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Contents
03 09 17 21
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4
Enlightenment Origin of Modern Industrialisation Nation-State
Politics System
29 40 45 60
Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8
Imperialism and Revolution and World War I (1914- Inter-War Phase
Colonialism Counter-Revolution 1918)
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86 99 111 124
Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12
World War II (1939- International Cold War and Chinese Revolution
1945) Organisations Unification of and Korean War
Europe
132 140
Chapter 13 Previous Year
Arab Nationalism Questions
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CHAPTER - 1
ENLIGHTENMENT
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and religion.
Immanuel Kant
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should think for oneself, free of external impression that he was an early atheist
authority's dictates. who later developed an ontological
argument for God, to more critical
» Kant sought to explain the relationship interpretations like Nietzsche's claim
between rationality and human that Kant had "theologian blood" and
experience in one of his major works, was merely a sophisticated apologist
the Criticism of Pure Reason (1781), for traditional Christianity.
and to step beyond the shortcomings Overall, Kant's influence on Western
of conventional philosophy and thought has been intense and enlightening.
metaphysics. He changed the framework within which
• His work reconciled many of the philosophical inquiry has been carried out.
differences between the rationalist He accomplished a paradigm shift in the
(reason is the ultimate way to gain foundations of philosophy, thinkers like
knowledge) and empiricist traditions German idealists and in the social sciences
(who believed that knowledge is and humanities also.
acquired through experience alone) of
D. Jean Jacques
the 18th century. He had a significant
impact on the Romantic and German
Idealist philosophers of the 19th century.
His work has also been a starting point Rousseau (1712-1778)
for many 20th century philosophers.
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was the guiding principle wherein people behaved as they wanted, without caring
about the rights of others. Of course, there was complete chaos and human beings
do desire peace at the end of the day.
• In order to avoid this chaos and come out of the ‘state of nature’, Hobbes then
describes that members of the society got together and signed a ‘social contract’
to form a state.
• By signing this treaty, they surrendered their rights to an ‘absolute sovereign
authority’, who was the monarch in this case.
• People surrender their rights in return for safety and protection of one’s self and
property. The word of the ‘Sovereign’ was absolute and had to be obeyed by all
subjects.
• However, even the ‘Sovereign’ was limited by ‘natural law’ and had to follow it and
could never deviate from the natural law.
• The concepts of individualism, materialism, utilitarianism are part and parcel of this
theory that was given by Hobbes.
John Locke
• Though the theory given by John Locke also emphasizes the ‘Social Contract
Theory’, it is quite different from the theory given by Thomas Hobbes.
• In Locke the ‘State of Nature’ was not as bad as the one described by Hobbes.
According to Locke, people were equal and had all the individual freedom to
exercise their options. However, a problem arose when issues pertaining to property
came to the forefront.
• There existed no judges to adjudicate on issues related to property, no authority to
enforce claims on property and finally no established laws on property. We see that
‘Right to Property’ is an inherent part of this theory.
• It was under these circumstances that the people came together and surrendered
some of their rights to a common authority (called the state), who would then
enforce these rights.
• The people ended up surrendering only those rights that were required to enforce
the ‘Right to Property’.
• The role of the state extended to protecting property and enforcing its claims and
few other functions. Hence, we see the concept of a ‘Minimalist state’ or the concept
of a state that plays the role of a ‘Nightwatchman’.
• The people too owed their loyalties to the state, only when it functioned, according
to the interests of the people and not otherwise.
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CHAPTER - 2
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1774 Other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts, and a group of American Patriot
leaders formed their own government to organise their resistance to Britain in
late 1774 at the Continental Congress; other colonists remained loyal to the
Crown and came to be termed as Loyalists or Tories.
1775
1778
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• Domination of first estate (clergy) and • Burden feudal and serfdom system.
second estate (nobility) who controlled • Autocratic monarchy and its resentment
most of the administrative post. by the bourgeoisie.
• Discontent bourgeoisie class/middle • Obsolete judicial systems.
class and labour class.
• The success of the American revolution
also boosted the people of France. Course: Outbreak of the French
• The exploitation of the third estate Revolution
that is common people of the total The French Revolution of 1789 was a
population. watershed moment in European history.
• Intellectual movement such as the It was the first major widespread rebellion
Enlightenment and Renaissance made against the ruler's autocracy. It ignited
people rational. ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity
that spread beyond France's borders and
• Works of philosophers such as
inspired the rest of Europe.
Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau
enabled spread of revolutionary • In the eighteenth century, France was
thinking and ideals who attacked the ruled by the Louis XVI of Bourbon family
unjust monarchy. Montesquieu opposed who drained the country’s resources due
the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings to continuous wars and extravagant
and called for separation of power. In court. Increased pressure led to a tax
his book ‘Social Contract,' Rousseau hike that followed by a meeting of the
declared that sovereign authority rests estates general that was a political
with popular will. body to which the three estates sent
their representatives with ultimate
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power over the king. The demand for governance giving way to the era
voting rights in the assembly by third of Napoleon Bonaparte. He led the
estates was rejected by the king who directory and fought the European
agitated the members and finally, in coalitions and earned the confidence
June 1789 they declared themselves as of the people. With the backing of his
the National assembly. supporters (Bonapartist), he finally
• Apart from the National Assembly, the overthrew the Directory and curtailed
French people had voted to protest the pillars of the republic by declaring
against inequality, motivated by the himself the “Emperor of the French” in
principles of liberty and equality. On December 1804.
July 14, 1789, tens of thousands of people
marched in the streets of Paris to storm
the Bastille, the state jail, and free the Napoleon's France
inmates. As a result, the Bastille, a sign
of despotic monarchy, was demolished. 1769-1796:
The collapse of the Bastille is a notable
event in the history of the French • Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5
Revolution since it coincided with the May 1821) was a French statesman and
celebration of Independence Day. The military leader of Italian ancestry who
National Assembly also adopted the rose to prominence during the French
"Declaration of the Rights of Man" Revolutionary Wars and led numerous
on August 12, 1789, and drafted the successful campaigns. Napoleon I was
Constitution, which was completed by Emperor of France from 1804 to 1814,
the end of 1791. and then again during the Hundred
• In 1792, the French monarchy was Days in 1815. Napoleon's political
abolished, and France became a and cultural legacy has made him
republic and provisional government one of history's most celebrated and
upholding the principles of liberty, controversial figure.
equality, and fraternity. In 1793, the
Reign of Terror commenced. The
executive authority passed into the Napoleon Bonaparte: Military
hands of a radical political group Flair and Statesman:
called the Jacobins who were led
by Robespierre. He passed orders to • He started his career serving as an
execute thousands of “enemies” of artillery officer in the French army
the Republic and guillotined innocent when the French Revolution erupted in
people on suspicion of treason. King 1789, rapidly rose through the ranks of
Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette the military and became general at age
were also guillotined (1793) as traitors. 24. Napoleon's ambition and public
It shocked the monarchical countries approval encouraged him to go further,
of Europe leading to a coalition of and he became the first Emperor of the
European countries against France. French in 1804.
• Eventually after Robespierre, from • Napoleon shattered the Third Coalition
1795-1799, the baton of power passed with British forces by 1805 with decisive
onto the hands of moderate leaders victories in the Ulm Campaign.
known as Directory (composed of • Another historic triumph over the
five directors who exercised power). Russian Empire and Austrian Empire
During this period, France went through at the Battle of Austerlitz led to the
great turmoil due to lack of efficient dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.
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CHAPTER - 3
INDUSTRIALIZATION
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In Britain, the agricultural change and Enclosure movement brought about a major
transformation. It not only provided the requisite raw materials for the new industries to
operate, but it also employed a large number of agricultural labourers in the new
factories.
Availability of entrepreneurs
This straightforward in England legal system permitted the formation of joint-stock
companies who carried out large scale investment in the manufacturing of goods and
services.
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CHAPTER - 4
NATION-STATE SYSTEM
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before the war's end. attempt. The battle was won when a
• Nonetheless, the most important French division arrived late and drove
fighting was on the Crimean Peninsula. off the Russians, who suffered even
Austria's intervention had in effect more casualties. Cholera ravaged the
attained the British and French aims, camp, reducing the British army to only
removing the Russian presence in the 12,000 functional soldiers after a storm
Balkans, but it was decided to reduce sunk thirty supply ships carrying much
Russian naval power in the Black Sea by of the British supplies.
the occupation and destruction of the • Circumstances gradually became
main Russian naval base at Sevastopol. better in early 1855.
• The Battle of Balaklava, the Battle of • The military hospitals were improved
Inkerman, and the Battle of Malakhov thanks to Florence Nightingale's famous
were the three main battles of the nursing inventions, and the supply route
Crimean War. between Balaklava and Sevastopol was
• The Charge of the Light Brigade, in improved thanks to a newly built road
which 247 of the 673 Light Cavalry and railway.
Brigade were killed assaulting a • The Turks repelled another Russian
battery of Russian guns by charging effort to interfere, led by Prince Michael
them along a valley lined by even more Gorchakov (Battle of Eupatoria, 17
Russian guns, was the most prominent February 1855).
part of the first attempt, the battle of • Finally, with the capture of Kerch, it
Balaklava (25 October 1854). secured allied command of the Sea of
• Nevertheless, the main result of the Azov and severed the Russian overland
battle was to leave Menshikov's army supply lines.
dominating the only proper road • Lastly, on 8 September 1855, the
between Balaclava and Sevastopol. French launched one of the few well-
• The Battle of Inkerman (5 November planned attacks of the war, aimed at
1854), in which both the British and the Malakoff, one of the two key strong
Russian armies lost effective control, point of the defence.
was the result of a second Russian
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• A heavy bombardment was followed by Russia and Turkey were only permitted
a well-timed assault by an entire French a small number of light military ships.
corps that made Prince Gorchakov The Crimean war proved out to be an
evacuate the city. eye-opener for the powerful nations and
• The capture of Sevastopol was the last made the ground for the unification of the
significant fighting of the war. Peace dissected nation-states like Germany.
terms were agreed on 1 February 1856
at Vienna.
Unification of Italy
Post War Scenario • Italian unification refers to the Italian
movement which united the Italian
• Russian lost their dominance in the states in the 19th century. The movement
Balkans and agreed to respect the originated in 1815 with the Congress of
integrity of the Ottoman Empire. In Vienna.
some ways, Austria was the biggest
loser. Having chosen to defy the • It came to an end in 1871, when Rome
Russians in the Balkans, she lost her became the capital of the Kingdom
main ally, and over the next few years of Italy, thanks to the efforts of
found that Britain and France were not Piedmontese Prime Minister Count
interested in propping her up. of Cavour and Italian national hero
Giuseppe Garibaldi, who unified the
• Indeed, within three years the War of South. As a result, King Victor Emmanuel
Austria with France and Piedmont (1859), became Italy's first king.
lost much of her Italian possessions,
while the Austro-Prussian War of • The unification of Italy was
1866 ended any Austrian influence in accomplished through the efforts of
Germany. Tsar Alexander II, who came men such as Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi,
to the Russian throne in March 1855, Victor Emmanuel II, and others, as well
realized that the war demonstrated as international assistance. “Italian
the urgent need for modernization in unification was reached so easily by
Russia. a nation who had been divided and
heterogeneous for centuries,” writes
• Delegates from Russia, Turkey, France, Luigi Sturzo.
the United Kingdom, Sardinia, Austria,
and Prussia took part in peace talks that • The Italians were a backward people.
culminated in the signing of the Treaty Since the country was still developing,
of Paris on March 30, 1856, putting the its resources were limited. The people
Crimean War to a close. were illiterate and did not take an
interest in the politics of country.
• The Treaty of Paris gave Europe Regionalism also stood in the path of
temporary peace. The declaration of national progress. The political life of
neutralization of the Black Sea was one the country left much to be desired.
of the agreement's terms, and it was There was corruption all around.
also the most difficult to recognize.
• Russia and Turkey were not authorized
to construct military fleets, forts, or Vienna Order of 1815:
arsenals along the Black Sea coast.
Both military vessels from all nations • With the end of the Napoleon era,
were barred from entering the Black Vienna congress held the responsibility
Sea straits. For patrolling purposes, of looking into Italy. Instead of uniting,
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it divided Italy into many parts and association in Naples was the earliest
under different powers. It restored the to unite Italy. They aimed at expelling
old order of the day. the foreigners from Italy and to grant
• The North Italy comprising Lombardy legal freedom for the people, but they
and Venetia was handed over to failed.
Austria. Austrian dynasty was • In 1831, a revolutionary nationalist
established in Parma, Modena, Tuscany, Mazzini founded Young Italy. He was
and Piedmont Sardinia was given to affected by the nationalist movement
the Savoy dynasty. Central Italy was in Italy. He created awareness among
further divided between the Pope and the masses to awaken the spirit of
Austria. The southern Italy, Naples and nationalism and liberation in the
Sicily, were under the French Bourbon country. He managed to bring about an
dynasty. intellectual revolution that made a way
• In 1810, Carbonari, a coal miner for the political unification.
ICELAND
(DENMARK)
ATLANTIC SEA
NORWAY
(SWEDEN)
SWEDEN
SCOTLAND
IRELAND GREAT
DENMARK
BRITAIN RUSSIAN EMPIRE
WALES HABOVER
ENGLAND (G.B.) PRUSSIA
NETHERLANDS POLAND
GALICA
BAVARIA
FRANCE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA
HUNGARY
ROMANIA
L
SERBIA
A
UG
ARMENIA
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
PO
KINGDOM
PER
SARDINIA OF THE
TWO
SIA
SICILIES
GREECE MESOPOTAMIA
TUNIS
MOROCCO ALGERIA CRETE SYRIA
CYPRUS
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
PALESTINE
EGYPT
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in 1866 and 1870, respectively. any power and Rome finally became
• Due to the Franco-Prussian War in the capital of Italy.
1870, France sent their armies away • Thus, the great vision of a unified Italy
from Rome. So the Pope could not have was attained.
VENETIA 1866
LOMBARDY
SAVOY AUSTRIA SAVOY AUSTRIA
SARDINIA SARDINIA
PARMA 1858 1858-60
MODENA
SAN MARINO
MONACO
TUSCANY
PAPAL
STATE
1870
KIGDOM
OF BOTH 1860
SICILIES
1858
TUNIS TUNIS
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unification. Also, the past glories of her alliance, and liberated these Dutchies.
Germany created a national awakening • Another integration came up in 1866
among the Germans. when in the Battle of Sedan, Bismarck
• The fall of Metternich in the 1848 defeated Austria leading to the Treaty
revolution was a turning point as the of Prague.
German nationalist came out loud to • According to it, twenty-one states
politically unify Germany under the of North Germany got merged with
leadership of Prussia. Hence, a new Prussia and formed the North German
was drafted, and the power was given Confederation. This marked a downfall
to Prussian king Frederick William IV, of Austria's domination over German
but he died. affairs.
• In 1861 William I became the king who • Bismarck wanted a single outside
was an ardent nationalist and wanted enemy to wage war on one of the
military action. German states first in order to unite
the German states. With the start of
the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, this
Role Played by Bismarck and opportunity emerged.
Important Events During His • In southern Germany, the majority
Time: of the population was Catholics and
had an inclination towards France.
