOOD CAPILLARIES when dissolved
• Alveoli walls are also very thin à only
• Tiny blood vessels one cell quick à allows oxygen and
• High volume of blood for gas carbon dioxide to diffuse across quickly
exchange
• Efficient – alveoli are able to be the
main site of gas exchange in the
organism
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2.2.3
GAS EXCHANGE – MACROSCOPIC STRUCTURES

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Macroscopic Structures- Mammals
Lungs: The lungs are a pair of breathing organs located with the chest which remove
carbon dioxide from and bring oxygen to the blood. Site of gas exchange.
HOW THEY WORK

§ Air moves into the mouth from the external environment
§ This then moves into the trachea which is connected to the mouth. Eventually this tube
splits into two bronchi, one for each lung.
§ Small branching structures called bronchioles extend from the bronchi, leading into the
alveolar ducts.
§ The alveoli in the alveolar ducts performs gas exchange for the organism.
§ Deoxygenated blood is pumped into the lungs and then alveoli through the pulmonary
vein.
§ This blood becomes oxygenated and returns to the heart through the pulmonary
artery.
OTHER FEATURES
The diaphragm contracts and relaxes to let oxygen in and carbon out. Allows us to breathe.
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Macroscopic Structures- Mammals
Lungs: The lungs are a pair of breathing organs located with the chest which remove
carbon dioxide from and bring oxygen to the blood. Site of gas exchange.
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Macroscopic Structures- Fish
Gills: the paired respiratory organ of fish and some amphibians, by which oxygen is
extracted from water flowing over surfaces.
STRUCTURE
The girl arch holds gill filaments in place. These
gill filaments then branch out into the primary
lamellae which branches into the secondary
lamellae.
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Macroscopic Structures- Fish
Oxygen is then absorbed from the water into
Deoxygenated blood moves into the lamellae which moves into the blood.
the secondary lamellae in Carbon dioxide is released.
preparation for the water to flow
in. Like in humans, blood is then pumped back into
the fish using the heart.
Water flows into the gill slits in
the side of the fish. The high SA increases the rate of gas exchange.
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Macroscopic Structures- Insects
Tracheae: The respiratory system of insects; a large membranous tube which conveys
oxygen from outside the insect to each of its cells.
Invertebrates have an open respiratory

system. `
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Open/Closed Respiratory Systems
Open circulatory system: primarily found in invertebrates. Here, the blood flows freely
through cavities and there are no/limited vessels to conduct the transport fluid.
`
Closed circulatory system: found in vertebrates. This system has the presence of vessels
that conduct blood throughout the body.`
- open circulatory system: common among small

animals + insects
- Haemolymph, and is pumped by the heart into a
body cavity called a hemocoel, where it bathes
the internal organs in nutrients and gases
- Does not remain contained
` in vessels and
instead has direct contact with organs and
tissues.
- Suitable for animals with low metabolisms that
don’t need quick energy.
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Macroscopic Structures- Insects
Tracheae: The respiratory system of insects; a large membranous tube which conveys
oxygen from outside the insect to each of its cells.
In insects, air flows:

• Through small openings in the body called
spiracles
• Into the tracheae and then into the small,
branching structures cells the tracheoles.
• Into the cells – tracheoles branch into every cell
in the body allowing oxygen
` and water to diffuse
in and carbon dioxide to diffuse out.
The movement of air occurs through passive

diffusion or active ventilation (where larger insects
contract their internal organs and abdomen to force
air out).
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Gas Exchange in Animals
Common features between gas exchange
structures:
• Large SA - to increase rate of diffusion.
• Moist, thin surface - increases the rate of
diffusion and ensures gases only travel a short
distance.
• Close proximity to a transport system that
ensures that oxygen gets to the cells and carbon
dioxide is removed from` cells e.g. blood/
circulatory system
• Has a clear concentration gradient - i.e. gas on
one side of the membrane is in higher
concentration than the other e.g. oxygen
breathed in the lungs before it diffuses into the
blood and travels to cells.
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2.2.5
DIGESTION
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Digestion in Mammals
Digestion: the process of breaking down food mechanically and enzymatically into
simpler chemical compounds in the digestive tract.
For heterotrophs, they must source all their nutrients