• The rise of Otto von Bismarck and his Nevertheless, when France attacked
shrewd diplomacy gave a chance for Germany in the Battle of Sedan 1870,
the unification of Germany. these southern states sneaked in to join
• He wanted to unify Germany in such the North German Confederacy. The
a way that Austria and France, the Treaty of Versailles of 1871 (signed 26
powerful nations of the time, could be February 1871; later ratified in the Treaty
defeated. of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871) formally
ended the war by incorporating
• By 1862, when Bismarck addressed
the southern states into a reunited
the Germans, the idea of a German
Germany. With the victory over France
nation-state in the peaceful spirit of
in 1871, Prussian influence in Germany
Pan-Germanism had shifted from the
(apart from Austria) was extended
liberal and democratic character in
to the international stage. Prussia
1848 to accommodate Bismarck's more
assumed control of the new empire
conservative Realpolitik.
with Wilhelm's proclamation as Kaiser.
• While the conditions of the treaties
binding the various German states
• Although Bismarck had led the
transformation of Germany into a
to one another forbid Bismarck from
federal nation-state, he had not done
taking unilateral action, the politician
it alone. The process of unification was
and diplomat in him realized the
achieved by building on a tradition
impracticality of this.
of legal collaboration under the
• In the 1st phase, Schleswig was Holy Roman Empire and economic
integrated with Prussia as per the collaboration through the Zollverein,
provisions of the Treaty of Vienna. the impact of the 1848 liberals, military
• Schleswig and Holstein were under the reorganization and strategic brilliance
Dutch with the majority of the German all played a part in the political
population. Bismarck tricked Austria, got unification of Germany which made it
the most powerful nation in Europe.
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BALTIC SEA
SILESIA
S
NA
RHINELAND THURINGIAN
EN
STATES
SS
HE
Won by Prussia in
Franco-Prussia War, 1871
I m a g e 4. 3 : U n i f i c at i o n of G e r m a n y ( 1 8 6 6- 7 1 )
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CHAPTER - 5
Causes of Imperialism:
Cultural and
Demographic
ideological
Causes of
Imperialism
Geographic
Economic
and Technical
I m a g e 5.1: C a u s e s of I m p e ri a l i s m
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thus the standard of living in the United 'How Europe Underdeveloped Africa',
States. proposes the idea that imperialism is a
• By the 1970s, European Socialists phase of capitalism "in which Western
selected Hobson's ideas and made it European capitalist countries, the
into their own theory of imperialism, US, and Japan established political,
most particularly in Lenin's Imperialism, economic, military and cultural
the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916). hegemony over other parts of the world
which were initially at a lower level and
• Imperialism, according to Lenin, is the therefore could not resist domination."
closing of the world market and the end
of capitalist free competition, which • As such, Imperialism "for many years
resulted from the need for capitalist embraced the whole world – one part
economies to continually increase being the exploiters and the exploited,
investment, material resources, and one part being dominated and the other
manpower in such a way that colonial acting as overlords, one part making
expansion became inevitable. policy and the other being dependent.
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Internal 4 Types of
Colonialism Colonialism
Surrogate
Colonialism
I m a g e 5.2: T y p e s of colonialism
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were often imported to Americas, first state. This is established in the way
by the Portuguese Empire, then by the control and exploitation passes from
Spanish, Dutch, French, and British. whites in the colonizing country to the
• Surrogate colonialism involves a white immigrant population within a
settlement project supported by a newly independent country.
colonial power, in which most of the
settlers did not come from the same
ethnic group as the ruling authority. Spread of Colonialism:
• Internal colonialism is a notion of • Formation of colonies in Asia.
irregular structural power between
• The European countries developed their
areas of a state. The source of
colonies in many Asian and African
exploitation comes from inside the
countries.
India
Following Vasco Da Gama's discovery of the sea route to India in 1498,
European countries attempted to establish colonies in India.
3 South-East Asia
Portuguese. The Dutch founded colonies in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and Bali
2 after that. Ceylon was also occupied by the Dutch, but it was taken over by the
English during the Napoleonic Wars.
Burma was also dominated by the English. In 1819, they acquired Hong Kong
from China. Sigan was brought to France by the Chinese. They also asserted
2 portion of Manchuria in a similar manner. Kaichou was occupied by Germany.
Korea and Formosa were occupied by Japan.
4
Central Asia
1 Russia and England founded colonies in Central Asia. Tashkent, Samarkand, and
3 Bukhara were all occupied by Russia. The northern part of Persia was held by
Russia, while the southern part fell under the control of England, thanks to an
agreement. In this region, Germany was unable to establish even a single
Africa
4
The African continent, like the Asian nations, was subjected to colonialism.
East, West, North, and South Africa were all colonised by the English. Numerous
countries of Africa came under the sway of Colonialism such as Togoland and
Cameroon, Algeria, Tunis, Madagascar, Angola, Mozambique, Tripoli, Abyssinia.
I m a g e 5.3: S p r e a d of Colonialism
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which later helped the state improve its means rather than overt colonisation.
economy. Neocolonialism is the idea that former
• Despite these positive significance, we or current economic relationships, such
need to note that these were indirect as the General Agreement on Tariffs
consequences of colonialism. None of and Trade and the Central American
the colonial powers were having policies Free Trade Agreement, or companies
for the betterment of colonies. Their (such as Royal Dutch Shell in Nigeria
models and policies were inherently and Brunei) founded by former colonial
exploitative. They did more harm than powers were or are used to retain
good to the colonial people. control of their former colonies and
dependencies after the colonial era
ended.
Negative
• Slavery, exploitation, a wave of diseases, End of Colonialism
and settlement problems occurred • Western colonialism was doomed from
repeatedly. Even though the colonists the outset. It received a serious jolt during
forced the people to follow all of these, World War I. People became aware
they can be considered important of their rights as a result of the press,
factors. It culminated in the creation of education, and political consciousness
new empires. The economic structures that developed in these colonies.
of several places were influenced by
• Colonial nations, on the other hand, were
European colonisation.
unable to meet the social and political
• Since the decolonization that needs of citizens in various colonies.
happened after World War II, the term In these countries, nationalism arose,
neocolonialism has been used to refer and after World War II, the colonies
to a number of terms in these contexts. proclaimed their independence one by
• It typically refers to colonisation by other one.
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• Cold War philosophical and ideological rivalry was common in Malayan Peninsula
too where with the growth of comintern aligned communist parties such as Chinese
Communist Organization and Malayan Communist Party, the concern of Malayan
Peninsula falling to the Communists appeared. It was a nightmare for the liberal
democratic states/ colonial powers (i.e. British) which ensured handover of power to
ideologically friendly regimes.
• The entire process of decolonization of Malayan Peninsula was largely a result of
long reconciliation procedure amongst the European colonial powers and Malayan
nationalist. Their mutual compromise provided the British the confidence to speed
up the procedure of decolonization with the help of a smooth decolonization
process.
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CHAPTER - 6
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
Barents Sea
CHINA
in 1922 TURKEY
a
Med
iterra
n ean S ea
I m a g e 6.1: R u s s i a n R e vo l u t i o n
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office, rail stations, and state bank were • On the night of July 16-17, 1918, Czar
all taken over by Bolshevik troops. With Nicholas, and his entire family was
barely a shot fired, the Bolsheviks took shot dead. The Civil War was a
control of these and other posts in the violent, vicious, and inhuman conflict
area. By late that morning, much of that lasted over two years. The Reds
Petrograd had fallen into the hands of triumphed, but at the cost of millions of
the Bolsheviks, with the exception of the lives. The Russian Civil War shattered
Winter Palace, where the Provisional the country's social structure. The
Government's leaders stayed. Prime progressives had vanished. What was
Minister Alexander Kerensky was able left was a brutal, extreme dictatorship
to flee, but Bolshevik troops had entered that ruled Russia until the Soviet Union
the Winter Palace by the next day. fell apart in 1991.
The Bolsheviks became Russia's new
rulers after that. Lenin declared almost
immediately that the new government
would put an end to the war, abolish all
Consequences of
private land ownership, and establish a the War:
system of factory worker control.
• The Russian Revolution's first
accomplishments were the abolition
Civil War: of autocracy, as well as the dissolution
of the bourgeoisie and the church's
• In 1918, after World War I, the Russian influence. For the brief Soviet Union,
Civil War broke out between the the Czarist Empire was turned into
Whites (those against the Soviets, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
which included monarchists, liberals, (U.S.S.R.).
and other socialists) and the Reds (the • Private benefit has been removed from
Bolshevik regime) in which millions of the manufacturing system.
Russian suffered since the mob was
hungry, tired, and wanted their jobs
• State-led economic planning was
introduced in order to quickly grow a
back.
technologically advanced economy
• Without private land ownership, farmers and eradicate conspicuous gaps in
started to grow just enough food to feed society.
themselves, with little incentive to grow
more. There were also no work openings.
• The freedom to work became a
civil right, and it became the state's
Without a battle to fund, manufacturers
responsibility to provide work for all.
were no longer able to fill large orders.
The people's real problems were not » A high emphasis was placed on the
solved; instead, their lives deteriorated education of the entire population.
significantly. Russia was engulfed in civil
war in June 1918. » The Constitution granted nationalities'
republics autonomy in developing their
• Near the beginning of the Russian Civil languages and cultures.
War, the Reds were worried that the
Whites would free the Czar and his » The socialist movement's theories about
family, which would not only have given socialism contributed to the promotion
the Whites a psychological boost but of internationalism.
might have led to the restoration of the » Influenced independence movements
monarchy in Russia. The Reds were not in the sense that they eventually
going to let that happen.
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Influence of New Economic Policy, 1921 on Indian policies after the independence
Historically since centuries, Russia has been an important source of ideological
inspiration and motivation for Indians, starting with the Bolshevik Revolution (1917).
There are several instances of Russian policies and events having had an impacts on
India, and the New Economic Policy (NEP) of 1921 is just one such example.
• NEP was planned by Lenin to change the effects of the failing economy. Therefore,
instead of being a communist economy in its totality, the NEP wanted to infuse
some important characteristics of capitalism into Russian society with what Lenin
labeled ‘state capitalism’. State capitalism implied to adoption of a capitalism
oriented economic policy that established a mixed economy.
• The state permitted private organizations/individuals to participate in small-scale
businesses while it controlled and managed major sectors like foreign trade, banks,
defense and some infrastructure-based segments.
• One of the distinctive features of the Indian economy post-independence was
the fact that India was a mixed economy and it adopted an economic policy that
combined qualities of socialism and capitalism, similar to Russia’s NEP.
• The NEP also sought to create linkages among the urban economy and the
rural economy. In India, the focus was on creating linkages among the relatively
developed urban regions and the backward rural regions. Hence, in spirit and in
certain specificities too, the reflections of the NEP can be witnessed in economic
policies of India after the independence.
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CHAPTER - 7
Berlin
London Amsterdam
Netherlands GERMANY Poland
Belgium Brussels
Laon Bohemia
Paris
Vienna
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
FRANCE Bern
SWITZERLANDTyrol Transyl-
Carniola vania
Croatia Romania
Trieste Bucharest
Bosnia
Belgrade
Monaco Sarajevo SERBIA
Portugal San Marino Constantinople
Andorra Rome
Bulgaria
Madrid Montenegro
Lisbon Albania
SPAIN ITALY
GREECE
Athens
Gibraltar
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• Europe still dominated the rest of the the franchise was limited here as well,
world in 1914: and the emperor and the privy council
retained the majority of power.
» The majority of the decisions that
influenced the world's fate were made
» Russia's and Austria-Hungary's
government were somewhat different
in Europe's capitals. Germany was
from Western democracies. Russia's
Europe's most dominant military and
Tsar (emperor) and Austria's Emperor
economic force. Europe had exceeded
(who was also King of Hungary) were
Britain in pig-iron and steel production,
both autocratic and absolute rulers.
but not yet in coal, although Belgium,
This means that, though parliaments
France, Italy, and Austria-Hungary
existed, they could only advise rulers;
(known as the Habsburg Empire) trailed
if the rulers so desired, they could
far behind.
disregard parliaments and do as they
» Industries in Russia were rapidly pleased.
expanding, but it was so backward
to start that it could not seriously • Imperial expansion after 1880:
compete with the United Kingdom
and Germany. However, the most » Many European countries wanted to
impressive technological development expand their imperial empires after
had occurred outside of Europe over the Industrial Revolution in the 1870s.
the previous 40 years. By 1914, European powers had almost
completely dismantled Africa. While
» The United States produced more pig China had been a Republic since 1911,
iron, coal, and steel than Germany
it had been turned into a colony by the
or the United Kingdom in 1914, and
United States, Japan, France, the United
it is now considered a world power.
Kingdom, and Germany following the
After defeating Russia in the Russo-
overthrow of the Manchu Dynasty.
Japanese War of 1904-05, Japan had
also modernized rapidly and was a • Europe had divided itself into two
force to be reckoned with. alliance systems:
• Varied political systems: » The Triple Alliance: Austria-Hungary,
• The United Kingdom, France and Germany, and Italy.
the United States all had democratic » The Triple Entente'. France, Britain, and
governments. This meant that each Russia.
had a parliament made up of members
elected by the people, and these
» Furthermore, Japan and the United
Kingdom had formed an alliance in
parliaments had a big say in how the
1902. Since 1900, tensions between the
country was run.
two major classes (sometimes referred
» Some regimes were not as democratic to as "the armed camps") have taken
as they appeared: Germany had an Europe to the brink of war many times.
elected lower house of parliament
(Reichstag), but the Chancellor (akin to
a prime minister) and the Kaiser held Causes of Friction within Europe
real power.
Many factors threatened to
» Italy was a monarchy with an elected destabilize Europe's peace:
parliament, but voting rights were
restricted to the rich. • Naval competition between Germany
and Britain.
» Japan had an elected lower house, but
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» By defeating the other in the war » Germany and Austria had already
at sea, each power had ambition of influenced the Ottoman Empire. If
establishing naval supremacy once and Austria had conquered Serbia, the
for all. Dardanelles, which provided an outlet
from the Black Sea (crucial for Russian
• Economic rivalry trade) would have fallen under Austrian
and German rule, putting a stop to
» It has been suggested that the drive Russian trade.
for global economic dominance drove
German merchants and entrepreneurs • German backing of Austria was also
to seek war with Britain, which controlled crucially important
about half of the world's merchant ship
tonnage in 1914. » It was most likely due to the Germans'
feeling of being encircled by France
» This argument appeals to Marxist and United Kingdom. In 1894, Russia
historians because it positions the and France signed a treaty.
responsibility for the war firmly on the
capitalist system. However, opponents » Britain and France, who had been
of the theory argue that Germany was traditional rivals, concluded an
already well on its way to economic agreement of peace, known as the
dominance; in 1913, a leading German Entente Cordiale, in 1904, under which
industrialist said, "Give us three or four they settled their disputes over African
more years of stability, and Germany colonies.
will be the undisputed economic master » In 1907, Russia and the United Kingdom
of Europe. reached an agreement that put an
end to their Asian conflicts. By 1907,
• The Growth of Militarism Germany was concerned about
• Increased nationalism started in the growing proximity of the other
the 1890s, resulting in a dangerous major powers in the region, despite
European arms race. The European the fact that these agreements were
nations agreed that in order to be truly theoretically not military in nature
great, they required a strong military. and dealt with commerce, territorial
disputes, and investments.
» Except for Britain, all of the Great
Powers had massive standing armies by • Tangled Alliances
1914. Military experts also emphasized
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» By 1914, tensions in the Balkan region • The Schlieffen Plan called for a large
were once again on the rise. Serbia had portion of the German army to race
emerged victorious from several local west to defeat France, then return east
conflicts. As a result, the nation had to fight Russia. The German strategy
gained additional territory and a new relied heavily on speed. The French had
confidence. It was more determined troops stationed all over their German
than ever to seize Bosnia and frontier. As a result, the Germans
Herzegovina from Austrian influence. expected that breaking through would
In response, Austria-Hungary declared be difficult. However, there was another
that any attempt by Serbia to weaken option: France's northern border with
its authority in the Balkans would be Belgium was unguarded.
crushed. • On their way to France, Germany
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requested that its troops be permitted and dreamed in mud." The trenches
to move through Belgium. Belgium, were crawling with rodents. There was
which is a neutral country, declined. no fresh food available. It was almost
After that, Germany invaded Belgium. impossible to sleep.
This pulled the United Kingdom into the
war. The British had strong relations with
Belgium, one of their closest European The Battle on the Eastern Front
neighbours. On August 4, outraged at
the breach of Belgian neutrality, Britain • Even as thousands of men died on the
declared war on Germany. Western Front, both sides were sending
millions more to fight on the Eastern
• As the summer of 1914 turned to fall, Front. This was a stretch of battlefield
Germany's lightning-quick assault on that ran along the German-Russian
the battlefields of France turned into a frontier. Germans, Austrians, and Turks
long and bloody stalemate, or deadlock. fought Russians and Serbs here. The
The Western Front was called after this conflict in the east was more mobile than
impasse in northern France. the war in the west. However, slaughter
• On September 5, the Allies launched an and stalemate were commonplace here
assault on the Germans northeast of as well.
Paris, in the Marne River valley. • Central powers gain the advantage at
• The First Battle of the Marne was the very beginning of the war, Russian
possibly the single most important event forces launched an assault on both
of the war, the first major confrontation Austria and Germany right at the start of
on the Western Front. The Schlieffen the war. Germany launched a counter-
Plan was destroyed when the Germans offensive near Tannenberg at the end
were defeated. It seemed that a swift of August 1914. The Germans routed the
win in the west was no longer feasible. invading Russian army and drove it into
Russian forces had already occupied complete retreat during the four-day
Germany in the east. war that followed. Germany reclaimed
• Germany will have to fight on two East Prussia and confiscated a large
fronts for a long time. As the German number of horses and guns from the
high command realized this, it sent enemy. About 30,000 Russian soldiers
thousands of troops from France to were killed in the conflict.
assist its forces in the east. Meanwhile, • Against the Austrians, Russia did a little
on the Western Front, the war had come better. In September 1914, Russian forces
to a stalemate. routed the Austrians twice, forcing
• War in the Trenches: them deep into Austria. The Austrian
army, with German assistance, did not
» On the Western Front, opposing armies manage to turn the tide until December
had dug miles of parallel trenches to of that year. Austria defeated the
shield themselves from enemy fire by Russians and drove them eastward in a
early 1915. This paved the way for the 17-day campaign near Limanowa. The
development of trench warfare. Soldiers Russians were driven out of Austria-
fought each other from trenches in this Hungary by the Austrian army two
style of warfare. And armies exchanged weeks later.
massive casualties for pitiful land gains. • Russia’s War Effort Weakens:
» Life in the trenches was a living
nightmare. One soldier wrote, "The men » Russia's war effort was on the verge
slept in mud, washed in mud, ate mud, of failing by 1916. Russia, unlike the
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countries of Western Europe, had not was split over whether or not to go to
yet been industrialized. As a result, war. However, Germany's invasion of
the Russian army ran out of food, neutral Belgium put an end to Britain's
weapons, ammunition, clothing, boots, indecision, and the two countries
and blankets on a regular basis. went to war. German troops invaded
Furthermore, the Allies were unable to Belgium on the morning of August 4th,
supply Russia's ports with supplies. The and Britain declared war on Germany
Baltic Sea was blocked by a German at midnight on the same day. Others
naval fleet in the north. The Ottomans quickly joined in as a result of both
also controlled the straits linking the sides' attempts to entice allies with
Mediterranean and the Black Sea in the assurances of territorial gains. Japan
south. declared war on Germany in August.
» However, Germany and her allies were • Italy declared war on Austria in May
worried about more than just the 1915. Austrian and Turkish territories
Eastern and Western Fronts. Fighting had been pledged to her by Britain
spread beyond Europe to Africa, as well and France. Later, Romania, Portugal
as Southwest and Southeast Asia, as and Greece joined Britain, France, and
the war progressed. Russia, creating the Allied Powers, which
included these countries and their allies.
• Bulgaria joined Germany and Austria
Course of the War in October 1915. In November, Turkey
• On July 28, Austria declared war on declared war on Russia, siding with
Serbia and ordered the mobilization of Germany and Austria in the conflict.
her army in preparation for an attack. Germany and Austria, as well as their
Following the outbreak of war between allies, were recognized as the Central
Serbia and Austria, conflicts broke out Powers. Finally, USA entered the war
between militarily related countries. in April 1917 on the side of the Allied
These conflicts culminated in the global Powers which widened the scope of the
war, also known as the First World War. conflict.
Russia ordered mobilization against • The conflict had escalated into a
Austria to limit Austrian expansion in complete war. It was no longer limited
the Balkans in order to pressure Austria to armies battling each other. It
to abandon the war against Serbia. necessitated the mobilization of all
• Because Germany would come to of the major belligerent countries'
Austria's assistance if Russia joined the resources. The manufacture of
war against Austria, Russia planned explosives and other war materials
for a war with Germany as well. In the became increasingly important. It also
case of a war between Russia and claimed that no items, including food,
Germany, Germany was convinced that weapons, and other materials, should
France would side with Russia against be allowed to enter the enemy's country
Germany. Germany will have to fight from any source. Britain placed a naval
on two fronts: the west with France and blockade on Germany, and despite
the east with Russia. Thus, the second the fact that the two countries' naval
war was between Austria and Germany fleets only engaged in one major battle,
on the one side and Russia and France which was indecisive, the British were
on the other. successful in their blockade.
• The British situation remained • Russia had withdrawn from the war
ambiguous, as the British government after the October Revolution but the
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entry of the USA into the war made it up signed on November 11, 1918, by
for the allies. The United States' armies Germany's new government, and the
and enormous economic resources First World War came to an end at 11
were now to be used directly to defeat a.m. on that day.
the Central Powers. • Spread of the war outside Europe:
• Meanwhile, dissatisfaction was • Some big battles were fought outside
increasing among the civilian population of Europe, in North Africa and West
and soldiers of all the major belligerent Asia. Germany and Turkey banded
countries. Russia's autocratic monarchy together to challenge Allied control
had already crumbled. In the countries and possessions in North Africa and
of the Central Powers, resentment was West Asia. Britain and France struck
even more widespread. back and attempted to conquer the
• In Germany and Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire's Arab territories.
there were a number of strikes and
mutinies in their armies and navies. » They also made connections with Arab
The tide of the war was starting to turn nationalists and others, inciting anti-
toward Germany by the middle of July Turkish uprisings in the Arab world. In
1918. On the western front, Germany 1916, although ostensibly supporting
had conducted a series of offensives, the cause of freeing Arab countries
causing heavy losses on the Allies. from Turkish control, Britain and France
signed a secret agreement known as
• Only Germany remained a major the Sykes-Picot agreement.
central power to be fully vanquished
by the end of August 1918, and final » During the course of the war, German
Allied offensives against Germany colonial possessions in Asia and Africa
launched in September. Bulgaria were seized by the Allied Powers.
surrendered on September 29, 1918. Japan made colonial gains in China
The Ottoman Empire was defunct by by acquiring control over the German
the end of October. The Habsburg sphere of influence and forcing China
emperor abdicated on November 12th. to make further concessions to her.
The majority of the Austro-Hungarian » German South-West Africa (was a
empire's people—the Czechs, Poles, colony of the German Empire from
and Yugoslavs had already declared 1884 until 1915) was occupied by South
their independence. African troops, Togoland by British
• On November 3, a revolt erupted in and French troops, and Cameroons by
Germany; on November 9, the German British, French, and Belgian troops. The
emperor abdicated and fled to Holland, fighting between British and German
and Germany was declared a republic troops in German East Africa continued
on November 10. The armistice was till the end of the war.
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JAPAN
The United States
enters into the war
from the side of INDIA
the Allies in 1917.
AFRICA
SOUTH
AMERICA India provides about
1.3 million men to fight
The European colonies and labor alongside AUSTRALIA
thoughout Africa become their British rulers
Bazil is the only South
a battlefield as the warring thoughout Europe.
American country to
parties strike at one another’s
enter the war. It supports
colonial possessions.
the Allies with warships
and personnel.
I m a g e 7.2: S p r e a d of WW I
The Blockade Policy: This was followed mainly by Britain and Germany. It aimed at
three things:
• Blockade of the rival trade routes so the rival is starved out due to the lack of supply
of goods (arms, rations etc.) and is thus forced to surrender.
• Provide security to own trade routes so that the country which is blockading does
not itself starves.
• For movement of troops.
Battle of Jutland (1916): This was a battle on the sea and resulted in further British control
of sea surface. This left Germany with no option but to use underwater submarines and
in an attempt to blockade the Allies it started the unrestricted submarine warfare.
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• Europe was also ravaged economically War I forever changed the face of
as a result of the war. Europe's treasuries modern warfare.
were exhausted by the great war. • World War I created a lot of resentment
According to one estimate, the war cost among nations as a result of the harsh
$338 billion, which was a huge sum at tactics used during the war and the
the time. The war also destroyed acres casualties suffered, which contributed
of farmland, as well as homes, villages, greatly to World War II decades later.
and towns.
• Women had to manage businesses
• Citizens became more receptive to while their husbands were at war,
other philosophies as a result of the and labour restrictions began to be
war, such as the Bolsheviks' rise to implemented as a result of industrial
power in Russia and fascism's victory in production and mechanization. People
Italy and, later, Germany. desired higher living standards.
• The end of colonialism was largely • After World War I , the need for an
marked by World War I as citizens international body of nations that
became more nationalistic and promotes security and peace worldwide
imperialist revolts broke out in Southeast became evident. This caused the
Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. founding of the League of Nations.
• Inflation soared in most countries, • World War I boosted research in
and Germany's economy was technology, because better transport
severely damaged by the need to pay and means of communication gave
reparations. countries an advantage over their
• With soldiers deployed all over the enemies.
world, influenza spread quickly, resulting • The harsh conditions of the Treaty of
in a global epidemic that killed over 25 Versailles caused a lot of dissent in
million people. Europe, especially on the side of the
• With all of the latest guns used, World Central Powers who had to pay a lot for
financial reparations.
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I m a g e 7.4: T r e at y of V e r s a i l l e s : M a j o r P r ovi s i o n s
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I m a g e 7.5: E u r o p e B e f o r e & A f t e r WW I
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concluded separate peace treaties with created large occupation zones within the
each of the defeated countries: Austria, Ottoman Empire.
Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Following were important points:
Empire.
• The Central Powers have lost a lot of • Huge loss of territory to Greece e.g.
territory as a result of these treaties. Eastern Thrace and Smyrna. Italy also
The Austro-Hungarian Empire spawned got some territory.
a number of new nations. Hungary, • Dardanelles or the Straits (provided
Austria, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia outlet from Black Sea) were permanently
were all given their independence. opened.
• Poland, which had long been divided • Ottoman Empire’s colonies were
among Germany, Russia, and Austria- converted to mandates and given
Hungary, was reconstituted. to Britain and France. Syria became
• Russian land yielded the new nations of French Mandate while British Mandates
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. included Trans Jordan, Iraq, and
Palestine.
Treaty of St Germain (1919) and the In the end, the Treaty of Versailles did little
Treaty of Trianon (1920) to build a lasting peace. For one thing, the
Treaty of St Germain (1919) was signed with United States—considered after the war
Austria and the Treaty of Trianon (1920) to be the dominant nation in the world—
was signed with Hungary. These treaties ultimately rejected the treaty. Many
had following consequences: Americans objected to the settlement and
especially to President Wilson’s League
• Austria & Hungary were reduced to of Nations. Americans believed that the
a very small size as compared to the United States’ best hope for peace was to
expanse of Habsburg empire. stay out of European affairs. The United
• Territory was distributed among other States worked out a separate treaty with
European nations on the principle of Germany and its allies several years later.
self-determination which entailed that Lacking the support of the United States,
now people lived under the government and later other world powers, the League
of their own nationality. of Nations was in no position to take action
on these complaints. The settlements at
Versailles represented, as one observer
The Treaty of Sevres noted, “a peace built on quicksand.” Indeed,
The Treaty of Sevres was a 1920 treaty that quicksand eventually would give way.
signed between the Allies of World War I In a little more than two decades, the
and the Ottoman Empire. The treaty ceded treaties’ legacy of bitterness would help
large parts of Ottoman territory to France, plunge the world into another catastrophic
the United Kingdom, Greece, and Italy and war.
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CHAPTER - 8
INTER-WAR PHASE
• But, during the 1930s the League’s force them to comply with.
authority was challenged number of times, • After 1935, respect for the League took
first when Japan invaded Manchuria nose dive as its weaknesses became
(1931) and later when Italy attacked more visible. During Germany’s disputes
Abyssinia (1935). Both Japan and Italy with Poland and Czechoslovakia, which
ignored the League’s orders to withdraw, led on to the Second World War, the
and for various reasons it proved futile to League was not even consulted.
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» Fix a maximum working day and week. began claiming the Mosul province,
» Specify adequate minimum wages. which was controlled by Britain. The
League solved a territorial dispute
» Introduce sickness and unemployment between Columbia and Peru. In 1921,
benefit. when there was a dispute over Upper
» Introduce old-age pensions. Silesia (an industrial region) between
Poland and Germany, the League
• The Refugee Organization, under
successfully made both the parties
the leadership of Fridtj of Nansen,
reach a settlement and Upper Silesia
a Norwegian explorer, resolved the
was partitioned between the two.
problems of thousands of former
prisoners of war stranded in Russia;
nearly half a million were returned home.
Why Did the League Fail to Sustain
After 1933, significant help was provided
to thousands of people escaping from the Peace?
the Nazi persecution in Germany. • It was too closely linked with the Treaty
• The Health Organization did of Versailles.
commendable job in investigating the • This made the League look like an
causes of epidemics, and successfully organization established especially
tackled a typhus epidemic in Russia, for the benefit of the victorious allied
which would have engulfed the Europe. powers. Along with it had to defend the
• The Permanent Mandate Commission peace settlement which was far from
supervised the governments of the practicable.
territories taken from Turkey and • The provisions of the treaty were
Germany, while another commission inherently troublesome such as, the
was responsible for administering the inclusion of Germans in Czechoslovakia
Saar. It did this very efficiently and and Poland and the disappointing
concluded by organizing the 1935 territorial gains of the Italians.
plebiscite in which a large majority
voted for the Saar to be returned to
• Rejection by the USA:
Germany. » The League suffered a serious blow
• Resolution of minor International in March 1920 when the US Senate
disputes: In this regard the League had rejected both the Versailles settlement
partial success. It forced Greece to pay and the League. The League without a
compensation to Bulgaria when Greece powerful member like USA meant that
invaded Bulgaria. The League’s decision it was deprived of great psychological
came in favour of Britain when Turkey and financial benefits.