from the external environment through eating or
ingesting food
which can be broken into simpler nutrients.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
Digestion is important in allowing the organism to
obtain
energy or to build useful material.
Blood can transport these nutrients to where they are
needed in the body for energy or structural purposes.
However, protein cannot be stored.
79
Digestion in Mammals
There are two types of digestion:
Physical/Mechanical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
80
Physical Digestion
Involves physically breaking food into
smaller
pieces.
1. Starts in the mouth with the teeth

chewing, cutting and breaking food.
2. The food then moves to the stomach
where the churning motion continues to
break it into smaller pieces.
This increases the efficiency of enzymes in

chemical digestion.
81
Chemical Digestion
• Involves the use of enzymes to

chemically breakdown complex
molecules in food into simpler forms.
E.g. glucose from a complex carbohydrate /

amino acids from proteins
Essentially the complex molecules are

broken down into their building blocks.
82
Organs in the Digestive System
• First site of physical digestion

• Chewing/ tearing allows us to
increase the SA of food before
enzymes act on them during chemical
digestion
• Salivary amylase (enzyme) begins the
breakdown of starch (a complex
carbohydrate) into the simple sugar
maltose.
• Chewed food is then shaped by the
tongue (into a clump called the
‘bolus’) and swallowed.
83
• The bolus travels from the mouth into

the oesophagus through the process
of peristalsis (muscular contractions
which push the bolus into the
oesophagus).
• While it’s moving, the breakdown of
starch continues to occur.
• In order to ensure food doesn’t move
into the respiratory system, a flap of
skin called the epiglottis blocks the
respiratory system entrance.
84
• Food moves here from the oesophagus

through a muscle ringed, soft walled tube.
• Circular sphincter muscles control the
opening of the entry and exit of the
stomach.
• Physical digestion continues here -
stomach churning/ relaxation and
contraction of the stomach walls continues
to break food down.
85
HOW DOES THE STOMACH BREAK DOWN FOOD?

• Gastric juices which contain water,
hydrochloric acid and the enzymes
pepsinogen and pepsin combine with food
to form a mix called ‘chyme’.
• The acidic environment of the stomach
(which is specifically pH 2-3) causes the
enzyme pepsinogen to be converted into
pepsin.
As a result:
→ Proteins are broken down into peptides
→ DNA and RNA are broken down into
nucleotides
86
Made up of three regions

1) The duodenum
2) The jejunum
3) The ileum
• Chyme from the stomach enters the

duodenum through the pyloric sphincter
(a small muscular opening) stimulating the
release of pancreatic juices which contain
a mixture of the enzymes amylase, trypsin,
lipase along with bicarbonate ions).
87
ABSORBPTION OF NUTRIENTS
HOW DOES IT WORK?

Glucose and amino acids are absorbed by the
capillaries whereas fatty acids and glycerol move
into the lacteal.
Water absorption occurs in the small intestine.
HOW DO THE NUTRIENTS GET TO THE CELLS?

Digested food travels to the liver after being
absorbed into the bloodstream.
The liver is essential for detoxifying the blood and Lacteal:

ensuring that sugar, glycogen and protein levels are the lymphatic vessels of the
maintained. small intestine which absorb
digested fats.
It plays a key role in food metabolism.
88
ABSORBPTION OF NUTRIENTS
The remainder of the undigested material from the

small intestine moves to the large intestine. This
includes water, salts and dietary fibre.
Vitamins A and K, which are produced by the large

also get absorbed into the bloodstream.
89
The large intestine performs the functions of

converting food into faeces and absorbing
essential vitamins and water.
Chyme enters the large intestine via the ileocecal
v beneficial bacteria
sphincter and is mixed with
that have colonized the large intestine, and is
then passed through the four regions of the
colon by peristalsis.
90
-While chyme moves through the large intestine,

bacteria digest substances in chyme
-Fermentation converts chyme to faeces and
releases vitamins.
-Gases such as carbon dioxide and methane are

produced as a byproductv
-Water as well as ions and nutrients released by

gut bacteria are all absorbed by the large intestine
and used for metabolism.
91
Elimination of Waste
The large intestine is responsible for helping water and certain salts to absorb into the
bloodstream and forming undigested material into a more compact solid substance.
The remaining waste material (faeces) is eliminated from the body through the rectum
then the anus through peristalsis.
92
2.2.6
Autotrophs + Heterotroph Nutrient + Gas