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» In the absence of the USSR and the » Likewise, when Abyssinia appealed the
USA, along with the hostility of Italy, it League against the Italian aggression
made the League very much a British/ of 1935, the League imposed sanctions
French affair. However as their rejection which were enforced half-heartedly.
of the Geneva Protocol showed, the Italy was still permitted to import
Conservatives in British were not very important goods like steel, oil, and coal,
enthusiastic about the League. Instead, and hence, the sanctions failed to force
they preferred to sign the Locarno Italy to withdraw from Abyssinia.
Treaties (1925), outside the League,
Over the period of time, small states lost all
instead of conducting negotiations
faith in the League because of its inaction
within it.
against the invasion of Manchuria and
• The world economic crisis of 1929 and Abyssinia by Japan and Italy, respectively.
its impact The seeds of Fascists started taking
roots. This boosted Hitler’s confidence
» The situation really started drifting to violate the Treaty of Versailles. Due to
out of control with the onset of the these reasons, World War II could not be
economic crisis or the Great Depression prevented.
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Popularity
of Mussolini
Disappointment
Violence by
with the Treaty
Communists Reasons of Versailles
Mussolini
came to the
power
Poor
Economy
I m a g e 8.1: R e a s o n s M u s s o l i n i c a m e to t h e p ow e r
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the communists, and his Black Shirt of workers and employers for each
squads began to attack the socialist economy branch. Every 'corporation'
headquarters. The propertied class had a government official appointed
viewed him as a savior by the end of to that, which was a good way of
1921, especially after the formation of managing the workforce.
the Communist Party in 1921. He gave
pro-Church speeches in 1921-22 to • Extreme nationalism. An emphasis on
reach out to the Catholic Church. the nation's rebirth after the declined
period, building up the standing and
» In 1922, he dropped the republican prestige of the state, with the inference
party of his party program, and thus,
that one's own country is higher than
the King's attitude towards Mussolini
other countries.
softened. Therefore, Mussolini's policies
from 1920-22 made him popular • A one-party state was important.
among the conservative and right-wing
sections like the army, the church, the
» There was not a place for democratic
debate, which made decisive
industrialists, and the landlords. Also
government impossible. Only Fascism
blamed socialists for failing to work
could provide the necessary advanced
with the government to check violence
action to guarantee Italy a great future.
by Fascist squads.
» It also involved the huge charismatic
leader cult who would guide and
What Does the Term 'Fascism' arouse the nation to prominent things.
Mussolini did not see himself as prime
Stand for? minister or president - rather, he took
It is critical to try to define what the term the title il Duce ('the leader') as Hitler
"fascist" meant because it was later applied called himself Fisher.
to other regimes and rulers, such as Hitler, » Economic self-sufficiency (Autarky)
Franco (Spain), Salazar (Portugal), and This was absolutely important in
Peron (Argentina), who were very different developing the state's greatness; the
from the Italian version of Fascism. government must therefore direct the
Fascism, unlike communism, had no nation's economic life (though not in
clearly specified ideology or programme. the Marxist sense of the state-owned
The Fascism of Mussolini had certain basic land and factories).
characteristics:
• A stable and autocratic government • Great use was made of all the latest
modern forms of propaganda -
» The Italian fascist movement made uniforms, marches, songs, and displays,
stable democratic government to demonstrate that fascists were a
impossible, just when solid and decisive wholly new and dynamic alternative
leadership was needed. to the bland, old-fashioned traditional
parties and mobilize mass support
» An authoritarian government was behind the determined leader.
aroused with mobilizing the great mass
of ordinary people and also control • Military strength and violence were
many aspects of people's lives possible a basic part of the fascist way of
with solid discipline. One aspect of this existence. In domestic affairs, they
was the 'corporate state’. prepared to use utmost violence
against opponents. Mussolini also gave
» That was a way of promoting efficiency the idea to pursue a forceful foreign
by setting up a separate organization
policy; he also remarked: 'Peace is
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absurd: fascism does not believe in it.' when Mussolini had been invited to
The Italian fascists promoted the myth form a government by the King.
that they had seized power by force
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Analysis of Mussolini's Rule and won the "Battle of Grain," which was
Different Aspects Brought by initiated by Mussolini for achieving self-
sufficiency in food. The farmers got
Fascism for the Italian People.
many incentives to grow wheat. Still, the
Mussolini took various measures to improve negative side to this success story was
the economy and the life of people. that the increase in wheat production
(Positive aspects) came at the expense of dairy farming
• Industry: Mussolini’s government and production of other crops (unlike
promoted industry by giving them India, where wheat and rice production
subsidies where they were required. driven by rising MSP).
By 1930, iron and steel production • It launched Land Reclamation
had doubled from 1922 levels. The Programme: It undertook many
improvement in the textile sector was activities to bring more land into
significant. Production of artificial productive use. It included activities like
silk had increased ten folds by 1930. planting forests in mountainous areas
Similarly, saw improvements in and draining marshes. The program
the energy sector. Initiated Many had partial success as by 1939 achieved
hydropower projects, and hydropower only 1/10th of the plan target.
production doubled by 1937.
• Agriculture: Italy, under Mussolini,
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• Public Works Programme: It was have been made for capacity creation
an awe-inspiring program and was in hydropower.
successful in tiding over the challenge » Exports were harmed because
of unemployment and building Mussolini overvalued the lira in order
infrastructure. to demonstrate that Italy had a strong
• Public Morale: The stress on nationalism currency. Thus, state control of the
in propaganda, the economic recovery, market had adverse effects on foreign
the reduction in unemployment, and exchange earnings.
better crop production boosted the
public's morale. Mussolini’s regime was • Economic Crisis of 1929: The Great
also able to provide for law-and-order Depression harmed Italy's economy.
stability. The Italian exports began to fall as the
export destinations in Europe, and the
• “After Work” Organization: created US was undergoing depression and
This organization for providing leisure
put-up trade barriers. Yet, Mussolini
activities for workers. For example, the
did not allow the lira to depreciate,
organization organized cruises, and
which made the exports uncompetitive.
workers were given allowances to go
Instead, Mussolini cut wages and
for holidays. That helped in boosting
salaries that hurt the commoner. The
the morale and the general happiness
economic crisis led to unemployment,
quotient and work satisfaction among
and the buying power of people further
the workers.
decreased. Although the cost of living
• Foreign policy successes: Mussolini declined because of "depression," the
was also successful in his foreign policy, wages fell faster than the prices of
initially in the Corfu incident (1923), the commodities resulting in "real" inflation
annexation of Fiume in 1924, and the experienced by the people.
invasion of Abyssinia. These events
• There was a regional disparity in
raised the prestige of Italians as they
economic prosperity in Italy. The north
began to view themselves as citizens of
was prosperous and had most industries,
reliable power.
while the south was impoverished
• The promise made by Mussolini's rule and had an agricultural economy. It is
was never fulfilled. Even before Italy important to note that today also the
was involved in the Second World War, Italian south lags the northern part of
Fascism had not solved many of Italy's economic development.
problems. (Negative aspect)
• Social Services: Mussolini failed in
• Economic issues: the provision of social services. For
example, there were no government
» Even though the 'Battle of Grain' was health insurance schemes until 1943,
a victory won only at the expense of and thus, Mussolini's Italy was not a
arable farming and dairy production, welfare state.
both of which fell, the climate in the
south is far better suited to grazing • Corruption and Inefficient:
and orchards than growing wheat, and
» The regime was inefficient and corrupt,
these would have been much more
and much money went into the official's
profitable for the farmers.
pockets. For example, despite all of the
» Italy continued to have shortages of publicity surrounding land reclamation,
critical raw materials like coal and oil. they only completed one-tenth of the
Thus, energy security was always a programme until 1939, and construction
challenge for Italy. More effort should was halted even before the war began.
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• Meanwhile Hitler and his National death of Hitler (30 April 1945) freed
Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazis the German population from the Nazi
- NSDAP) had been carrying out a tyranny.
propaganda campaign blaming the
government for all the ills Germany
was suffering from and portraying About Weimar Republic
Nazi solutions to the problems.
By the end of 1919, a new Constitution had
President Hindenburg appointed Hitler
been drafted and agreed by the National
as Chancellor in January 1933, and
Assembly (parliament). This Weimar
immediately afterwards democracy
Constitution (sometimes referred as the
ceased to exist in Germany; the Weimar
most perfect democratic Constitution of
Republic was about to end, and from
modern time, at least on paper) gave its
then until April 1945, Hitler remained
name to the Weimar Republic, which was
the dictator of Germany. Only after
lasted until 1933, when it was destroyed by
the defeat in the World War II and the
Hitler.
Instability
(1919-23)
Instability
(1929-33)
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had accepted the Treaty of Versailles Chancellor and the Reichstag had less
which was very humiliating due to its powers. This system had run for many
harsh clauses and the nationalists years. But the Weimar Constitution
could never forgive them. vested more powers in the Reichstag
• Anti-Democracy sentiments: Unlike and the Chancellor’s powers were
France and Britain, democracy as decreased. The Chancellor was now
an ideology had not entered the made responsible to Reichstag which
mainstream consciousness in Germany. had the final decision-making powers.
There was a traditional lack of respect But there was continuous chaos in
among the public towards democracy as Reichstag due to lack of consensus
German people had been accustomed among the parties and thus Reichstag
to viewing the officer class and the failed to get the admiration of the
army as the rightful leaders of the people.
country. Many sections like teachers, • Private Armies: Private armies of
lawyers, civil servants, and judiciary political parties decreased the authority
were against the Weimar democracy. of the government. The disagreements
• Instability: Weimar Republic failed to among the parties had become so
provide a stable decisive government. bitter that they organized their own
Unnstable coalition governments kept private armies to get done what they
coming and going because Weimar wanted and for their protection from
Constitution had adopted the system of rival parties.
proportional representation, leading to • Nationalists and Communists did not
all political groups (Social Democrats, believe in the Republic anyway and
Communists, Catholic Centre Party, refused to cooperate with the Social
National Socialists or Nazis) getting Democrats. The Communists wanted
seats in proportion to the votes polled a violent overthrow of capitalism
by them. This led to a situation where no while Nationalists were in favour of a
single party was in a majority ever. Thus dictatorship or military rule.
no party in power could fully implement Outbreaks of violence
its programme.
• Increase in violence on the streets
• Inexperience: Lack of experience
as private armies fought each other
among the political parties in running the
(especially after 1929) and workers
government resulted in lack of smooth
organized violent strikes. Other events
conduct of Reichstag (Parliament).
included the Spartacist Uprising, the
Before Weimar Constitution, the real
Kapp Putsch, and the Munich Beer Hall
power was vested in the office of
Putsch.
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• The violence died down during 1924 Versailles resulted in the depreciation
to 1929 as the republic became more of German Mark.
stable, but when unemployment • In January 1923, French troops captured
increased in the early 1930s, the private the Ruhr (an important German
armies increased, and street fights industrial region) in an attempt to seize
occurred regularly, usually between goods from mines and factories. As
Nazis and communist groups. All the German government ordered the
parties had their meetings hamstrung workers to follow the policy of passive
by rival armies and the police seemed resistance the German industry in the
powerless to check such events. Ruhr region was paralyzed. The French
• All this showed that the government had failed in their objectives, but the
was not capable of keeping law and effect on the German economy was
order, and respect for it collapsed. The catastrophic - galloping inflation rate
large number of people began to favour and the collapse of the Mark, the
strong, authoritarian government, which German currency. The exchange rate at
would maintain strict public order. the end of World War II was 20 Marks per
dollar, but even before the occupation
of Ruhr, reparations difficulties had
Economic Problems:
caused the mark to fall in value.
• Due to high war costs, a situation • The Impact of the 1929 Economic Crisis
of bankruptcy existed in 1919. Thus, on Germany:
Weimar republic inherited a very poor
economy. » US suspended loans and demanded
• World War I costs: High costs of war repayment on many short-term loans.
reparations imposed by the Treaty of » German exports declined because of
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low demand from export markets. Revolution and entered into Armistice
» US actions caused a crisis of confidence with Allies).
in German currency and there was a
run on the banks.
Reasons Behind the Popularity of
» Stresemann who was best suited man Nazis and Rise of Hitler:
to deal with the crisis, died in 1929.
» Many factories closed down and about • The public perception was heightened
4 million Germans became unemployed by the Nazi propaganda with the ‘stab
by 1931. in the back’ myth - the idea which the
German armies could have fought on
» Brüning’s (The new Chancellor from but were betrayed by the traitors who
1930-32) solution to this economic crisis had surrendered unnecessarily.
was decreasing pensions, wages and
unemployment benefits and other such • They offered national unity, prosperity,
social benefits. As a result the Weimar and full employment to masses.
Republic lost the support of working • They promised to undo the justice of
class and right wingers were already Treaty of Versailles, which was not so
against it. Hence by 1932 Weimar popular with most of the Germans,
Republic was on the verge of collapse. and to make Germany a great power
again. This would include bringing all
Germans (in Poland, Czechoslovakia,
Rise of Nazis and acceptance of Hitler’s and Austria) into the roof of Reich.
propaganda as an alternative:
• The fear of communism spreading in
• Hitler and the Nazi Party gave Germany resulted into mass support for
what seemed to be an attractive Nazis not only from the lower middle
alternative just when the republic was class but also from the workers who went
most ineffective. The fortune of the on to support Nazis rather than Social
Nazi Party was linked closely to the Democrats. It also led to support from
economic situation: the more unstable wealthy landowners and Industrialists
the economy. who funded Hitler especially after his
• In July 1932 election, with unemployed ascendancy to power.
persons were increased over 6 million, • The private army of Nazi, the SA
the Nazis became the largest single (Sturmabteilung - Storm Troopers),
party, with 230 seats out of 608 attracted young people who were
• Hitler constantly targeted the unemployed; it gave them much needed
government through his propaganda. small wage and a uniform.
Though Hitler became Chancellor • Hitler himself had extraordinary political
(1933) under the Weimar Republic, he capabilities. He had tremendous will
did not believe in the Weimar Republic power and energy and a remarkable
and even its constitution. He constantly gift of public orator, which enabled
called the politicians who had agreed him to propagate his ideas with great
to the provisions of Treaty of Versailles emotional force. Hitler used the latest
as the ‘November Criminals’. He argued modern communication techniques like
that Germany was "stabbed in the mass rallies, parades, radio, and film; he
back" by the November Criminals travelled all over Germany by air.
only because they signed the Treaty
• The striking contrast between the
of Versailles. (in November 1918 Social
governments of the Nazi Party and the
Democrats seized power in German
Weimar Republic impressed people.
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The latter were respectable, dull, and was asked not to act against violent SA
unable to maintain law and order; and SS when they killed communists.
the former promised strong, decisive He also appointed Nazis to top police
government and the restoration of posts.
national pride which became an • Reichstag Fire (1933): There was a
irresistible combination. fire in the Reichstag started by a
• Without the economic crisis, though, it few communists, but it was not a
was doubtful whether Hitler would have planned act by the communist party.
had much chance of gaining the power. Nevertheless, Hitler blamed the fire on
It was the widespread social misery communists and used the incident to
and unemployment, together with the stir up the fear of communism and thus
fear of communism and socialism, that gain mass support in the elections.
gained the Nazis mass support. • In the 1933 elections, Hitler won 44 per
cent of the total votes.
Reasons Because of Which Hitler • Enabling Law (1933): This law gave
Becomes Chancellor (January 1933) unfettering powers to Hitler and brought
an end to the Weimar Constitution.
In the end, Hitler came to power as a result Under this law:
of a political conspiracy. A small group
of right-wing politicians with the support » Government’s laws would not need the
from the Reichswehr resolved to bring approval of Reichstag for four years.
Hitler into a coalition government with the This implied that Hitler from now on
Nationalists. The main conspirators were became a dictator and Weimar Republic
General Kurt von Schleicher and Franz von came to an end as the Chancellor’s or
Papen. Their reasons for this momentous Government’s law can be against the
decision were: Constitution and still be valid since no
parliamentary approval was required
• They were afraid of a violent overthrow
for these laws to come into effect.
by a Nazi-led Putsch.
» This law needed 2/3rd majority which
• The inclusion of Nazis could provide
was achieved by force. During voting,
them with a more comfortable majority
the SA troops manned the Reichstag
which would provide not just stability
and the SS troops chanted “Bill or Fire/
but also pave way for a return to pre-
Murder” outside, thus creating a highly
Weimar situation when the Reichstag
intimidating atmosphere.
had fewer powers.
• It would help them to check the • After the passage of Enabling law, Hitler
popularity of the communists. followed the policy of “Gleichschaltung”
• Many felt that Hitler could be best (Forceful Coordination) that turned
controlled by co-opting him. Germany into a totalitarian/fascist
State. He used the notorious Gestapo
(Secret Police) to crush any opposition.
Hitler Consolidates his Power:
After getting Chancellorship in 1933, Hitler Important Features of Hitler’s Policy
called for general elections in hope of Which Were Popular with Many
winning a single party majority for the
Nazis.
Sections of the German People:
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strict control of Nazi Party. All workers the mentally ill. It was based on the Nazi
were to be members of this front. Party's policy of ‘racial hygiene’; the
Strikes were banned and government belief that the German people needed
was responsible for the redressal of all to be ‘cleansed’ of ‘racially unsound’
grievances. elements, which included people with
• Education system was closely monitored disabilities. It was an example of the
for indoctrination of children. Nazi’s belief in Social Darwinism, a
theory which seeks to apply biological
» Stereotypes about gender, anti-Jewish concepts of ‘natural selection’ and
propaganda, racial superiority (i.e. ‘survival of the fittest’ to politics and
Aryans are the sole master race), pro- sociology.
Hitler propaganda- were features of • Germany became a police state under
this indoctrination. Hitler.
» Gestapo closely monitored teachers • Anti-Semitic Policy:
and children could complain to the
Gestapo about anti-Nazi teachers. » Jews were blamed in Nazi propaganda
» Jewish children were taken out of for every German problem.
schools. » Jews were removed from jobs.
» Hitler Youth (for boys) and League of • The campaigns were given legal status
German Maidens (for girls) - all German
by the Nuremberg laws (1935) which:
children were required to join these
organizations when they turned 14 » Deprived Jews of German citizenship.
years of age.
» Forbade Jews from marrying non-Jews
» Slogans like “Fuhrer is always right”, to preserve purity of the Aryan race.
“must obey Fuhrer” etc. were made
popular.
» Person with even one Jewish
grandparent was to be classified as a
• Media was brought under control of the Jew.
Ministry of Propaganda.
• The “Final Solution” was the Holocaust
• Religion was brought under State with an aim to exterminate all Jews
control and Hitler cracked down on by starving them to death or to put
nuns, priests by arresting them and them in poison gas chambers in the
sending them to concentration camps. concentration camps after making
• Euthanasia campaign: here Nazis killed them work to death.
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• Both emphasized the supremacy of the state, were intensely nationalistic, glorifying
war, and the cult of the hero/leader who would guide the rebirth of the nation from
its troubles.
Differences
• Fascism never seemed to take root in Italy as deeply as the Nazi system did in
Germany.
• The Italian system was not as efficient as that in Germany. The Italians never came
anywhere near achieving self-sufficiency and never eliminated unemployment;
in fact, unemployment rose. The Nazis succeeded in eliminating unemployment,
though they never achieved complete autarky.
• The Italian system was not as ruthless or as brutal as that in Germany and there
were no mass atrocities, though there were unpleasant incidents like the murders
of Matteotti and Amendola.
• Italian fascism was not particularly anti-Jewish or racist until 1938, when Mussolini
adopted the policy to emulate Hitler.
• Mussolini was more successful than Hitler with his religious policy after his agreement
with the pope in 1929.
• Finally, their constitutional positions were different:
• the monarchy still remained in Italy, and though Mussolini normally ignored
Victor Emmanuel, the king played a vital role in 1943 when Mussolini’s critics turned
to him as head of state.
» H e was able to announce Mussolini’s dismissal and order his arrest.
» Unfortunately, there was nobody in Germany who could dismiss Hitler.
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» The matter was worsened when many from the stockbrokers. This system
states retaliated by introducing tariffs worked smoothly as long as stock prices
against American goods. A slump of were increasing. But, if they fell, investors
some sort was clearly on the way. had no money to pay off the loan.
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Immediate Causes:
• The Stock Market Crash of 1929 in the U.S.
• Failure of banks due to non-repayment of loans.
• Collapse of American banking system.
• Farms fail and factories close.
• American protectionism by reducing foreign trade to protect the economy.
• Americans stop loans to foreign countries.
• Over-dependence on American loans leads to Economic crisis.
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failures in 1931 led to famine. Starving sugar, beef, copper, and tin.
families ate tree bark and the roots » As European and U.S. demand for Latin
of wild plants. City workers suffered, American products dried up in the
too, as the value of exports fell by half 1930s, prices for these goods collapsed.
between 1929 and 1931. As many as 3 Alongside, the cost of imported goods
million workers lost their jobs, forcing rose, pushed up by high tariffs. Latin
many to go back to their rural villages. American nations that had borrowed
» The economic crisis fell heavily in Latin heavily from other nations could not
America as well. Many of its nations were repay their debts. The worldwide crisis
tied to the global economy by trade in spread rapidly.
such cash crops or raw materials as
Immediate Effects:
• Nazis take control in Germany.
• Fascists come to power in other countries.
• Social welfare programs were started in various Democratic countries.
• Economic rise of Japan in East Asia.
• World War II breaks out.
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Front coalition. The government sent to crush the revolt led by Abd-el-
passed series of legislations in favour of Krim in Spanish Morocco, was brutally
workers. massacred by the Moors.
» These reforms included pay increases, • In 1923, in a bloodless coup Genera
holidays with pay, and a 40-hour work Primo de Rivera seized power, with
week. Unfortunately, price increases Alfonso’s approval, and ruled for the
quickly offset wage gains. next seven years. The king revered him
» Unemployment remained high. Yet as ‘my Mussolini’. However, Primo was
France also preserved democratic a military dictator, he was not a fascist
government. like Mussolini. He was credited for a
number of public works such as roads,
• Recovery in the United States: railways and irrigation works; industrial
production increased at three times
» On March 4, 1933, the new president as compared to the rate before 1923;
tried to restore Americans’ faith in their most impressive of all, he succeeded in
nation. ending the war in Morocco (1925).
» Roosevelt immediately began a program • When the world economic crisis reached
of reform ‘The New Deal’. Large public Spain in 1930, unemployment rose,
works helped to give employment to the and Primo and his advisers bungled
unemployed people. New government the finances, causing depreciation of
agencies provided financial assistance the currency. The army withdrew its
to farms and businesses. Huge amount support, whereupon Primo resigned.
of public money was earmarked
• In April 1931 municipal elections were
for relief and welfare programmes.
held in which the Republicans won
Roosevelt and his advisers believed
control of all the large cities. As huge
that government expenditure would
crowds gathered on the streets of
generate employment and economy
Madrid, Alfonso decided to abdicate
would recover. Regulations were
to avoid bloodshed, and a republic was
introduced to reform the stock market
proclaimed.
and the banking system. Despite these
efforts, recovery was slow. • A coalition government of Socialists
and Middle-Class radicals came to
» The New Deal did ultimately reform the power.
American economic system. Roosevelt’s
leadership helped to preserve the • The monarchy had been overthrown
country’s faith in its democratic political without bloodshed, but unfortunately
system. the slaughter had merely been
postponed until 1936.
Spanish Civil War Why did civil war break out in Spain
(1936-39) in 1936?
• There was much hostility between
Background: the Church and the new Republican
Spain in the 1920s and 1930s government.
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agricultural commodities fell, wine and strikes, riots, and assassinations of the
olive exports decreased, and land went right-wing leaders.
out of cultivation. • In 1933, a right-wing government came
• There was also a threat of a coup by to power and reversed most of the
the army generals. steps taken by the former coalition
• The Spanish Civil war was result of government. This angered the left-
a conflict between the left wing and wing factions who now organized
the right-wing factions. The left wing themselves into Popular Front that
in general included trade unions increased revolutionary activity. The
(anarchists and syndicalists), the Popular Front was repressed brutally
socialists and the communists while by the right-wing government and
the right-wing factions included the the army under General Franco. For
church, the army, the landowners, and example, Franco ordered shooting on
the industrialists. striking miners. Meanwhile, the right-
wing fascists organized themselves into
• The right and the left wing both opposed a new Falange Party.
and thus weakened the Republic which
was trying to follow a middle path (as the • Due to severe repression, the Popular
government was a coalition of left wing Front came to power in 1936. One of the
socialists and the middle class radicals, right-wing leaders was murdered and
thus trying to balance the demands this triggered the Civil War which was
of both the sides). Example right wing begun by the Army and the Falange
opposed government decisions like: Party with an aim to overthrow the
government and establish a Military
» Granting self-government to one of the Dictatorship.
two provinces that were demanding
independence.
Important Information/events
» Implementation of Secularism: The
Church and the State were separated.
Related to Spanish Civil War:
The Priests were removed from the • The civil war was fought between the
payroll of the government. Church’s right wing and the left-wing forces. The
control of education was removed. Right Wingers called themselves the
Thus, the powers of the Church were Nationalists while the Left forces called
reduced, and thus Church and other themselves the Republicans.
Right-Wing factions were opposed to
• The trouble began when the Nationalists
the government.
under General Franco began a revolt in
» To remove the threat of coup, many Spanish Morocco.
important Army Generals were removed.
• During the Civil War, Italy and Germany
» Nationalization of large private estates supported the Nationalists with tanks,
(land) to meet demands of the left-wing troops, air shelling, food supplies and
sections. raw material. Germany bombed the
» Increase in wages of the workers which town of Guernica in 1937 and 1600
antagonized the industrialists. innocent civilians died.
• The Nationalists slowly but surely
• The left wing opposed the socialists for wore down the Republicans, capturing
cooperating with middle class radicals. Barcelona and the whole of Catalonia
They wanted a violent revolution in January 1939. Only Madrid remained
against capitalism for establishing a in Republican hands and the war ended
communist state and started general
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in March 1939 when Madrid surrendered involved. When Hitler and Mussolini
to Franco’s forces. were defeated, Franco survived and
• Reasons for the Nationalist victory. ruled Spain until his death in 1975.
• As Spain moved into the 1950s the
» Franco was extremely skilful in holding regime became less violent, but it
together the various right-wing groups continued to be repressive. Franco tried
(army, Church, monarchists and to enforce a rigid nationalism based on
Falangists) so that they worked as a traditional Spanish culture.
single military and political unit with
one central aim -to crush the godless
• For example, bullfighting and flamenco
were encouraged, but the Sardana,
republicans.
the national dance of Catalonia, was
» Disunity among the left wing (example banned because it was ‘not Spanish’.
Anarchists and Socialists fought against The use of the Galician, Catalan and
each other in Barcelona). Basque languages in official documents
» Support from Italy and Germany who was forbidden.
aided Franco with a hope of creating • All civil servants had to be Catholic,
another Fascist state in Europe. and non-church weddings, divorce,
contraceptives, and abortion were
forbidden. Homosexuality and
Franco in Power prostitution were criminal offences.
• Immediately after the World War II, All the Republic’s legislation designed
thousands of republicans fled the to improve the position of women in
country, many of them crossing the society was cancelled.
frontier into France. But thousands more • However, the USA and the IMF
were captured by Nationalist forces persuaded him to change to a more
and imprisoned. Meanwhile General free-market economy. In the mid-1950s
Franco, taking the title Caudillo (leader), the economy slowly began to revive.
set up a government which was similar
• During the 1960s Franco gradually
in many ways to those of Mussolini and
relaxed the repressiveness of his regime:
Hitler.
military courts were abolished; workers
• But in other ways it was not fascist: were permitted a limited right to strike
for example, the regime supported and elections were introduced for
the Church, which was given back its some members of parliament (though
control over education and other areas. political parties were still banned).
That would never have happened in a
• In 1977, first free multi-party elections
true fascist state.
were held to establish a democracy with
• Franco was also clever enough to keep constitutional monarchy. In 1986, Spain
Spain out of the Second World War, became part of European Economic
though Hitler expected Spanish help Community and its tourism industry
and tried to persuade Franco to get grew by leaps and bounds.
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CHAPTER - 9
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healthy way with Hitler before Germany slowly. The two democracies doubted
became much stronger. the Communist government, and Stalin
» In 1930, an Anglo-French attack on resented having been left out of the
western Germany at the time of the Munich Conference.
Rhineland occupation would have » The right-wingers in France were
toppled Hitler from power. By giving sympathetic to Hitler and in awe of
way to him, the appeasers increased his achievements. The conservatives in
his reputation at home. France prevented a clause for Military
» Hitler might not have had any proper cooperation in the agreement signed
plans for war, but after the give up at by France and the USSR in 1935. If
Munich, he was convinced that Britain the military treaty between the two
and France would remain passive had occurred, then Germany would
again and decided to gamble on war have been defeated in a limited war
with Poland. in Eastern Europe, or it might not have
ventured into war at all.
• Nazis and Soviets Sign Nonaggression
Pact: • Role of Hitler:
» The USSR accused of making war » By attacking Poland on all fronts rather
unavoidable by agreeing on the non- than merely occupying Danzig and the
aggression pact and Germany on Corridor, it seemed that Hitler intended
August 23, 1939, which also covered not only to get back the Germans lost
a secret agreement for Poland to be at Versailles but also to destroy Poland.
divided between Germany and the Martin Gilbert argues that he intended
USSR. to remove the stigma of defeat in the
First World War. The German non-
» It is asserted that Stalin ought to aggression pact with Russia was simply
have federated with the West and easing Russian suspicions and keeping
with Poland, thus panicking Hitler into it neutral until Poland had been dealt
keeping the peace. with.