Requirements
93
Autotroph Nutrient and Gas Requirements
Autotrophs: capable of producing their own food from inorganic molecules.
Gas Requirements include: Sunlight is a source of energy in organisms

• Oxygen for aerobic respiration which carry out photosynthesis to obtain their
• Carbon dioxide for photosynthesis energy (photoautotrophs), whereas other
autotrophs may oxidise inorganic compounds
Water is the medium in which they for energy (chemoautotrophs).
occur, and it is a reactant of
photosynthesis.
Inorganic molecules such as mineral

ions can move into the plant through
the root system or in organisms like
bacteria, by active transport.
94
Heterotroph Nutrient and Gas Requirements
Heterotrophs: require ingestion of external food sources to obtain the nutrients

needed for life.
Gas requirements: Energy is obtained from the breakdown of

• Oxygen for aerobic respiration molecules produced by autotrophs or other
heterotrophs - e.g glucose.
Like in autotrophs, water plays a key Inorganic molecules such as mineral ions can
role in chemical reactions as it’s the be acquired through ingestion or absorption
medium in which they occur and in from surroundings.
more complex organisms, it is needed
to maintain organs and organ
systems.
95
Autotrophs vs Heterotrophs
96

heterotrophs?

3. Transport
organism?
97
3. Transport
How does the composition of the transport medium change as
it moves around an organism?
● investigate transport systems in animals and plants by comparing structures and
components using physical and digital models, including but not limited to:
– macroscopic structures in plants and animals
– microscopic samples of blood, the cardiovascular system and plant vascular systems
● investigate the exchange of gases between the internal and external environments of
plants and animals
● compare the structures and function of transport systems in animals and plants,
including but not limited to:
– vascular systems in plants and animals
– open and closed transport systems in animals
● compare the changes in the composition of the transport medium as

it moves around an organism.
98
2.3.1
COMPARING TRANSPORT SYSTEMS

How does the composition of the transport medium
change as it moves around an organism?
99
Macroscopic Structures in Plants
Vascular tissue: transports water and mineral ions from the roots
and sugars from the leaves to various parts of the plant.
XYLEM
Transports water and water-soluble nutrients and
minerals from the roots to the leaves.
PHLOEM
Transports sugars and other plant products from
one part of the plant to another.
100
Macroscopic Structures in Plants
- Xylem and phloem form continuous, closed

tubular pathways through roots, stems and leaves.
Nutrients are able to travel easily throughout the
plant for a few reasons:
• The vascular tissue travels throughout the plant
meaning they are close to every cell.
• Fluids are able to flow through
Now onto structure….

101
Xylem Structure
The xylem is mainly composed of xylem vessels and elongated cells called trachieds.
XYLEM VESSELS
• A mature xylem vessel (also known as
a vessel element) is a long, water-filled
tube consisting of elongated cells
joined end to end.
• As the cells mature, the cell wall is
strengthened with lignin (a polymer
related to cellulose), making them
stronger and more rigid.
• The cytoplasm and nucleus in the
xylem vessel cells then disintegrate
and the cells die, creating hollow lignin
tubes.
102
Xylem Structure
MATURE XYLEM VESSELS

• cylindrical skeletons of dead cells
joined end to end to form continuous
tubes
• perforated or complete openings at
each end, like a straw, so that fluid can
flow directly through them
• pits (unthickened areas) and
perforations in the side walls that
allow sideways movement of
substances between neighbouring
vessels in the vascular bundle
• no nucleus or cytoplasm.
103
Xylem Structure
TRACHEIDS MATURE TRACHEIDS

• Tracheids are single, large, tapering water-filled • Cylindrical skeletons of dead
cells that form part of the xylem tissue in all cells joined to form continuous
vascular plants. tubes.
• When mature, tracheids lose their nucleus and • Unlike xylem vessels, tracheids
cytoplasm. This leads to cell death, but creates are not connected end to end.
an open structure for water to flow through. Instead, their ends overlap and
water is transferred horizontally
through the adjoining pits.
104
Phloem Structure
Phloem tissue is composed of:
-sieve tubes -companion cells -parenchyma cells -sclerenchyma cells.
PHLOEM STRUCTURE
• Unlike xylem vessels, mature phloem sieve tubes

are living cells with no nucleus and no lignin in the
cell walls.
• Sieve tubes form linear rows of elongated cells.