» On the other hand, the British were » Hitler was a brilliant opportunist taking
most hesitant to ally with the Russians; advantage of the appeasers' mistakes
Chamberlain suspected them (because and events, such as the Czechoslovakia
they were communists) and Poles. He crisis in February 1939.
thought they were militarily fragile.
» Hitler set himself two goals: a war of
» Russian historians defend the pact conquest and the elimination of the
because it gave the USSR time to Jews.
prepare its defenses against a possible
German attack. » The ultimate goal was the establishment
of a greater Germany that had ever
• Distrust between USSR and the would- existed before in history.
be Allied Powers » In 1936, Hitler had made alliances with
Japan and Italy. The military alliance
» Britain and France appealed to the of this trio nation was called the Axis
Soviet Union to join them in halting
Powers.
Hitler's aggression. Negotiations went
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FINLAND
Leningrad
NORWAY SWEDEN
ESTONIA
41
19
194
LATVIA Moscow
0
DENMARK Baltic
1
GREAT Sea LITHUANIA SOVIET
194
BRITAIN Nort h
Sea EAST
PRUSSIA UNION
IRELAND Berlin 1939
NETH. 1
London 194
Dunkirk 1940 GERMANY 1 9 39
Warsaw
BE POLAND
h LG 1941
g l i s . C Z E
En nel CHOSLO
V Stalingrad
Cha n 0
Paris 194 AKIA
FRANCE R IA A R Y
AUS T HUNG 1941
SWITZ.
1941
1 9 40
19
ROMANIA
41
VICHY ITALY
YUG
FRANCE OSL
(Unoccupied AVI BULGARIA Black Se a
zone) Rome A
1941
N IA
SPAIN
PORTUGAL
AL B A
TURKEY
GREECE
I m a g e 9.1: G r o u p i n g in WW- II
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September 1931 Japan October 1935 Italy March 1938 Germany September 1938 Germany
invades Manchuria. attacks Ethiopia. annexes Austria. takes Sudetenland.
March 1936 Germany July 1937 Japan March 1939 April 1939
occupies Rhineland. invades China. Germany seizes Italy conquers
Czechoslovakia. Albania.
Different phases of Second World War: were taking place in the Far East, the
Unlike the 1914-18 war, World War II was a Pacific and, in North Africa and deep in
war of swift movement; it was a much more the heart of Russia, in central and western
complex affair, with effective campaigns Europe and the Atlantic.
• By the end of September, the Germans, • The Poles were defeated rapidly by the
and Russians preoccupied Poland. German Blitzkrieg (lightning war), which
they were ill-equipped to handle. It
• After a seven-month pause (known
consisted of rapid propel by motorized
as the ‘phony war'), German troops
divisions and tanks (Panzers) supported
occupied Denmark and Norway (April
by air-power. The Luftwaffe (the
1940).
German air force) set the Polish railway
• In May, attacks made on Holland, system out of action and destroyed the
Belgium, and France, who soon lost, Polish air force.
left Britain alone to face the dictators
(Mussolini had declared war in June,
• Britain and France helped their ally
directly because the French mobilization
just before the fall of France).
procedure was slow and old, and it was
• Hitler’s attempt to bomb Britain into difficult to transport adequate troops
submission was thwarted in Britain's to Poland to be effectual.
Battle (July to September 1940), but
Mussolini's armies invaded Egypt and
• When the Russians conquered eastern
Poland, resistance collapsed. On
Greece.
September 29, Poland was divided
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up within Germany and the USSR (as Winston Churchill turned into British
agreed in the pact of August 1939). prime minister. Although there has
been criticism of Churchill's omission,
there is no doubt that he supplied what
The Phony War
was needed at the time.
• For almost seven months after Poland's
fall, there was an unusual calm in Attacks were made in Holland, Belgium,
the land war in Europe. After their and France.
declaration of war, the British and
French had mobilized their armies. • In the month of May 1940, Hitler started
They stationed their troops along the a dramatic rush through Holland,
Maginot Line, a fortifications system Belgium, and Luxembourg. This was
along France's border with Germany. part of a plan to hit France.
• There they waited for the German's • Belgium held out for long, but its
attack—but nothing happened. surrender at the end of May left the
The bored Allied soldiers Glared British and French troops in Belgium full
eastward toward the enemy. Equally of risky exposure. German automated
bored, German soldiers glared back divisions swept across northern France;
from their Siegfried Line some miles only Dunkirk continued to be in Allied
away. Germans humorously called hands.
it the sitzkrieg, or "sitting war." few • The British navy had a major role in
newspapers called it "the phoney war." evacuating over 338 000 troops - two-
• On April 9, 1940, the phony war stopped. thirds of them British - from Dunkirk
Hitler started a surprise invasion of within May 27 and June 4.
Denmark and Norway. He planned to • The events at Dunkirk were important
build bases across the Norwegian and because a third of a million Allied troops
Danish coasts to hit Great Britain. In were rescued from fighting again,
four hours after the attack, Denmark and Churchill used it for information
dropped. Two months later, Norway purposes to boost British morale with
surrendered as well. the 'Dunkirk spirit.'
• Following Dunkirk, France seemed
Denmark and Norway invaded, April 1940 ordained to defeat. On June 10, sensing
a swift victory, Italy's Benito Mussolini
• Hitler's troops captured Denmark and
joined forces with Hitler and declared
landed at the main Norwegian ports in
war on Great Britain and France. Italy
April 1940.
attacked France from the south. By
• He arranged to build bases across the June 14, Paris fell to the Germans. Nazi
Norwegian and Danish coasts to hit troops marched enthusiastically down
Great Britain. In four hours after the the city’s main boulevard.
attack, Denmark fell. Two months later,
Norway surrendered as well.
• Paris was caught on June 14, and France
surrendered on June 22.
• This Norwegian campaign had
significant results'.
• The Germans took control over the
northern part of the country. They
» Germany was assured of its bases and left the southern region to a counter
iron-ore supplies. government headed by Pétain. The
headquarters of the government was in
» It showed the inability of Chamberlain's the city of Vichy.
government. He was forced to leave, and
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• After France fell, a French general them back into Libya, and defeated
named Charles de Gaulle (duh GOHL) them at Bedafomm, catching 130 000
ran away to London. There, he made prisoners and 400 tanks.
up a government-in-exile committed to • The Greeks forced the Italians back and
recapturing France. On June 18, 1940, annexed Albania. Mussolini was starting
he called to people on broad-casted to be an embarrassment to Hitler.
England. He asked the people of France
to withstand.
The Axis Offensive Widens:
The Battle of Britain (1940) From 1941 to the Summer of
• With the fall of France, Great Britain had 1942
stood alone against the Nazis. Winston
Churchill, British prime minister, had • The war has now escalated into a
declared that his nation would never global conflict. First, Hitler, assured of
surrender. In a speech, he said, "We a quick victory over Britain, initiated
shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight an annexation of Russia in June 1941,
on the landing grounds, we shall fight in breaking a non-aggression treaty
the fields and in the streets . . . we shall signed just two years earlier.
never surrender.” • Then the Japanese pushed the USA
• In September, the Germans radar into the war by attacking the American
stations, aerodromes bombed harbors naval base at Pearl Harbor (December
and munitions factories; in September, 1941). They followed this up by occupying
they started to bomb London, in revenge, regions such as the Philippines, Malaya,
they asserted, for a British raid on Berlin. Singapore, and Burma, scattered over a
The Royal Air Force (RAF) thrust heavy wide area.
losses on the Luftwaffe (1389 German • There seemed to be no way of pausing
planes lost against 792 British); when it the Germans and Japanese at this
had cleared that British air power was stage of the war, though the Italians
far from being demolished, Hitler called were less successful.
off the invasion.
• The Battle of Britain was the first vital
turning point of the war; for the first
Important Events of This Phase:
time, the Germans demonstrated that North Africa and Greece
they were not invulnerable. Britain was
• Hitler sent forces to help Italy. German
able to last in the struggle, thus facing
troops drove the British out of Libya
Hitler (who was about to attack Russia)
and partially from Egypt.
with the grave war situation on two
fronts. • They also invaded Greece and forced
out the British troops.
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» More important in the long run was south, and north and marched towards
Hitler's engagement in Greece and Moscow, Leningrad, and Ukraine,
Yugoslavia (which the Germans respectively, using Blitzkrieg tactics
invaded at the same time as Greece) which included simultaneous and swift
might well have retarded his attack attacks by airplanes, men, and tanks.
on Russia. This was firstly planned for • Germans were highly successful at
May 15 and delayed for five weeks. If first as they confront an inexperienced
the annexation had occurred in May, Russian army. The Stalin removal of
the Germans would have conquered 1937 had led to inexperienced young
Moscow before the winter arrived. officers substituting the experienced
Generals. Slow mobilization policy was
Operation Barbarossa (1941) also a cause.
• Hitler Invades the Soviet Union. With • But Germany lost to get Moscow and
Leningrad (now called St Petersburg) in
the Balkans firmly in control, Hitler
1941. Because of high rains in October
could move ahead with his plan to
that turned the Russian roads to mud
invade the Soviet Union. He called that
and then the frost during November-
plan Operation Barbarossa.
December (temperature as low as
• Early on Sunday morning, June 22, 1941, minus 38 degree Celsius) also limited
the roar of German tanks and aircraft the forward march by the Germans.
announced the beginning of the
blitzkrieg invasion. The Soviet Union
• The German army was short of winter
clothes as they had expected to defeat
was not prepared for this attack. With
Russia by November. In 1942, the
its 5 million men, the Red Army was the
Germans lost the Battle of Stalingrad.
largest in the world. But it was neither
well equipped nor well trained.
• The German attack was three-pronged: Entry of USA
» In the north towards Leningrad, • Japan attacked Pearl Harbour, and with
this attack, the U.S. ended the Policy of
» In the center towards Moscow, Isolation and joined on the side of the
» In the south through Ukraine. Allies.
• Although through the Lend-Lease
• Hitler’s motive behind the attack Act (April 1941), the United States of
» He feared that the Russians would America had already been supporting
attack Germany while his troops were the Allies with massive financial aid to
still preoccupied in the West. Britain and war material to Russia.
» He expected that the Japanese should • Pearl Harbour was a Naval Base in
attack Russia in the Far East. the Hawaii islands. At the Washington
Conference, Japan had reached an
» The more powerful Japan became, agreement on the naval limit with
the less chance there was of the USA Britain, France, and the USA. In 1930, it
participating in the war (or so Hitler had reiterated its commitment to the
thought). naval limit, but it soon breached it, thus
» But except, there was his hatred breaking its Washington conference
of communism and his desire for pledge.
Lebensraum (living space). • It had also agreed to maintain
the neutrality of China under the
• Germany attacked from the center,
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Washington Conference (1921-02), but the latter three being U.S. colonies.
in 1931 it invaded Manchuria. By 1937,
Japan had begun the full invasion of
Declaring war on the USA was Hitler's
China, and this 2nd Sino-Japanese war
most serious fault.
merged into the second World War.
The causes for the Japanese attack on • He did not have to commit to war with
Pearl Harbour are as follows: the United States at this stage, in which
case the Americans might have focused
» Japan wanted domination of the on the Pacific war.
Greater East Asia Co-prosperity
Sphere. This was an imperial concept • However, the Germans had already
and implied all the Asian nations in assured the Japanese that they would
East Asia under the Empire of Japan come to Japan’s aid if she was ever at
and free of western powers. war with the USA. Hitler assumed that
President Roosevelt of the USA would
» Japan wanted raw material and thus declare war on Germany sooner or
desired British possessions of Malaya later, so he wanted to get Germany’s
and Burma, which were rich in rubber, declaration of war in first, to show the
oil, and tin. It also wanted to colonize German people that he, and not the
the Dutch East Indies, which was rich in Americans, controlled events.
oil.
• In fact, the U.S. Congress was naturally
» Japan never wanted a war with the U.S., determined to take their revenge on
but the latter was proving to be a hurdle Japan but was reluctant to get tangled
in the Japanese plans. The U.S. was in Europe. Roosevelt would have a
helping China in the war against Japan. difficult job convincing Congress to
The U.S. had also placed an oil embargo declare war on Germany; Hitler’s action
on Japan because Japan would not saved him from the trouble.
heed the U.S. demand of withdrawing
from the French Indo-China (Indo • Germany was now faced with the
China is the region comprising of Laos, enormous potential of the United
Vietnam, and Cambodia). States. This meant that, with the vast
resources of the USSR and the British
» The Japanese had obtained Indo- Commonwealth, the Axis had less
China from Vichy France, a puppet chances of success if the war continued.
government set up by Hitler after It was critical for them to land knockout
the Battle of France (1940). The talks blows quickly before the American
had reached a stalemate when the contribution became successful.
US insisted on Japan's withdrawal
from Indo-China and China. Also,
when the brutal General Tojo became
Prime Minister of Japan, war became
The offensives held in check:
unavoidable. After the attack on Pearl summer 1942 to summer 1943
Harbour:
• This phase of the Warsaw had three
− Japan got control of the Pacific. important battles in which the Axis
forces got defeated.
− It captured the British colonies of
Malaya, Singapore, Burma, and • In June 1942, the Americans drove off
Hong Kong. a Japanese attack on Midway Island,
administering heavy losses.
− It captured the Dutch East Indies,
Philippines, Guam, and Wake Island,
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The Battle of Midway (1942) served as a The Battle of Stalingrad (1942) was fought
turning point as during this Battle; the U.S. in Southern Russia. Germany had reached
bombers destroyed Japanese Aircraft Stalingrad by August 1942 and destroyed
Carriers. It was almost impossible to win the infrastructure. But Russians refused
naval battles without aircraft carriers. to surrender and started a counter-
After this Battle, the U.S. started what offensive in November. By February 1943,
came to be known as 'Island Hopping' the Germans were trapped, their supply
whereby between 1942-44, it won back lines were cut, and they surrendered. The
from Japan the Pacific islands one by Battle of Stalingrad was an important
one, via a strategy of aerial bombing of point because had Germany won, then it
islands followed by ground assaults on would have been able to cut the oil supply
them. lines of Russia, which transported oil from
the Caucasus. With Stalingrad under
• In October, the Germans under Rommel, its control, Germany would have been
proceeding towards Egypt, were halted able to attack Moscow from the south-
at El Alamein and later driven out of east. The victory boosted the morale of
North Africa. Russian troops, and soon Germany was
The defeat in Egypt [Battle of El Alamein ousted from Leningrad and eventually
-October 1942] was a turning point from Russia.
because this prevented the important
Suez Canal from falling under the control
of Germany. It also ended the possibility The Axis Powers Defeated: July
of an alliance between the Axis powers
and the Middle East. The war in the desert
1943 to August 1945
drained Germany of its resources which • The huge power and resources of the
could have been better utilized against USSR and the USA, combined with
the USSR. Thus Italy's non-performance an all-out effort from Britain and its
hurt Germany. Most importantly, the Empire, slowly and surely took the Axis
Battle of El Alamein led to the complete powers down.
exit of Axis powers from North Africa.
• Italy was removed first, and this was
This allowed the Allied forces to land in
followed by an Anglo-American invasion
Morocco and Algeria to attack the Axis
of Normandy (June 1944) which saved
troops from the West. After this, Libya
Belgium, France, and Holland.
and Tunisia were won back, and Italy was
invaded. • Later, Allied troops crossed the Rhine
and captured Cologne.