Their cell walls are thin and perforated at each end
by holes or pores, forming sieve plates.
• Plasmodesmata pass through the perforations in
sieve tubes, acting like straws through which
sugars and other materials can move.
105
Xylem vs Phloem Structure
Phloem tissue is composed of:
-sieve tubes -companion cells -parenchyma cells -sclerenchyma cells.
106
Translocation: Sources and Sinks
Translocation: the act, process, or an instance of

changing location or position:
such as the conduction of soluble material from one
part of the plant to another
In plants, the sites where sugars are are produced

during photosynthesis (the leaves) are known as
sources.
However, it’s important for the sugars produced during

photosynthesis to be translocated to non-
photosynthetic (food-producing) cells throughout the
plant.
These sites are known as sinks. These include the roots,

bulbs, stems, flowers and fruits.
107
2.2.4
CLAIMS AND CONCLUSIONS- TRANSPIRATION-

COHESION-TENSION THEORY
108
Scientific Developments- TCT THEORY
Source:
ATARNotes Preliminary
Biology Notes
109
Scientific Developments- TCT THEORY
1894 1911 1965

Dixon and Joly Renner Scholander
Demonstrated that Provided evidence Developed method to
pure water molecules that tension in the measure the xylem
display ‘cohesional xylem was enough to pressure called the
forces’ move water. ‘Scholander pressure
I.e. water molecules Showed water chamber’.
stick together in a movement through
liquid state. leaves was a passive Demonstrated force
Proposed that water is process. was needed in process
pulled from above and to move sap through
not pushed from xylem.
below.
110
Macroscopic Structures in Animals
The cardiovascular/circulatory system circulates blood and lymph through the
body, consisting of the heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph, and the lymphatic
vessels and glands.
KEY FEATURES
• The mammalian cardiovascular system is a closed
system that transports substances throughout the
body.
• The vital metabolic products of the body are
transported via the blood.
• The blood, circulatory tissues and organs ensure that
all cells have a ready supply of nutrients and oxygen
and a means to transport away metabolic wastes.
• In mammals, the highly branched network of the
cardiovascular system means that no cell is more than
1 mm from a capillary.
• This ensures efficient nourishment and waste removal
for all cells in the body.
111
KEY COMPONENTS OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
BLOOD
HEART VESSELS BLOOD
112
KEY FEATURES
• The human heart is a four-chambered
muscular pump with two pumping
chambers (ventricles) and two receiving
chambers (atria).
• It is responsible for moving blood
throughout the cardiovascular system.
• The right side of the heart receives
deoxygenated blood and pumps it to the
lungs, while the left side receives
HEART oxygenated blood and pumps it to the rest
of the body.
113
KEY FEATURES
• Blood vessels: network of muscular
vessels carrying blood to and from the
heart.
• They are divided into:
- pulmonary vessels, which carry blood to
and from the lungs
- systemic vessels, which carry blood to
and from all other parts of the body.
BLOOD There are three types of blood vessels:
arteries, veins and capillaries.
VESSELS
114
ARTERY:
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
• They have thick, muscular walls and carry blood
under high pressure.
VEIN:
CAPILLARY:
115
ARTERY:
VEIN:
• Veins carry blood to the heart.
• They have thin walls and carry blood under low
pressure
CAPILLARY:
116
ARTERY:
VEIN:
• Veins carry blood to the heart.
• They have thin walls and carry blood under low
pressure
CAPILLARY:
• Capillaries connect the arteries and veins.
• Capillaries are fine vessels with very thin walls (one cell thick) that carry
blood under low pressure.
• The thin walls of capillaries allow gases and nutrients to pass between the
capillaries and tissues
117
KEY FEATURES
Blood is the fluid medium used in animals
to transport nutrients, gases and water to
cells and to remove metabolic wastes
from cells.
BLOOD
118
RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHROCYTES) WHITE BLOOD CELLS (LEUKOCYTES)
• Distribute oxygen throughout the • Part of the immune system
body • Engulf pathogens, old cells and
• Contains the protein haemoglobin cellular debris
which enables it to carry oxygen • Have a nucleus
• Do not have a nucleus • Slightly bigger than red blood cells
• 41% of blood volume • 4% of blood volume
PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES) PLASMA