• In the east, the Russians drove the
The third battle took place in Russia, where Germans out and advanced on Berlin
the Germans infiltrated Stalingrad on the via Poland.
Volga River in September 1942, where the
Russians put up such fierce resistance that • Germany surrendered in May 1945 and
the German army was surrounded and Japan in August, after the Americans
forced to surrender the following February. had dropped an atomic bomb on
Hiroshima and one on Nagasaki.
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Sept. 1939
Germany invades poland
world war II begins
was a constant drain on Hitler’s
May 1940 resources.
Evacuation of British forces at 1940
Dunkirk
• The Allies soon learned from their early
Jun. 1940
France surrenders; the battle
of British begins
failures: - By 1942, they knew how to check
Blitzkrieg attacks and appreciated the
Jun. 1941
1941 importance of air support and aircraft
Germany invades the Soviet
Union
Japanese attack Pearl
Harbor; U.S. declares war on
Japan
carriers. Consequently, they built up air
and naval superiority, which won the
Apr. 1942
Aug. 1942 Allies surrender in battles of the Atlantic and the Pacific
1942
Philippines; Bataan Death
Hitler ordered attack on
Stalingrad
March begins
and slowly starved their enemies of
May 1942
Nov. 1942
Allies land in North Africa
Allies burn back Japanese
fest In Battle of the Coral Sea
supplies.
Feb. 1943
Jun. 1942
Allies defeat Japan in Battle
• Hitler did not seem to understand
Germans surrender at
Stalingrad 1943 of midway
that war against Britain would involve
Feb. 1943
Japanese abarden the Island
her empire as well and that his troops
of Guadalcanal
were bound to be spread too thinly-
on the Russian front, both sides of
Jun. 1944 Oct. 1944
Allies invade Europe on 1944 Allies defeat Japan in Battle the Mediterranean, and the western
D-Day of Leyte Gulf
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had caused more destruction and death except that they would be occupied
in history. It causes 60 million dead, 50 by Allied troops and that East Prussia
million uprooted from their homes, and should be divided between Russia and
property damage that ran into billions Poland.
of U.S. dollars.
• Many Germans migrated to Germany
• About 40 million Europeans had from their homes in Allied-occupied
died—two-thirds of civilians. Constant
areas outside Germany. This was
shelling and bombing had reduced
done to ensure that no future German
hundreds of cities to ruin. The ground
government claimed these territories.
war has destroyed the countryside.
Displaced persons from many nations • World War II led to the production of
were battling to get home. nuclear weapons.
• Even after the war was ended, misery • The European domination ended with
in Europe continued for years. Europe World War II, and the balance of power
lay ravaged by the fighting. Agriculture shifted in favor of the USSR and the U.S.
was destroyed. Most young men had Due to high war prices, Italy, Britain,
served in the military, and the women Germany and France was on the edge
had worked in war manufacture. Some of bankruptcy. Britain was under huge
remained to farm the fields. With U.S. debt, which is obtained due to the
destroyed transportation system, the U.S. aid provided under the Lend-Lease
meager harvests often did not reach Act (1941).
the cities. • The USA and the USSR came out as the
• A number of respective treaties were two most powerful nations in the world,
signed. and they were no longer as remoted
as they were before the war. The USA
» Italy lost its African colonies and gave had suffered the war partly and had
up its claims to Abyssinia (Ethiopia). enjoyed great prosperity from supplying
Albania and the USSR took the eastern the other Allies with war materials and
section of Czechoslovakia, the Petsamo food.
district, and the area around Lake • In the post-world war, however,
Ladoga from Finland and held on to enemies not only became allies. Allies
Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia, which also became enemies. World War II
they had occupied in 1939. had changed the political scenario of
» Romania recovered northern Europe. It weakened some nations and
Transylvania, which the Hungarians strengthened others. The USA and the
had occupied during the war. USSR come out of the war as allies.
» Trieste, claimed by both Italy and Nevertheless, once the fighting was
Yugoslavia, was declared a free territory over, the differences in their postwar
protected by the United Nations goals emerged. These differences
Organization. stirred up conflicts that would shape
the modern world for decades.
» Later, in San Francisco (1951), Japan
agreed to surrender all territory • The war uplifted the movement towards
obtained during the previous 90 years, decolonization. The defeats wreaked
which included a full withdrawal from on Britain, Holland, and France by
China. Japan, and the Japanese invasion of
their territories - Burma (British) and
» However, the Russians denied agreeing Malaya, Singapore, French Indo-China,
to any deal over Germany and Austria, and the Dutch East Indies-destroyed
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CHAPTER - 10
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
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got expanded to prevent nuclear war. Russia Council was formed to partner
After West Germany entry into NATO, on shared issues on security.
Warsaw Pact alliance was formed • The collapse of the USSR resulted
by the communist countries. USSR, in disruption in its former satellite
Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Poland, states. NATO got involved when civil
Czechoslovakia, and East Germany war in Yugoslavia became genocide.
were included in it. In response, NATO's initial support by United
"Massive Retaliation" policy was Nations naval embargo led to a no-
adopted by NATO. It made promise of fly zone. Violations then led to some
nuclear weapon usage if the Pact was airstrikes until September 1999. That
attacked. NATO's deterrence policy is when a nine-day air campaign was
allowed European nations to focus on conducted by NATO which ended the
economic development. It did not have war. By December 1999, NATO placed
to diversify its focus towards building a peace-keeping troop of 60,000
large conventional armies. soldiers, that concluded in 2004 when
• The Soviet Union continued to NATO transferred this function to the
strengthen its military capabilities. European Union.
Towards the end of the Cold War, it • Protecting democratic freedom among
was spending about three times what its 28-member nations remains main
the United States was, with only a one purpose of NATO. Being political as
-third of the economic power. When well as military alliance, the coalition's
Berlin Wall fell in the year 1989, the value to global security continues to
reasons were both economic as well as be paramount. Its longevity, since its
ideological. formation in 1949, is attributed to its
• NATO's relationship with Russia had members' shared values championing
defrost after fall down of Soviet Union democracy, freedom, and free market
in late 1980. In 1997, NATO-Russia economies. NATO has remained
Founding Act was signed to build America's most important alliance.
cooperation bilaterally. In 2002, NATO-
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It had the aim to keep Soviet Russia away from the Middle East.
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championed the cause of Non-aligned Primary Steps were taken for Non-aligned
Movement (NAM). Movement on 18 April 1955. A Conference
took place at Bandung, the capital of
Indonesia in which 29 countries from
Causes of NAM Asia and 6 from Africa participated. This
conference not only united Asian and
• Firstly, the countries of Asia and Africa African countries but also strictly opposed
dislike to be under a capitalism promoter Colonialism.
country like America or a Communism
The former Prime Minister of India
promoter country like Soviet Russia.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru’s Principles of
• Secondly, all the nation of Asia as ‘Panchsheel’ (Mutual respect for each
well as Africa wanted negotiation for other’s territorial integrity and Sovereignty,
themselves to make economic progress. Non-aggression, Non-intervention in each
• Thirdly, they realized thatarmament other’s domestic affairs, Mutual benefit
race is certainly not good for every and equality and Peaceful co-existence)
nation. were adopted by this Conference.
• Fourthly, they imagined a ‘Third World’ This Conference took resolution to fight
which would help them in developing against the apartheid system to establish
the economic and cultural co-operation. friendly relations with all member countries,
to solve the intentional problems in a
• Finally, the underdeveloped nations
peaceful way, to respect other's territorial
strived for helping each other and
sovereignty, to give respect to the law
decided not to interfere in internal
and ideas of the UNO etc. The Afro-Asian
affairs of any country. So these countries
countries were inspired.
came together to form the Non-aligned
Movement.
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CHAPTER - 11
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agreed not to help its allies like England • There was a concern throughout the
and France. In fact, West Asia was world demanding ban on nuclear
rescues from a major threat. weapons.
• In this period, Hotline formally came
between the US and USSR.
Fourth Phase (1957-1962):
• This was the reason behind both the
In 1959 the President of Russia Khrushchev parties refraining from nuclear war.
went on a historical tour to America.
Both countries were annoyed by the U-2 • In Spite of that, the Vietnam problem
accident and the Berlin Crisis. On 13 August and the Problem in Germany kept the
1961, USSR made a Berlin Wall of 25 Km Cold War between the USA and USSR
to check the immigration from east Berlin intact.
to West Berlin. In the year 1962, Cuban
Missile Crisis was a major cause behind
aggravating of the cold war.
Sixth Phase (1969-1978):
This period starting from 1969 was marked
• This incident created an atmosphere by DETENTE between the US and Soviet
of conversation between American Union- the President of America Nixon
President Kenedy and Russian President and Russian President Brezhnev played
Khrushchev. America assured Russia an important role in bringing cold war to
that it would not attack Cuba and an end. The SALT treaty of 1972, the 1975
Russia also withdrew missile stations summit Conference on Security' in Helsinki
from Cuba. and 1978 Belgrade Conference brought US
and Soviet Union closer.
Fifth Phase (1962-1969): • In 1971, Foreign Secretary of America
The Fifth Phase which began in 1962 also Henry Kissinger paid a secret visit to
marked a mutual suspicion between the China to look out for the possibilities
US and Soviet Union. of making connection again with
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China. The US move to reorient Diego • The Soviet Union fell down due to
Garcia into a military base was mainly economic weaknesses.
designed to check the Soviet presence • The Berlin Wall got demolished and the
in the Indian Ocean. During the 1971 two German countries became unified.
Bangladesh liberation war and the
Egypt-Israel War of 1973 the two • The Warsaw Pact got disintegrated.
superpowers extended support to the • The Baltic States and some former
opposite sides. Soviet Republics gained independence.
• America became the supreme power of
the world.
Last Phase (1979-1987):
• Communism collapsed worldwide.
In this phase some changes were noticed
in the Cold War. That is why historians • The Cold War led to diminishing
call this phase the New Cold War. In 1979, Communism and the rise of
the President of US Carter and Russian globalization worldwide.
President Brezhnev signed SALT II. But in
1979, the prospects of mitigating the Cold The impact of the Cold War on the
War were hampered by development t development of many countries was
in Afghanistan. enormous. The consequences of the
• Vietnam (1975), Angola (1976), Ethiopia Cold War were derived from numerous
(1972) and Afghanistan (1979) issues internal problems of the countries, which
brought success to Soviet Union which were connected with the USSR, especially
was unbearable for US. American developing countries (India, Africa, etc.).
President Carter's approach of Human This fact means that foreign policies of
Rights and Open Diplomacy were many states were transformed.
disliked by Russia. US Senate did not
ratified SALT 2 treaty. In 1980 America
Thus, it is relevant to conclude that the Cold
boycotted the Moscow Olympics.
War was an important worldwide conflict,
• In 1983, Russia withdrew itself from which was due to various ideological
a missiles talk with America. In 1984 perceptions as well as experiences,
Russia boycotted the Olympic game depending on one's locations and societal
held at Los-Angeles. The Star War of standings. The importance of the Cold
the American President Ronald Regan War in Modern World History is clear.
annoyed Russia. In this way the 'New Both the US and the USSR were founded
Cold War' between America and Russia on the ideology which mainly aimed for
continued till 1987. improvement of human life. However, not
same approaches to economy as well as
social development led to the conflict
Impact of Cold War: between two countries. The Cold War
Both the US and the USSR piled up large assisted in shaping Modern World History,
number of arsenals of atomic weapons as provided huge opportunities for political,
well as ballistic missiles. economic, and social development of the
countries. Modern World History would be
• The formation of military blocs, NATO different if Cold War would not have taken
and the Warsaw Pact took place. place. The collapse of the USSR and its
• It led to conflicts of destructive nature communist system provided considerable
like the War in Vietnam and the Korean changes in foreign policies of many
War. countries, including the United States.
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actors after the war. In total, 60 million to avoid the form of "security rivalry"
people died across the world, with that caused problems and divisions in
37 million civilians and 6 million Jews the run-up to WWII. It could be argued
among them. that Monnet was a federalist, proposing
• This defeat was unprecedented, even strong powers for European government,
in comparison to the First World but he was wise enough to recognize that
War, and it prompted key European people would only support the concept
players to challenge both the tactics in small steps; it would be impossible
of peacemakers at Versailles and the to turn to a "United States of Europe"
traditional strength of the ‘nation-state' overnight, but he had much grander
itself. The Treaty of Versailles, especially plans for the ECSC's growth.
the reparations and the 'War Guilt • A fall in global influence is a second
Clause,' almost certainly contributed to important factor. Following World War
Hitler's rise to power and the simmering II, those countries that had previously
discontent within Germany. It would been major world powers, especially
have been foolish to dismiss this lesson Britain and France, realized that they
and seek to punish the aggressors once no longer had sufficient influence in the
more. world if they acted alone.
• Nationalism as well as the "Fascist • With their large populations and
glorification of the nation-state" served regional dominance, the United States
as a stark reminder of the issues caused and the Soviet Union had the economic
by a lack of coordination among and military strength to fully envelop
European governments, with many Europe in a "Cold War" with pressure
debating the feasibility of a Federalist applied by both sides. It became
structure and close cooperation. clear that the only way for European
• The French had concerns about restoring governments to exert influence over
Germany, and some saw integration as the conduct of these main players on
a way to gain leverage over German European soil was for them to speak up.
policy. If they could convince Germany • While Britain preferred to downplay its
to commit to supranational control European ties in favour of the Atlantic
and intergovernmental cooperation Alliance and Commonwealth, the
when it was weak, future governments French, in particular, were concerned
would find it difficult to pull out of these that they no longer possessed the global
agreements. hegemony or economic firepower that
• Jean Monnet identified coal and once saw these two nations conquer
steel as a first field for collaboration, the world with large empires; it became
allowing the French to dismantle the apparent that only a united Europe
German war machine and exert some could bear any global weight... Any
leverage over its finances. Having joint proposal that avoided continent-wide
control over these main manufacturing despair and an invasion of Communism
industries would make it almost was accepted by the United States. The
impossible for one country to target the provision of Marshall Aid, at least in part,
other, given the feasibility of obtaining contributed to the establishment of the
the resources needed and the massive Organization for European Economic
economic impact. Cooperation (OEEC), which was tasked
with determining how the money should
• It was critical for Europe as a whole to be distributed. This was the first official
improve multilateral security through union of the major nations of Europe
collaboration and joint projects in order and the initiation of an ‘economic
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community’ which has further evolved were stationed in West Germany, which
into the modern European Union. was seen to be the most vulnerable,
• With regards to those states also which but the neighbouring states were
did not accept the development of uncomfortable with the idea of German
mainstream economic union. Though rearmament The North Atlantic Treaty
the ECSC, did not totally rejected the Alliance (NATO), formed in 1949, was an
idea of cooperation. Britain, the Swiss, effort to defend Germany and the rest
Austrians, Portuguese and Scandinavian of Europe under the banner of unity and
countries did not accept the Coal and integration while avoiding the risk of a
Steel Community but in place formed renewed German attack (Taylor 2007).