• Help the blood to clot • Fluid in which blood cells are
• Do not have a nucleus suspended
• The smallest J • Contains water, proteins, nutrients
and gases.
• 55% blood
119
How are substances transported in blood?
CARBON DIOXIDE
Can either be transported:
• By dissolving into the plasma
• By binding to haemoglobin
• As a bicarbonate molecule
OXYGEN
• Transported as a oxyhaemoglobin (oxygen
bound to haemoglobin).
WATER
• Transported in the plasma
SALTS
• Dissolve into the blood and are transported
in the plasma
120
How are substances transported in blood?
LIPIDS NITROGENOUS WASTES
• Bind to proteins` • Transported in the `plasma as urea
• Become known as lipoproteins
121
Fish!!!!! J
Single circuit of blood flow: Heart has two chambers:
Blood flows from the gills straight to the Blood is pumped to the gills for gas
capillaries, rather then passing through exchange VS lungs.
the heart. VS Mammals who have a This enables fish to only regulate one
double cycle circulatory system. circuit of blood flow.
122
Insect!!!!! J
Open circulatory system: Heart:
Means dissolved nutrients travel directly Back end of the dorsal vessel.
to tissues through haemolymph, rather Divided into chambers called the ostia
than remaining in blood vessels. Contract to push haemolymph forward
Dorsal vessel:
Tube running longitudinally in the insect
which is responsible for transporting
haemolymph from the abdomen to the
head.
Aorta:
Front part of the dorsal vessel
Tube leading to the head, where it empties
After emptying, it travels freely throughout
the organism.
123
Comparison of Circulatory Systems
124
Comparison of Circulatory Systems
125
2.3.4
CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF THE

TRANSPORT MEDIUM
How does the composition of the transport medium
change as it moves around an organism?
126
Change in Transport Medium Composition
The blood is the medium which delivers nutrients and wastes in animals. Certain tissues
and organs require different nutrients and produce different substances, depending on
their function. Therefore, cell specialisation will affect how blood composition changes
as it passes through different regions of an organism
LUNGS Function: Effect on blood composition:

To provide a surface of gas exchange, Increase in O2
removing CO2 waste from the blood Decrease in CO2
and allowing O2 to move into the
blood.
127
MUSCLE Function: Effect on blood composition:
To facilitate bodily movement by Decrease in O2
coordinated contraction of muscles. Decrease in glucose
Movement is allowed by aerobic Decrease in amino acids
respiration, so requires an input of Increase in CO2
O2 and glucose. CO2 is a by-product of Increase in nitrogenous wastes
respiration and must be removed so
cells remain healthy.
BRAIN Function: Effect on blood composition:

To coordinate the functioning of all Decrease in O2
bodily processes, primarily through Decrease in glucose
the use of nerve cells. This process is Increase in CO2
energy intensive and therefore cells Increase in nitrogenous wastes
require a large amount of oxygen and
glucose.
128
KIDNEY Function: Effect on blood composition:
- remove metabolic - Decrease or increase of H2O in blood
wastes, primarily urea, - Decrease or increase of salt
from the blood. - Decrease in nitrogenous wastes (urea)
- Balance levels of salt - Decrease in O2
and water in the blood.
ENCOCRINE Function: Effect on blood composition:

- Glands situated throughout the - Increase in hormones (for
GLANDS body are responsible for excreting example, as blood passes
hormones into the blood. through the adrenal gland,
there is an increase in
aldosterone)
129
LIVER Function: Effect on blood composition:

- The liver performs a number of - Decrease in: O2, glucose, amino
functions: detoxification, protein acids, toxins
synthesis, producing digestive
chemicals, storing excess glucose - Increase in: CO2, certain
and producing hormones. proteins, certain hormones
SMALL Function:
Effect on blood
INTESTINE The small intestine absorbs the end
composition:
products of digestion, and diffuses
Increase in: amino acids,
these into the blood for transport
glucose, fatty acids, glycerol,
around the body. Products of digestion
vitamins, H20
include amino acids, carbohydrates,
Decrease in O2
fatty acids, glycerol and vitamins.
130
End of Mod 2!!! J
MODULE 3
Biological
Diversity
Mod 3- Biological Diversity
1. Effects of the How do environmental pressures

Environment in promote a change in species
diversity and abundance?
Organisms
How do adaptations increase

2. Adaptations the organism’s ability to survive?
133
3. Theory of What is the relationship

Evolution by Natural between evolution and
biodiversity?
Selection
4. Evolution – What is the evidence that supports the

The Evidence Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection?
134
1. Effects of the Environment on Organisms
How do environmental pressures promote a change in species
diversity and abundance?
● predict the effects of selection pressures on organisms in ecosystems,

including:
– biotic factors
– abiotic factors
● investigate changes in a population of organisms due to selection pressures

over time, for example:
– cane toads in Australia
– prickly pear distribution in Australia
135
3.1.1
SELECTION PRESSURES
How do environmental pressures promote a change in
species diversity and abundance?
136
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
Change in a species over many generations as a result of natural selection of
favourable characteristics. Evolution is a gradual process, facilitated by the
mechanism of natural selection.
Steps of Evolution
1. Variation occurs within a population due to natural mutation.
2. Selection pressure is applied to the population (eg physical change,
chemical change, competition)
3. Phenotypes best suited to the change environment survive.
4. Surviving organisms reproduce, changing the majority of population traits.
Selection pressures are external agents which affect an

organism’s ability to survive in a given environment.
137
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
PEPPERED MOTH!
During the industrial revolution the moth population
changed from majority white to majority black due to a
change in their environment: increased pollution and smog.
1. First, within the moth population there was always
variation as some were ‘mutants’ born coloured black
in a predominantly white population.
2. An environmental selection pressure was applied to
the population: due to the change in the environment,
birds could better spot white moths as prey.
3. Most white moths were killed by predators whilst black
moths survived
4. Moths with the black phenotype reproduced and
passed their colouring onto offspring. After
generations, this became the dominant trait.
138
Selection Pressures
Selection pressures are external agents which affect an organism’s ability to survive in a
given environment. Types of selection pressures include:
Resource availability, Environmental conditions, Biological factors
Biotic Abiotic
Biotic factors relate to anything Abiotic factors relate to anything non-
living. living.
EG: EG:
Organisms living in the same Climate (temperature/wind)
ecosystem Shelter
Competition for resources Availability of food and energy sources
(food/territory) (access to water, light, essential nutrients)
Predation Pollutants
Disease Chemicals (eg Pesticides, insecticides)
139
Changes in a Population- CANE TOADS
Introduced to Australia: Cane toads were introduced from Hawaii to North Queensland
in 1935 in an attempt to control populations of native beetles (grey-backed cane beetle)
which ate sugar cane crops without using pesticides.
Spread: They spread rapidly, reaching NSW border in 1978 and NT border in 1984.
Current population est 200 million. This has resulted in widespread ecological effects
including spread of disease and loss of biodiversity. Spread facilitated by travelling on
clear roads and ‘hitchhiking’ with building and landscaping materials.
Evolution: Population has rapidly changed over past 70 yrs due to ‘special sorting’;
toads naturally born with longer legs move further and breed with outer toads who
have also travelled far. The genes for faster movement become concentrated at the
forefront of the invasion, being passed onto offspring. This has allowed rapid
evolution over 50 generations. They used to travel 10km/year – now 55km/year/.
Population Changed: Cane toads on the front line of the invasion have longer legs, are
more agile and a reduced immune response as less energy is invested into it in
preference for consistent long-distance movement. Cane toads can also rapidly
acclimatise to colder climates by behavioural adaptations (basking) and rapid
psychological shifts. This will enable them to spread even further than anticipated.
TY ATARNOTES PRELIM BIO STUDY GUIDE J 140
What we’ve covered today:
Mod 1 Recap
1. Cell structure: “What distinguishes one cell from another?”
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Technologies to determine cell structure
Comparing cell organelles
Fluid mosaic model
2. Cell Function “How do cells coordinate activities within their internal