a separate alliance, the European Free It was another case of integration in
Trade Association (EFTA). Cooperation motion, but this time on a much larger
was observed as the most effective way of scale. NATO had 12 members at the
economic development and the division time, while Europe had just six.
between ‘The Six’ and the EFTA was over • Following the initial victories of the
the style of its execution, not principles. 1940s and 1950s, the ‘European Project'
• Thirdly the western European powers grew in popularity, and in 1961 and
had to observe outwards as well as 1967, Britain, which had been “of Europe
internal issues of the European states. but not ‘in' Europe” (Churchill 1946),
They were to protect themselves from applied for membership. The progress
the external threat of USSR and the of integration is the fourth element in
impact of the Cold War. Europe was the drive for integration. The increase in
bifurcated in half through Berlin and living standards aimed at by the Rome
countries to the west of the wall had Treaty made those countries, mostly
the major aim to prevent a domino in the South and Scandinavia, see the
effect and the spread of Communism. economic benefits of integration, and
The Treaty of Rome (1957) set up a this remained a key selling point until the
European Economic Community; a collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989-1991,
unity of the same six nations of the when the former Eastern Bloc states
ECSC but with even stronger links and were similarly eager to join the EC.
broader cooperation. Article 2 of the • The notion of an "ever-closer union"
treaty set out its key objectives, which gained traction"...and it has its own
included increased stability and steady prophets who are zealous in their belief
expansion; a clear sign that those six in its destiny." Because of its utility
nations were consciously defending and reciprocal benefits, the concept
themselves against the 'Evil Empire' of integration gained traction among
and sought closer cooperation with many political leaders, and despite a
other European states. The uprising degree of separation from the general
in Czechoslovakia in 1948 had been public, levels of collaboration increased
a real cause for concern, as was in the second half of the twentieth
the development of Soviet nuclear century. In conclusion, it is formidably
arms. These Cold War security issues clear that after some half a century of
amongst many others evidenced the tension and conflict, there was a real set
fact that 'The Six' had to work together up for closer ties and cooperation within
and expand to find safety in numbers. European nations after 1945. While the
• The European states were, to an extent, East stagnated under the shadow of the
duty bound to act against the USSR USSR, virtually every nation west of the
because of the level of aid from the USA Berlin Wall saw the benefits of a single
and the debts they owed. US troops European union as a means to economic
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development and stability, even if they Coal and Steel Society (ECSC) was
did not want to be a part of it at first (as an international body that brought
with Britain). Containment and control together a range of continental
of Germany was critical, especially for European countries. The Treaty of
the French. The ECSC brought these Paris included Belgium, France, West
two countries together through mutual Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and
wealth, resulting in a 60-year friendship. Luxembourg in 1951, formally created
Second, former European powers had it. The ECSC was the first international
lost much of their global clout, falling organization founded on supranational
well behind the United States and the principles, and it paved the way for the
Soviet Union They could only have a European Union to emerge.
major presence on the international • On May 9, 1950, French Foreign Minister
stage if they banded together to work Robert Schuman suggested the ECSC
for mutual benefit. The third issue was as a way to avoid another war between
Communism's external stability, which France and Germany. His stated goal
was addressed through the NATO was to make future European wars
alliance and defensive cooperation impossible through increased regional
Finally, the combination of both of integration, with the ECSC serving
these factors resulted in an increase in as the first step in that direction. The
living standards and levels of stability treaty would establish a common
unprecedented in Europe for centuries. market for coal and steel among
The integration project's success served its members, reducing competition
as a catalyst for the Community's between European nations for natural
development and "ever-closer union." resources used in wartime mobilization,
• After World War II, the European especially in the Ruhr.
The Schuman Declaration by ECSC had several distinct aims and purposes:
• It would be marked by the birth of a united European nation.
• It would make no war zone between member nations impossible.
• It would prosper world peace.
• It would lead to transformation of Europe incrementally, leading to the democratic
integration of two blocks separated by the Iron Curtain.
• It would lead to the creation of world’s first supranational institution.
• It would lead to the creation of world’s first international anti-cartel agency.
• It would result in creation of a common market across the Community.
• It would, beginning with the coal and steel sector, revitalize the entire economy of
Europe by the same community processes.
• It would result in improvement of the world economy as well as the of developing
country economies, such as those of African nations.
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as the EEC's strongest economic force. • Worthy progress has been made in
Germany's power was likely to expand the integration of Europe into a single
even further with her unification. Despite body. The euro is the shared currency
the loss of their empires, the countries of the European Union's fifteen member
of Western Europe had joined to create countries. Most member countries allow
a new world power. Their economic citizens to travel freely without requiring
dependence on the United States was a passport.
reduced and they were likely to play • A unified institutional architecture is
more independent role in international also emerging. There is a European
affairs. parliament, for example, that is made
• The European Economic Community up of representatives elected from all of
(EEC) was renamed the European Union the European Union's nations, but their
on November 1, 1993. It grew from a grouping in the parliament transcends
coalition of mostly Western European national borders.
countries to a union of 27 European • There is a European Court of Justice that
nations by 2007. Its priorities included can hear complaints from individual
strengthening political, economic, and citizens of European Union member
social cooperation, as well as ensuring countries on some topics. The European
the free movement of citizens, goods, Union has established a popular stance
services, and resources across European on a number of foreign relations issues.
borders. In 2004, seven Eastern European
countries—Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, • However, on a number of other topics,
Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia (the each country has taken its own stance.
former Czechoslovakia had broken For example, Britain has been a close
up into two independent countries by ally of the United States in the Iraq
then), Poland, and Hungary—joined War, while France has been a vocal
the European Union, having previously opponent of the US invasion, and Spain,
been controlled by communist parties which had sent troops to Iraq when the
and aligned with the Soviet Union. war broke out, withdrew them after the
country elected a socialist government.
• Former communist countries Bulgaria
and Romania, as well as Slovenia, soon • Communist parties and their backers
joined them (which had broken away had gained exclusive power in the
from Yugoslavia). It is something to European countries liberated by Soviet
accomplish that all of these countries troops. As Warsaw Pact members,
have successfully transitioned to free these countries were allies of the Soviet
market economies. Also, all these new Union.
member nations of the European Union • They were sometimes referred to as
have become member countries of Soviet Union's "satellites." The latter
NATO. In two of them— Poland and often placed its will on the communist
Czech Republic—missiles have been parties and governments of these
deployed which the leaders of the nations, often with the use of armed
Russian Federation think are directed forces. These countries were not eligible
against their country. for the European Recovery Program
• This recent trend is causing new and were forced to depend primarily on
tensions in Europe. Other countries, their own resources. The Soviet Union
such as Turkey and the former Yugoslav was unable to offer the kind of massive
republics, have applied for membership assistance that the United States had
in the European Union. NATO has given to Western Europe.
already accepted Turkey as a member. • The type of socialism that these
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Republic's (GDR) governing party, and • Early in 1990, the East German
the government all shifted. government declared its support for
• The Berlin Wall was officially opened Germany's reunification. On 3rd October
in November 1989 by the new leaders 1990, talks between the governments of
of East Germany (GDR). Soon after, East and West Germany culminated in
political parties and organizations that Germany becoming a united states. After
were not dominated by East Germany's country-wide elections in December
ruling party were allowed to operate 1990, a new coalition government was
openly. elected in united Germany.
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CHAPTER - 12
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terrible and child labour was widely and a personality cult grew around Mao
prevalent and workers were not paid as well. The objectives of the Revolution
their rightful wages. were not met as the Great Leap failed
(mentioned in Timeline below) to create
an industrialized economy. Classes
Causes, Effects & Analysis of remained and failed to establish
communes.
the Chinese Revolution:
• The Chinese society was hierarchical,
and the upper classes enjoyed higher Effects
standards of living and peasant poverty
• The Chinese Revolution of 1949 was
increased as a series of droughts and
caused by an effort by the Soviets
bad harvests occurred in the 1930s,
to expand communism. Prior to the
resulting in famines. Aid from America
Revolution, China had been under
was given to the officials due to the
Manchu rule, and due to the resistance
corruption of the KMT administration.
to adopting foreign innovations, the
The administration also paid for wars
Chinese lost many of the qualities that
by printing extra money which resulted
made them Chinese. To an extent, the
in inflation.
Manchu rulers were more Chinese than
• As Chiang attempted in reorganizing the Chinese.
China, the Japanese annexed
• Because of this rule, China was unable
Manchuria and in 1932 attacked
to modernize itself. Chinese economy
Shanghai and seized Jehol. Until
was dominated by agriculture and
1937, Chiang was able to keep a truce
crafts were practiced with primitive and
between the Japanese until Japan gave
outdated techniques. Heavy revenue
full scale efforts in conquering China.
burdens were imposed on the peasants.
Although by this time, half of China had
fallen to the Japanese, they were able Causes:
to stabilize the lines from 1938-1945.
• The process of modernization began
The Chinese were treated poorly and
in 1911 when the Manchu emperor was
during the war and the Communists
overthrown by followers of Sun-Yat-
maintained a series of truces with the
Sen. He wanted to build a modern,
Japanese.
unified, and prosperous China and
• The origins of the revolution were forged cooperative alliance with the
rooted in Marxist beliefs. Mao and the Communist party for this purpose.
Communist Party wanted to create However, after Sun-Yat-Sen’s death in
equal status among the people, 1924, the empire broke up into small
eliminating the bourgeoisie. They states under the rule of warlords who
wanted to increase industry and make were usually previous army generals.
that the focus of the economy. The Under rule of the warlords, taxes were
revolutionary process began after they demanded in advance and led families
defeated the KMT and Nationalists. to poverty. They controlled a larger part
Russia supported the Communists of the nationalist government that was
while the United States supported the established previously.
Nationalists, but they did not have
large effects on the war.
• The Cultural Revolution encouraged
Maoists beliefs of equality between the
classes. The Red Guards supported Mao
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1921-49
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with ten infantry divisions and other forces were able to push the KPA back
units. into the north, all the way to the Yalu
• On 25 June 1950, South Korea was River, which marks the Chinese-North
invaded by KPA and quickly moved Korean border.
south, trapping South Korean and US • At this point, China joined the conflict
troops in a small area around Pusan and forced UN forces back into the
port. The United Nations responded south. Fighting ceased in the first half
rapidly and urged its representatives to of 1951, and armistice talks began in
rally behind the South. The US, United July. However, the initial talks were
Kingdom, Australia, Canada, India, New unsuccessful, and for the next two
Zealand, and South Africa were among years, the opposing armies faced each
the countries that sent troops. other in trenches less than a mile apart.
• General Douglas MacArthur, the • At last, on 27 July 1953, an armistice was
commander of the UN, ordered an signed which made an agreement that
amphibious landing at Inchon, a port Korea would remain undivided.
halfway up the Korean peninsula. Their
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CHAPTER - 13
ARAB NATIONALISM
• A movement that has since been called
Arab Nationalism "Arabism" emerged quickly, stressing
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TURKEY
TUNISTA SYRIA
O
LEBANON
IRAQ IRAN
OC
R ISRAEL
JORDAN KUWAIT
OR
M
SUDAN YEMEN
The Modern Middle East
0 200 400 600 800 1000
MILES
0 200 400 600 800
KILOMETERS
I m a g e 11.1: M o d e r n M i d d l e E a s t
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establishment of World
Zionist Organiza on at
Basle (Switzerland)
which was then their homeland, by the the World War II, felt unable to cope.
Romans. The British asked the United Nations
• In 1897, some Jews people residing (UN) to deal with this issue. In November
in Europe created the World Zionist 1947, the UN chose to split Palestine,
Organization at Basle (Switzerland) setting aside roughly half of it to create
and they believed that Jews ought to an independent Jewish state.
be able to go back to Palestine and • Fighting was already going on among
have what they labeled ‘a national Arabs (who bitterly disliked the loss of
homeland’. half of Palestine) and Jews and after
• Government of Britain became engaged some time the British also withdrew all
in 1917, when the foreign minister, Arthur their troops from this region.
Balfour, stated that British government • In May 1948, Ben Gurion confirmed
supported the idea of a Jewish national the independence of the new state of
home in Palestine. Israel. After the independence, Israel
• After 1933, persecution of Jews in was immediately attacked by Egypt,
Germany by Nazi’s, caused a flood of Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon.
refugees, and by 1940 nearly around
half the population of Palestine was
Jewish. After 1936 onwards there were Outcome of the War
violent demonstrations by Arabs and
• Most people anticipated the Arabs
an uprising, which the British oppressed
to win very easily, however against
with some brutality by killing over 3000
seemingly tremendous odds, the Israelis
Arabs.
defeated them and even seized more
• The Second World War made the of Palestine than the United Nation
condition much harsher and in 1945, partition had provided them. They
the USA pressed British government ended up with nearly around three-
to permit 100 000 Jews into Palestine; quarters of Palestine along with the
this request was echoed by David Ben port of Eilat (Egypt) on the Red Sea.
Gurion, one of the Jewish leaders,
• Many of troops of Israel had earned
however the British, not wanting to
military experience fighting in the
offend the Arabs, refused.
British army during the World War two
• The British, weakened by the strain of (some 30 000 Jewish men volunteered
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towards India and it also provided an outlet from the Mediterranean Sea
towards the Indian Ocean region.
Before the opening of Suez canal or Without the Suez Canal the ships
would have to move and travel all around the Western coast of Africa and
then the Cape of Good Hope to reach the Asian coast.
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Port Said
Gaza strip
The Yom Kippur War
(1973)
Beersheba
Su ez El Arish
Canal ISRAEL
EGYPT Negev
Jor dan
• Supported by the military arsenal
Suez
Sinai
from Russia, Forces of Egypt and Syria
attacked early on the feast of Yom
Kippur (a Jewish religious festival),
expecting to catch the Israelis off
Gulf of Suez
guard. After a few early Arab successes,
Saudi Arabia the Israelis were able to turn the tables
q
Egypt
of A
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PREVIOUS
YEAR
QUESTIONS
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REFERENCES
References Images:
Story of Civilization Part-I & Part-II (Arjun Dev) old NCERT Page24/ Image 4.1:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/8/83/Italia_1843-en.svg/800px-Italia_1843-en.
1. New NCERT- India and The Contemporary World 1 &
svg.png
2 (Class 9th and 10th)
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AUTHOR'S NOTE
This book tries to exhaustively cover the complete syllabus of UPSC CSE Preliminary
& Mains examination in an integrated approach for “World History”. The purpose is to
enable the learners to correctly approach and solve the questions asked and thereby
achieve top ranks in UPSC CSE Examination.
All this will not only prepare learners for the examination but also give a better
understanding of events happening around us in the society, polity, economy, global
affairs and prepare them for the challenges that they will have to tackle after clearing
the examination.
However, there is always scope for further improvement. It may so happen that learners
might have some suggestions about further improving the quality of the book. Such
suggestions would not only help us in assisting better but also the future learners
to do well. Any such suggestions would be welcome and can be communicated
atupscnotessuggestions@unacademy.com.
Deepak Singh, Mayur Kale, Himanshu Parashar, Amit Kumar have contributed to the
creation of the content in the book. With their profound experience in the field of UPSC
and in the field, they were responsible for selection of topics, content creation and editing
of the content in the notes.
We wish you all the success in your efforts towards UPSC CSE Examination.
Team UNACADEMY
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