environment and external environment?”
Diffusion and osmosis
Active transport endocytosis, exocytosis
SA/V and concentration gradients
Cell requirements
Removal of wastes
Photosynthesis and respiration
Enzymes + Environmental effects
141
Module 2
1. Organisation of Cells: “How are cells arranged in a multicellular organism?”
Unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms
Cell specialisation and differentiation
Tissues, organs and systems + Hierarchal structure
2. Nutrient + Gas Requirements: “What is the difference in nutrient and gas

requirements between autotrophs and heterotrophs?”
Structure of autotrophs (root, shoot, vascular)
Imaging technologies to determine plant structure
Microscopic gas exchange structures: alveoli and leaf structure
Macroscopic gas exchange structure: respiratory systems in animals
Open and closed systems
Photosynthesis and Transpiration-Cohesion-Tension Theory
Physical/chemical digestion, absorption of nutrients and elimination of waste
Nutrient and gas requirements of autotrophs and heterotrophs
142
Module 2
3. Transport: “How does the composition of the transport medium change as it
moves around an organism”
Macroscopic transport systems: xylem and phloem
Macroscopic transport systems: cardiovascular system in animals
Changes in the composition of the transport medium
143
END J
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Preliminary Biology April Lecture 1

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Before We Begin…

1. Go to the question box below

2. There you can ask any Qs and

Module 1 Recap + Mod 2 IQ1

Mod 2 IQ3 + Mod 3?

- We have a mammoth amount of content to get through

Eukaryotes Electron Microscope

Synthesis/processing of proteins Storage + Cell Structures

-Phospholipid molecules have a hydrophilic head

-Other components of the membrane include:

Exocytosis SA/V Ratio

Organic Nutrient Requirements: Inorganic Requirements:

Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis

Carbon Dioxide + Water + Light →

In this theory, the active site changes its shape to

Environmental factors effecting enzyme activity:

What is the difference in

How does the composition of the transport

● compare the differences between unicellular, colonial and multicellular

● justify the hierarchical structural organisation of organelles, cells, tissues,

UNICELLULAR, COLONIAL AND MULTICELLULAR

Unicellular: Bacteria Colonial: Volvox Multicellular: Plant

HIERARCHAL STRUCTURE OF ORGANISATION

How are cells arranged in a multicellular organism?

TISSUES, ORGANS, SYSTEMS AND CELL

CELL DIFFERENTIATION CELL SPECIALISATION

Cells differentiate to allow them to develop structures and therefore become

What is the difference in

How does the composition of the transport

● trace the digestion of foods in a mammalian digestive system, including:

● compare the nutrient and gas requirements of autotrophs and heterotrophs

Plants can be described as vascular or non-vascular.

Contain two tissues called the xylem and

FEATURES TO INCREASE SA • Water moves through the

DERMAL TISSUE VASCULAR TISSUE GROUND TISSUE

Spongy mesophyll cells

CLAIMS AND CONCLUSIONS- PHOTOSYNTHESIS

CORNEILIUS VAN NIEL’S EQUATION

CURRENT CHEMICAL EQUATION

CURRENT WORD EQUATION

MRI (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING)

X-RAY COMPUTED MICROTOMOGRAPHY

FUNCTION OF STRUCTURES IN THE PLANT

GAS EXCHANGE – MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURES

The diffusion of gases from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower

How does gas exchange occur in other parts of a plant?

BLOOD = medium for transport within

During the process of aerobic respiration,

This process is conducted by the membranes

Alveoli: any of the many tiny air sacs of the

Air flows from the bronchioles of the lungs into

Blood capillaries are bound around the alveoli,

When the thin membranes of the alveoli

LARGE SURFACE AREA

• Carbon dioxide and water move quicker

GAS EXCHANGE – MACROSCOPIC STRUCTURES

HOW THEY WORK

Invertebrates have an open respiratory

- open circulatory system: common among small

In insects, air flows:

The movement of air occurs through passive

For heterotrophs, they must source all their nutrients

1. Starts in the mouth with the teeth

This increases the efficiency of enzymes in